FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[1]Chapter vi. and Appendix IV.[2]P. 270,note.[3]The mode in which we ascertained these measurements was by comparing four, independently made. One was by Mr. Weller, the artist of our maps; the second by the author, being the average of four or five maps; the third by an English official friend in Roumania, who has all the best maps at his disposal; and the fourth from Baedeker. Designating these respectively asa,b,c, andd, we obtained the following very approximate results:—From Verciorova tothe Sulina mouth.From Predeal to boundaryS. of Mangalia.a355milesa185milesb356"b188"c358"c189"d360"d190"From Fife-Cookson's map, in his workWith the Armies of the Balkans, the measurements respectively are 355 and 186 miles.[4]The area is obtained by a somewhat similar process to the linear measurements, excepting that here we have been obliged to employ figures from various works (notably that of M. Aurelian and the Reports of Consul Vivian and of the Roumanian Geographical Society), and to take into consideration the exchange of Bessarabia for the Dobrudscha, which has not been done by Roumanian writers since that alteration was made. TheGotha Almanackof 1881 gives the area as 129,947 square kilos.[5]There has been no census in Roumania since 1859-60, when the population is said to have been 4,424,961; now it is set down as above, and efforts have been made to analyse this estimate and to classify the population according to nationalities and religion. It is, however, quite impossible to do so with accuracy; indeed the census of Galatz taken last year shows that the whole can hardly be regarded as approximate. What we know is thatabout4,600,000 of the population are Roumanians and of the Orthodox Greek faith; probably 400,000 are Jews, 200,000 gipsies, and the rest Germans, Szeklers, Servians and Bulgarians, Hungarians, Armenians, Russians, Greeks, Turks, French, English, Swiss, &c.[6]Prince Jon Ghika says 87 mètres.[7]According to various works and maps, the heights of the mountain summits differ. In his work,Terra Nostra, edition of 1880, M. Aurelian gives the height of Pionul as 2,720.1 mètres, or about 8,934 English feet, and that of Caraïman as 2,650.2 mètres, or 8,705 feet; but some of the maps give measurements differing from these.[8]Fuller details concerning the soil and agricultural productions will be found in the chapter devoted to those subjects.[9]The Roumanians recognise that a great part of the country is much neglected, and that weeds are allowed to grow to the detriment of agriculture. TheIndépendance Roumaine, September 13 [25], 1881, had a strong article on the subject.[10]We do not intend to discuss this question, which is so interesting to Roumanians, but we cannot help drawing attention to Paget's remarks on the subject. He says, in one of his headings, 'Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman origin;' then (p. 112) lie gives woodcuts of two heads with moustache only (sketched without any reference to the question), and somewhat resembling our cut, and leaves his readers to compare them with the figures on Trajan's Column. He says that he feels satisfied they will agree with his view. They do not, however, in the least resemble either the Romans with bare, or the Dacians with bearded faces, on the column, and throw no light whatever upon the vexed question. The general opinion of persons who have observed the peasantry is that those of the mountain districts afford, in their type of face, habits, and some words, the best illustrations in support of the Daco-Roman hypothesis.[11]Wilkinson's account of travelling in his day (1820) is worth quoting. 'The mode of travelling,' he says, 'in the two principalities is so expeditious that in this respect it is not equalled in any other country. Their post establishments are well organised; there are post-houses in all directions, and they are abundantly provided with horses. Every idea of comfort must, however, be set aside by those who are willing to conform themselves to the common method of riding post. A kind of vehicle is given which is not unlike a very small crate of earthenware fastened to four small wheels by means of wooden pegs, and altogether not higher than a common wheelbarrow. It is filled with straw, and the traveller sits in the middle of it, keeping the upper part of his body in an erect position, and finding great difficulty to cram his legs within. Four horses are attached to it by cords, which form the whole harness, and driven by one postilion on horseback, they set off at full speed and neither stop nor slacken their pace until they reach the next post-house. Within the distance of half a mile from it, the postilion gives warning of his approach by a repeated and great cracking of his whip, so that by the time of arrival another cart is got ready to receive the traveller' (p. 93). (This is still the system in practice in some parts of Russia, and the author travelled in this fashion, in the winter of 1849-50, from St. Petersburg to the Prussian frontier.) Fifty years later matters seem to have retrograded in Roumania, for Kunisch, an amusing German writer, describes his journey from Giurgevo to Bucarest, now effected in two or three hours by rail, which it then took him twenty-four hours to accomplish, at first with sixteen horses and four postilions, and during the later stages with eighteen and twenty-two horses. (Reisebilder, pp. 73-81. Berlin: Effert and Lindtner.)[12]Sinaïa may be visited either from Bucarest or Transylvania. If from Bucarest, the traveller may go by the railway from Vienna to that city in about thirty hours, and forward to Sinaïa in about four hours more, or he may land at Giurgevo either on his way from Constantinople by Varna and Rustchuk, or from the steamer down the Danube from Pesth. If he approaches by Transylvania, it is from Kronstadt, which is only a couple of hours from Sinaïa. Although a visit to Sinaïa only is here described, as being the most easily accessible to ordinary travellers, there are many beautiful tours to be made in the Carpathians, and some of the more hardy of the young Roumanians who have visited Western Europe assured the author that the outlying districts of the Carpathians afford features of interest to pedestrians which are not to be found in any of our known mountain districts.[13]The monastery of Sinaïa was founded by the Grand Spathar Michael Cantacuzene, brother of Voivode Sherban Cantacuzene, in the year 1695.[14]It is curious to note, in passing, that of about 400 men who were at work on this palace last year, 150 were Germans, and nearly all the rest were Italians.[15]The chief are R.F. Peters (Die Donau und ihr Gebiet. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1876. Cap. xii. p. 313), Fuchs, Bernath, and D.T. Ansted. There have also been isolated memoirs published by Roumanians, but, so far as we could ascertain, no systematic work is extant. The best general works, touching also on geology, are those of Aurelian and Obedenare.[16]Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 209.[17]We believe this is really all that is known of the general stratification, and although little that is positive has been revealed, writers have made up for the deficiency by any amount of negative description. Such writers as Aurelian and Obedenare simply deplore the paucity of information, whilst Fuchs, an able and industrious geologist, says: 'It is difficult to describe the country because there are such vast tracts which have a character of despairing monotony; because fossils are rare and badly preserved, if not entirely wanting; and the different elevations present exactly similar petrographic appearances;' in fact, he says that the prominent data are wanting to enable a geologist to make a classification of the various strata.[18]See Obedenare, 16-19. Also Cantacuzeno,Cenni sulla Romania, Bucarest, 1875; and Ansted.[19]Copper exists at Baia d'Arana.[20]Paget, vol. ii. p. 44. Dierauer, p. 73, who adds several more disjointed or isolated letters.[21]A dish made from maize.[22]Paget, vol. ii. p. 58. Tocilesco, Plate VII. In the illustrations there given the number of piers varies, but in both cases the intermediate island is shown.[23]The estimates vary from 630 to 650, but these do not make full allowance for all the windings of the river.[24]We are indebted for many of those details to M. Tocilesco, whose beautifully illustrated work,Dacia, &c. (Bucarest: Tipografia Academiei Romane, 1880), contains a vast amount of information concerning Dacian and other antiquities.[25]Chiefly Greek and Turkish.[26]The correspondence, which extends from June 23 to September 5, 1880, and is chiefly telegraphic, was published in the supplement to theIndépendance Roumaine, Bucarest, December 6 [18], 1881.[27]After this despatch follows one from M. Bratiano, the Roumanian Secretary of State, finding fault with M. Calargi for his unfriendly tone towards Austria, and here is his edifying reply on that point. 'Let me satisfy you (vous rassurer) as to the consequences that might arise from the handing in of this document. Written on paper without any mark, deprived of every official or individual character, bearing no signature, this historicalrésuméof the phases through which the question has passed cannot compromise anyone.' This is one of the men who make history, and to whom the lives and interests of the million are confided![28]The middle pavement is composed of a very hard kind of brick called 'basalt,' which is very solid and durable.[29]The national costume is worn by Indies of high position in the country, and on state occasions, but not as ordinary citizens' dress; see the Queen's portrait, Chap. XV.[30]It may be mentioned for the reader's guidance that French or German will serve him almost anywhere in Roumania.[31]Engravings of most of the objects here referred to will be found in M. Tocilesco's book, which, through his kindness, the writer has been enabled to deposit in the British Museum Library.[32]See p.202. A high tower attached to it is said to have been built by the soldiers of Charles XII. of Sweden.[33]The principal hotels are the 'Grand Hôtel du Boulevard' (on the boulevard), the Hotel 'Brofft,' 'Hugues,' 'Imperial,' 'Mano,' &c. The cost of a room varies from six to ten francs per day, and of board about the same. Wine is very dear, varying from three francs for the native wines up to twenty francs for fine French descriptions. All these matters are, however, undergoing change from year to year.[34]It is not so much a question in Roumania of time actually lost; for if we add the longer working hours on the one hand, and deduct the Saturday half-holiday of our operatives, probably there will not be found to be much difference; but it is the recurrence of feast-days and holidays at irregular intervals, as is the case in those trades in England where men go off 'on the spree' for a day or two at slated or unstated periods. In Romania this is, in its way universal.[35]Raicewich gives a similar account of them in 1789.[36]Wilkinson, pp. 168-176.[37]'Und da sie ein sehr schöner Volksstamm sind, und andrerseits die übrige Bevölkerung sie darchans nicht zurückstösst, so sicht nichts entgegen dass sie in einer ziemlich nahen Zukunft mit der Masse der roumänischen Bevölkerung verschmelzen.'—Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft 4, 8. 12. Gotha: J. Perthes.[38]There are two types of gipsies, the one Indo-European, the other of an African cast.[39]Œuvres complètes, vol. vii. p. 97.[40]This article appeared in, and the extract was copied from, the journal in question by the writer whilst he was in Bucarest, but he omitted to copy the date.[41]An excellent monograph, beautifully illustrated, of this cathedral was published by Ludwig Reissenberger (Braumüller, Vienna, 1860), to which we refer the reader for further details concerning it. Our two woodcuts showing the tracery are copied from that work, but the autotype plate is from a photograph by Duschek.[42]Reissenberger calls it 'Grobkalk.' Similar stone is found in the neighbourhood.[43]There are several versions of the legend. In some the prince is called Negru Voda, in others Negoije Voda, and in others again Radu Negru. The poem has been translated by Hon. H. Stanley,Roumanian Anthology, p. 215 (Hertford: Stephen Austin), an expensive and beautifully illuminated drawing-room book, containing some Roumanian poems in the vernacular, and others translated into English.[44]The date on the tablet is 7209. This is Anno Mundi, according to the chronology of at least a section of the Byzantine Church, Christ having been born, after that reckoning, 5509 years after the creation of the world. (See Brown'sVulgar Errorsand Smith'sDictionary of the Bible.) Engel says Neagu reigned from 1511 to 1520. Vaillant says he died in 1518.[45]7035 (A.M.) is the date on the tablet.[46]Vineyard?[47]As reference has been made from time to time to Roumanian ecclesiastics, the following brief particulars may not be uninteresting. Christianity was introduced into the provinces bordering on the Danube at a very early date. According to A. de Gerando (Siebenbürgen und seine Einwohner, p. 211, Lorck, Leipzig, 1845), a MS. was found in Hungary, bearing a cross and the date 274a.d.; and in 325a.d.a Bishop Theophilus was spoken of amongst the Goths. In 370a.d.Athanaric, the Gothic king, persecuted and put many Christians to death. In 527a.d.the Christian churches of Roumania (as then constituted) were taken in charge by the metropolitan of the Greek Church. But it was not until 865a.d.that the Bulgarians and the native population associated with them were actually converted to Christianity (Lauriani, p. 29). About that time intrigues existed between the heads of the Eastern and Western Churches for the possession of the headship in these countries, but the influence of the former predominated. About 860a.d.a Slavonian liturgy was introduced into the churches, and, notwithstanding the denunciations and embassies of the Roman Pontiff, a separation occurred about 880 A.D., and the Roumanians joined the Orthodox Greek Church. Of the negotiations between Innocent III. and Johannitz, King of the Second Wallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, we shall speak hereafter, and although after that time the Papal power was in the ascendant in Wallachia and Moldavia amongst the princes and nobles, the people always leaned to the Greek rite, and at length, in 1440, the metropolitan of Moldavia succeeded (Romish writers say by a religiouscoup d'état) in making the Greek Church dominant. In the middle of the seventeenth century the most important Roman Catholic bishopries were suppressed, and down to the present time the Greek Church has been the state religion, and it is professed by nearly the whole nation; even the King, who was formerly a Roman Catholic, now conforms to the faith. Of the secularisation of the monasteries and other religious movements we shall speak in Part II, and it is only necessary to add that at present there are two metropolitans or archbishops, six bishops with dioceses and several without; in 1876 there were 9,800 secular priests, 1,700 monks and 2,270 nuns, 6,550 churches and 173 monasteries and nunneries. The priests or 'popes' marry and follow secular occupations in the country; in the towns they are 'non-productive' so far as labour is concerned. The services of the Greek Church are not impressive; but although much has been written concerning their superstition, the Roumanians do not differ greatly from the people of other Catholic countries in that respect. There is great indifference to religion, if not absolute atheism, amongst the higher classes, which no doubt results from the great ignorance of the priesthood. The thing most to be regretted, however, is that whilst there are thousands of 'religieuses,' as they are called, in the country, all the nurses in its excellent hospitals should be paid servants, and the Church does nothing whatever towards maintaining the efficiency of those institutions.[48]Consular Reports, Roumania, 1878, pp. 965-966. This statement applies, we believe, to what was formerly Moldavia rather than to Wallachia. When we were in Bucarest we saw stalls in the street at which English note-paper and writing materials (if they were genuine) were sold; and one day having occasion to buy a pair of scissors we entered a shop for the purpose, and some very dear ones were shown to us. On complaining of the price we were told they were English, but that we could obtain cheap ones of Austrian manufacture at another shop close by. This we did, and although the scissors were doubtless inferior, it shows that English goods are liked and command higher prices.[49]See Consular Report, Roumania, 1878, pp. 966, 968, where these statements are practically confirmed.[50]Purchased by the State whilst these remarks were being written.[51]Several authors, copying one another as usual without enquiry, have estimated the population at 90,000, Aurelian having fixed it at 90,236 in 1866; but when in 1877 our Vice-Consul Bonham enquired of the Mayor of Jassy, he was told that, although no satisfactory data exist, 70,000 was nearer the mark. In like manner the population of Galatz has been set down until lately at 80,000, although an English gentleman residing there maintained that it should be about 50,000. That gentleman told us that according to a recent census there turned out to be only 40,000, but he questioned that result also, inasmuch as the people do not know the object of such a proceeding and fear to make returns, and moreover the census was taken at a time when many labourers and others had left the city for a season.[52]Vice-Consul Bonham's report, 1877, p. 720.[53]Ibid. p. 721.[54]If the reader refers to various works on the subject, Aurelian, Obedenare, Consul Vivian's report, &c., he will find what appear to be distinct though approximate estimates, but they are really one and the same, in hectares (2.47 acres), pogones (1-1/4 acres), and acres; and in none of them is the territorial change of 1878 considered. We received a set of statistics on the subject as relating to 1880, whilst at Bucarest, but on comparing them with Aurelian's work published in 1866 we found the same figures there. The following is the approximate proportion of cultivated land in pogones (1-1/4 acre):—Cereals, gardens, vines4,945,708Pasture and hay7,693,910Forests4,029,947Uncultivated7,574,336Total25,243,901[55]Any of our readers who desire detailed information concerning the condition of Roumanian agriculture and manufactures will find it in a report which was furnished to his government last year by M.J. Jooris, the Belgian Minister at Bucarest. No doubt the Belgian Government, has published it in pamphlet form; if not it will be foundin extensoinLa Bourse, Bucarest, July 27, August 2, 9, and 23, 1881.[56]See Vivian's report, 1875, Obedenare's table (p. 99), and M. Jooris's report. The last named gives the ratio as—maize 22, wheat 15, barley 7, rye and oats 1.[57]TheGotha Almanackof 1882 (p. 904), which receives its information from official sources, gives the exports of cereals and cattle in 1880 in the proportion of 167 to 12; whilst theTimescorrespondent (loc. cit.) gives the proportions for 1872 respectively as 117 (cereals) against (animals) 19. Obedenare (p. 147) gives the number of horned cattle in 1860 as 2,751,168 as against 1,886,990 in 1873, a great falling off; but theTimescorrespondent says there are now 3,000,000 head in the country.[58]In 1875 we imported a considerable quantity of wool from Roumania, but for the last few years the imports are returned asnil. For further details on all these matters the reader is referred to Aurelian,Notices(chap. v.), Obedenare (chap. v.), British Consular Reports, Report of M. Jooris,Timescorrespondence. The figures would not sufficiently interest our readers to justify their insertion here.[59]For exact particulars of peasant tenure seeAppendix IV.[60]Comparing this statement with the fact that the 'obligations rurales' were almost extinguished in 1880, it is clear that the embarrassed and idle peasants must be only small holders. The information was given to us by the gentleman best acquainted with the history and effect of the land emancipation.[61]Besides making clothes for their families, and costumes for the ladies of the cities, &c., the Roumanian women make beautiful rugs, mats, and even Carpets of variegated wool.[62]Nothing shows the importance of the agricultural interest in Roumania so effectively as an analysis of the occupations of the people. This is thoroughly trustworthy, as it is computed from the number of taxpayers, and the following is a table condensed from the data supplied to us by the authorities at Bucarest:—Agriculturists684,168heads of familiesArtisans and labourers83,061Traders30,117Officials (fonctionnaires)22,811Professors and teachers6,066Medical and legal professions and druggists995Artists (meaning probably persons engaged in the arts)2,156Priests, monks, andreligieuses18,452Various125,815Of the total heads of families973,941,seventy per cent.therefore are agriculturists.[63]Statistica din Romania, Ministeriu de Interne, Bucuresci, 1881 (State Printing Office); andGotha Almanack, 1882. It may be interesting to compare the outlay in Roumania with that of Great Britain. Last year our State expenditure was 2,683,958l.against about 110,000l.in Roumania, for primary instruction only. (SeeStatistica, pp. 13 and 22: the amount in lei or francs is 3,650,698.) The population of the United Kingdom is about seven times that of Roumania, and the average attendance of children in 1880 was 3,155,534. This gives about 17s.per head forStateaid, without reference to school rates, which brings the total cost for each child in Great Britain to 2l.2s.In Roumania it is 1l.8s.as above.[64]Œuvres complètes, vol. vi.[65]Pp. 103et seq.[66]We heard similar complaints in Transylvania.[67]It may be interesting to philologists to consider the derivations of the English names of these common things, and compare them with the Roumanian; the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon element in the one and the Latin in the other is very apparent.[68]Das Magyarische im Romänischen, Roesler, Appendix, p. 346. We have been compelled to translate Roesler's German into English for the significations, and the sense may thus have been changed or lost; he is therefore not responsible for such errors. The words marked with an asterisk are the most striking for our purpose, and they are in constant use in Roumania.[69]A. de Gerando,Siebenbürgen und seine Bewohner, p. 213. Lorck, Leipsig, 1845.[70]Most of the works on Roumania deal with the question. Ozanne (cap. xi.) has a few remarks on the subject; Wilkinson (appendix iv. p. 201) gives along list of words derived from Latin, Italian, modern Greek, and Turkish roots, but the Roumanian words are since changed; Vaillant, Obedenare, Neigebaur, Henke, Pic, Roesler, all treat the subject more or less fully. The chief authorities in Roumanian are Hasdeu, Ubicini, and Lauriani.[71]Reports on Laws of Foreign Countries, presented to the House of Commons, 1881.[72]In 1874 the Assize Courts had judged in all 1,493 persons (1,441 men and 52 women). Of these there were:Peasants961Roumanians1,394Above twenty years of age1,303Artisans186All other nations99Above sixteen and under twenty153Traders54Under sixteen11Officials60Age unknown26Sundries2321,4931,4931,493In looking over the statistics given to us (by authorities) we found several small errors. In the main, however, they appear to be correct.[73]Obedenare names four, but we believe he has coupled two neighbouring mines together as one.[74]This does not, however, keep the water effectually out of the mine, for, from whatever source, one portion of it was partially flooded whilst we were there. Some of the prisoners had struck and refused to enter the shaft, and the chief inspector who had come from Bucarest to enquire into the cause of theémeutesaid the men were justified in their refusal to work, considering the condition of that part of the mine.[75]We understand that the mine is to be lighted with the electric light this year.[76]A touch of the ludicrous intervened to relieve the painful feelings we experienced on this occasion. We were standing with the engineer of the mine watching the men hewing salt, when the latter said (in German) 'Here are the worst criminals'—meaning in that mine. Not quite understanding him, we got the undeserved credit of making a joke by asking,' Here, where we stand?'—meaning in that part of the mine. The engineer burst into a laugh, which sounded very hollow there, and then we noticed thedouble entendre, and mutual explanations ensued.[77]Full accounts of the relations, or supposed relations, between the Thracians, the Getæ, and the Dacians will be found in Smith,Geog. Dict., articles 'Dacia,' Geography; 'Thracia,' p. 325; 'Mœsia,' p. 677; and 'Dacia,' p. 679. In Dierauer (pp. 63-4 and note 1) and Roesler (chap, i.) everything of interest from the Greek and Roman historians is fully discussed, but the other German, French, and English writers treat the matter with more or less brevity, in some instances dismissing it in a few words.[78]Vol. ii. pp. 105-106. The whole question is involved in obscurity.[79]Dion Cassius (Cocceianus), the Roman historian, was born 155a.d.at Nicæa in Bithynia, where he also probably died in retirement after a long and eventful political life; the date of his death is unknown. He was governor of Pannonia under Severus, and had opportunities of learning about Trajan's expeditions into Dacia. He wrote a history of Rome, including one of Trajan, but of the latter there is only an abridgment by Xiphilinus made in the eleventh century; our extracts are from the French version referred to in the Appendix.[80]See initial letter, and vignette at the end of this chapter.[81]Bohn'sTacitus, vol. ii. p. 164. This occurred 70a.d.under Vespasian. Mœsia had been formally constituted a Roman province 9a.d.(or 2b.c., Merivale).[82]According to Merivale, vol. vii. p. 103 note (Longmans, 1862), it was a title: 'interpreted by some writers "The Strength of the Dacians," by others "Dakhi-Valhus," the Scythian for the Day Falcon.' Smith (Biography, article 'Decebalus') says it was probably a title of honour amongst the Dacians equivalent to chief or king, since we find that it was borne by more than one of their rulers, and that the individual best known to history as the Decebalus of Dion Cassius is named Diurpanus by Orosius, and Dorphaneus by Jornandes. Roesler and Dierauer expend a large amount of research and learning upon the name. The former (p. 35) believes that 'the Dierpaneus of Jordanes' is a king Duras from whom Decebalus received his crown, and he leaves the question an open one. Dierauer says (p. 67) that Decebalus was his name, and quotes an inscription in which he is spoken of as 'Regem Decebalum.'

[1]Chapter vi. and Appendix IV.

[2]P. 270,note.

[3]The mode in which we ascertained these measurements was by comparing four, independently made. One was by Mr. Weller, the artist of our maps; the second by the author, being the average of four or five maps; the third by an English official friend in Roumania, who has all the best maps at his disposal; and the fourth from Baedeker. Designating these respectively asa,b,c, andd, we obtained the following very approximate results:—From Verciorova tothe Sulina mouth.From Predeal to boundaryS. of Mangalia.a355milesa185milesb356"b188"c358"c189"d360"d190"From Fife-Cookson's map, in his workWith the Armies of the Balkans, the measurements respectively are 355 and 186 miles.

From Verciorova tothe Sulina mouth.From Predeal to boundaryS. of Mangalia.a355milesa185milesb356"b188"c358"c189"d360"d190"

From Fife-Cookson's map, in his workWith the Armies of the Balkans, the measurements respectively are 355 and 186 miles.

[4]The area is obtained by a somewhat similar process to the linear measurements, excepting that here we have been obliged to employ figures from various works (notably that of M. Aurelian and the Reports of Consul Vivian and of the Roumanian Geographical Society), and to take into consideration the exchange of Bessarabia for the Dobrudscha, which has not been done by Roumanian writers since that alteration was made. TheGotha Almanackof 1881 gives the area as 129,947 square kilos.

[5]There has been no census in Roumania since 1859-60, when the population is said to have been 4,424,961; now it is set down as above, and efforts have been made to analyse this estimate and to classify the population according to nationalities and religion. It is, however, quite impossible to do so with accuracy; indeed the census of Galatz taken last year shows that the whole can hardly be regarded as approximate. What we know is thatabout4,600,000 of the population are Roumanians and of the Orthodox Greek faith; probably 400,000 are Jews, 200,000 gipsies, and the rest Germans, Szeklers, Servians and Bulgarians, Hungarians, Armenians, Russians, Greeks, Turks, French, English, Swiss, &c.

[6]Prince Jon Ghika says 87 mètres.

[7]According to various works and maps, the heights of the mountain summits differ. In his work,Terra Nostra, edition of 1880, M. Aurelian gives the height of Pionul as 2,720.1 mètres, or about 8,934 English feet, and that of Caraïman as 2,650.2 mètres, or 8,705 feet; but some of the maps give measurements differing from these.

[8]Fuller details concerning the soil and agricultural productions will be found in the chapter devoted to those subjects.

[9]The Roumanians recognise that a great part of the country is much neglected, and that weeds are allowed to grow to the detriment of agriculture. TheIndépendance Roumaine, September 13 [25], 1881, had a strong article on the subject.

[10]We do not intend to discuss this question, which is so interesting to Roumanians, but we cannot help drawing attention to Paget's remarks on the subject. He says, in one of his headings, 'Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman origin;' then (p. 112) lie gives woodcuts of two heads with moustache only (sketched without any reference to the question), and somewhat resembling our cut, and leaves his readers to compare them with the figures on Trajan's Column. He says that he feels satisfied they will agree with his view. They do not, however, in the least resemble either the Romans with bare, or the Dacians with bearded faces, on the column, and throw no light whatever upon the vexed question. The general opinion of persons who have observed the peasantry is that those of the mountain districts afford, in their type of face, habits, and some words, the best illustrations in support of the Daco-Roman hypothesis.

[11]Wilkinson's account of travelling in his day (1820) is worth quoting. 'The mode of travelling,' he says, 'in the two principalities is so expeditious that in this respect it is not equalled in any other country. Their post establishments are well organised; there are post-houses in all directions, and they are abundantly provided with horses. Every idea of comfort must, however, be set aside by those who are willing to conform themselves to the common method of riding post. A kind of vehicle is given which is not unlike a very small crate of earthenware fastened to four small wheels by means of wooden pegs, and altogether not higher than a common wheelbarrow. It is filled with straw, and the traveller sits in the middle of it, keeping the upper part of his body in an erect position, and finding great difficulty to cram his legs within. Four horses are attached to it by cords, which form the whole harness, and driven by one postilion on horseback, they set off at full speed and neither stop nor slacken their pace until they reach the next post-house. Within the distance of half a mile from it, the postilion gives warning of his approach by a repeated and great cracking of his whip, so that by the time of arrival another cart is got ready to receive the traveller' (p. 93). (This is still the system in practice in some parts of Russia, and the author travelled in this fashion, in the winter of 1849-50, from St. Petersburg to the Prussian frontier.) Fifty years later matters seem to have retrograded in Roumania, for Kunisch, an amusing German writer, describes his journey from Giurgevo to Bucarest, now effected in two or three hours by rail, which it then took him twenty-four hours to accomplish, at first with sixteen horses and four postilions, and during the later stages with eighteen and twenty-two horses. (Reisebilder, pp. 73-81. Berlin: Effert and Lindtner.)

[12]Sinaïa may be visited either from Bucarest or Transylvania. If from Bucarest, the traveller may go by the railway from Vienna to that city in about thirty hours, and forward to Sinaïa in about four hours more, or he may land at Giurgevo either on his way from Constantinople by Varna and Rustchuk, or from the steamer down the Danube from Pesth. If he approaches by Transylvania, it is from Kronstadt, which is only a couple of hours from Sinaïa. Although a visit to Sinaïa only is here described, as being the most easily accessible to ordinary travellers, there are many beautiful tours to be made in the Carpathians, and some of the more hardy of the young Roumanians who have visited Western Europe assured the author that the outlying districts of the Carpathians afford features of interest to pedestrians which are not to be found in any of our known mountain districts.

[13]The monastery of Sinaïa was founded by the Grand Spathar Michael Cantacuzene, brother of Voivode Sherban Cantacuzene, in the year 1695.

[14]It is curious to note, in passing, that of about 400 men who were at work on this palace last year, 150 were Germans, and nearly all the rest were Italians.

[15]The chief are R.F. Peters (Die Donau und ihr Gebiet. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1876. Cap. xii. p. 313), Fuchs, Bernath, and D.T. Ansted. There have also been isolated memoirs published by Roumanians, but, so far as we could ascertain, no systematic work is extant. The best general works, touching also on geology, are those of Aurelian and Obedenare.

[16]Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 209.

[17]We believe this is really all that is known of the general stratification, and although little that is positive has been revealed, writers have made up for the deficiency by any amount of negative description. Such writers as Aurelian and Obedenare simply deplore the paucity of information, whilst Fuchs, an able and industrious geologist, says: 'It is difficult to describe the country because there are such vast tracts which have a character of despairing monotony; because fossils are rare and badly preserved, if not entirely wanting; and the different elevations present exactly similar petrographic appearances;' in fact, he says that the prominent data are wanting to enable a geologist to make a classification of the various strata.

[18]See Obedenare, 16-19. Also Cantacuzeno,Cenni sulla Romania, Bucarest, 1875; and Ansted.

[19]Copper exists at Baia d'Arana.

[20]Paget, vol. ii. p. 44. Dierauer, p. 73, who adds several more disjointed or isolated letters.

[21]A dish made from maize.

[22]Paget, vol. ii. p. 58. Tocilesco, Plate VII. In the illustrations there given the number of piers varies, but in both cases the intermediate island is shown.

[23]The estimates vary from 630 to 650, but these do not make full allowance for all the windings of the river.

[24]We are indebted for many of those details to M. Tocilesco, whose beautifully illustrated work,Dacia, &c. (Bucarest: Tipografia Academiei Romane, 1880), contains a vast amount of information concerning Dacian and other antiquities.

[25]Chiefly Greek and Turkish.

[26]The correspondence, which extends from June 23 to September 5, 1880, and is chiefly telegraphic, was published in the supplement to theIndépendance Roumaine, Bucarest, December 6 [18], 1881.

[27]After this despatch follows one from M. Bratiano, the Roumanian Secretary of State, finding fault with M. Calargi for his unfriendly tone towards Austria, and here is his edifying reply on that point. 'Let me satisfy you (vous rassurer) as to the consequences that might arise from the handing in of this document. Written on paper without any mark, deprived of every official or individual character, bearing no signature, this historicalrésuméof the phases through which the question has passed cannot compromise anyone.' This is one of the men who make history, and to whom the lives and interests of the million are confided!

[28]The middle pavement is composed of a very hard kind of brick called 'basalt,' which is very solid and durable.

[29]The national costume is worn by Indies of high position in the country, and on state occasions, but not as ordinary citizens' dress; see the Queen's portrait, Chap. XV.

[30]It may be mentioned for the reader's guidance that French or German will serve him almost anywhere in Roumania.

[31]Engravings of most of the objects here referred to will be found in M. Tocilesco's book, which, through his kindness, the writer has been enabled to deposit in the British Museum Library.

[32]See p.202. A high tower attached to it is said to have been built by the soldiers of Charles XII. of Sweden.

[33]The principal hotels are the 'Grand Hôtel du Boulevard' (on the boulevard), the Hotel 'Brofft,' 'Hugues,' 'Imperial,' 'Mano,' &c. The cost of a room varies from six to ten francs per day, and of board about the same. Wine is very dear, varying from three francs for the native wines up to twenty francs for fine French descriptions. All these matters are, however, undergoing change from year to year.

[34]It is not so much a question in Roumania of time actually lost; for if we add the longer working hours on the one hand, and deduct the Saturday half-holiday of our operatives, probably there will not be found to be much difference; but it is the recurrence of feast-days and holidays at irregular intervals, as is the case in those trades in England where men go off 'on the spree' for a day or two at slated or unstated periods. In Romania this is, in its way universal.

[35]Raicewich gives a similar account of them in 1789.

[36]Wilkinson, pp. 168-176.

[37]'Und da sie ein sehr schöner Volksstamm sind, und andrerseits die übrige Bevölkerung sie darchans nicht zurückstösst, so sicht nichts entgegen dass sie in einer ziemlich nahen Zukunft mit der Masse der roumänischen Bevölkerung verschmelzen.'—Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft 4, 8. 12. Gotha: J. Perthes.

[38]There are two types of gipsies, the one Indo-European, the other of an African cast.

[39]Œuvres complètes, vol. vii. p. 97.

[40]This article appeared in, and the extract was copied from, the journal in question by the writer whilst he was in Bucarest, but he omitted to copy the date.

[41]An excellent monograph, beautifully illustrated, of this cathedral was published by Ludwig Reissenberger (Braumüller, Vienna, 1860), to which we refer the reader for further details concerning it. Our two woodcuts showing the tracery are copied from that work, but the autotype plate is from a photograph by Duschek.

[42]Reissenberger calls it 'Grobkalk.' Similar stone is found in the neighbourhood.

[43]There are several versions of the legend. In some the prince is called Negru Voda, in others Negoije Voda, and in others again Radu Negru. The poem has been translated by Hon. H. Stanley,Roumanian Anthology, p. 215 (Hertford: Stephen Austin), an expensive and beautifully illuminated drawing-room book, containing some Roumanian poems in the vernacular, and others translated into English.

[44]The date on the tablet is 7209. This is Anno Mundi, according to the chronology of at least a section of the Byzantine Church, Christ having been born, after that reckoning, 5509 years after the creation of the world. (See Brown'sVulgar Errorsand Smith'sDictionary of the Bible.) Engel says Neagu reigned from 1511 to 1520. Vaillant says he died in 1518.

[45]7035 (A.M.) is the date on the tablet.

[46]Vineyard?

[47]As reference has been made from time to time to Roumanian ecclesiastics, the following brief particulars may not be uninteresting. Christianity was introduced into the provinces bordering on the Danube at a very early date. According to A. de Gerando (Siebenbürgen und seine Einwohner, p. 211, Lorck, Leipzig, 1845), a MS. was found in Hungary, bearing a cross and the date 274a.d.; and in 325a.d.a Bishop Theophilus was spoken of amongst the Goths. In 370a.d.Athanaric, the Gothic king, persecuted and put many Christians to death. In 527a.d.the Christian churches of Roumania (as then constituted) were taken in charge by the metropolitan of the Greek Church. But it was not until 865a.d.that the Bulgarians and the native population associated with them were actually converted to Christianity (Lauriani, p. 29). About that time intrigues existed between the heads of the Eastern and Western Churches for the possession of the headship in these countries, but the influence of the former predominated. About 860a.d.a Slavonian liturgy was introduced into the churches, and, notwithstanding the denunciations and embassies of the Roman Pontiff, a separation occurred about 880 A.D., and the Roumanians joined the Orthodox Greek Church. Of the negotiations between Innocent III. and Johannitz, King of the Second Wallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, we shall speak hereafter, and although after that time the Papal power was in the ascendant in Wallachia and Moldavia amongst the princes and nobles, the people always leaned to the Greek rite, and at length, in 1440, the metropolitan of Moldavia succeeded (Romish writers say by a religiouscoup d'état) in making the Greek Church dominant. In the middle of the seventeenth century the most important Roman Catholic bishopries were suppressed, and down to the present time the Greek Church has been the state religion, and it is professed by nearly the whole nation; even the King, who was formerly a Roman Catholic, now conforms to the faith. Of the secularisation of the monasteries and other religious movements we shall speak in Part II, and it is only necessary to add that at present there are two metropolitans or archbishops, six bishops with dioceses and several without; in 1876 there were 9,800 secular priests, 1,700 monks and 2,270 nuns, 6,550 churches and 173 monasteries and nunneries. The priests or 'popes' marry and follow secular occupations in the country; in the towns they are 'non-productive' so far as labour is concerned. The services of the Greek Church are not impressive; but although much has been written concerning their superstition, the Roumanians do not differ greatly from the people of other Catholic countries in that respect. There is great indifference to religion, if not absolute atheism, amongst the higher classes, which no doubt results from the great ignorance of the priesthood. The thing most to be regretted, however, is that whilst there are thousands of 'religieuses,' as they are called, in the country, all the nurses in its excellent hospitals should be paid servants, and the Church does nothing whatever towards maintaining the efficiency of those institutions.

[48]Consular Reports, Roumania, 1878, pp. 965-966. This statement applies, we believe, to what was formerly Moldavia rather than to Wallachia. When we were in Bucarest we saw stalls in the street at which English note-paper and writing materials (if they were genuine) were sold; and one day having occasion to buy a pair of scissors we entered a shop for the purpose, and some very dear ones were shown to us. On complaining of the price we were told they were English, but that we could obtain cheap ones of Austrian manufacture at another shop close by. This we did, and although the scissors were doubtless inferior, it shows that English goods are liked and command higher prices.

[49]See Consular Report, Roumania, 1878, pp. 966, 968, where these statements are practically confirmed.

[50]Purchased by the State whilst these remarks were being written.

[51]Several authors, copying one another as usual without enquiry, have estimated the population at 90,000, Aurelian having fixed it at 90,236 in 1866; but when in 1877 our Vice-Consul Bonham enquired of the Mayor of Jassy, he was told that, although no satisfactory data exist, 70,000 was nearer the mark. In like manner the population of Galatz has been set down until lately at 80,000, although an English gentleman residing there maintained that it should be about 50,000. That gentleman told us that according to a recent census there turned out to be only 40,000, but he questioned that result also, inasmuch as the people do not know the object of such a proceeding and fear to make returns, and moreover the census was taken at a time when many labourers and others had left the city for a season.

[52]Vice-Consul Bonham's report, 1877, p. 720.

[53]Ibid. p. 721.

[54]If the reader refers to various works on the subject, Aurelian, Obedenare, Consul Vivian's report, &c., he will find what appear to be distinct though approximate estimates, but they are really one and the same, in hectares (2.47 acres), pogones (1-1/4 acres), and acres; and in none of them is the territorial change of 1878 considered. We received a set of statistics on the subject as relating to 1880, whilst at Bucarest, but on comparing them with Aurelian's work published in 1866 we found the same figures there. The following is the approximate proportion of cultivated land in pogones (1-1/4 acre):—Cereals, gardens, vines4,945,708Pasture and hay7,693,910Forests4,029,947Uncultivated7,574,336Total25,243,901

Cereals, gardens, vines4,945,708Pasture and hay7,693,910Forests4,029,947Uncultivated7,574,336Total25,243,901

[55]Any of our readers who desire detailed information concerning the condition of Roumanian agriculture and manufactures will find it in a report which was furnished to his government last year by M.J. Jooris, the Belgian Minister at Bucarest. No doubt the Belgian Government, has published it in pamphlet form; if not it will be foundin extensoinLa Bourse, Bucarest, July 27, August 2, 9, and 23, 1881.

[56]See Vivian's report, 1875, Obedenare's table (p. 99), and M. Jooris's report. The last named gives the ratio as—maize 22, wheat 15, barley 7, rye and oats 1.

[57]TheGotha Almanackof 1882 (p. 904), which receives its information from official sources, gives the exports of cereals and cattle in 1880 in the proportion of 167 to 12; whilst theTimescorrespondent (loc. cit.) gives the proportions for 1872 respectively as 117 (cereals) against (animals) 19. Obedenare (p. 147) gives the number of horned cattle in 1860 as 2,751,168 as against 1,886,990 in 1873, a great falling off; but theTimescorrespondent says there are now 3,000,000 head in the country.

[58]In 1875 we imported a considerable quantity of wool from Roumania, but for the last few years the imports are returned asnil. For further details on all these matters the reader is referred to Aurelian,Notices(chap. v.), Obedenare (chap. v.), British Consular Reports, Report of M. Jooris,Timescorrespondence. The figures would not sufficiently interest our readers to justify their insertion here.

[59]For exact particulars of peasant tenure seeAppendix IV.

[60]Comparing this statement with the fact that the 'obligations rurales' were almost extinguished in 1880, it is clear that the embarrassed and idle peasants must be only small holders. The information was given to us by the gentleman best acquainted with the history and effect of the land emancipation.

[61]Besides making clothes for their families, and costumes for the ladies of the cities, &c., the Roumanian women make beautiful rugs, mats, and even Carpets of variegated wool.

[62]Nothing shows the importance of the agricultural interest in Roumania so effectively as an analysis of the occupations of the people. This is thoroughly trustworthy, as it is computed from the number of taxpayers, and the following is a table condensed from the data supplied to us by the authorities at Bucarest:—Agriculturists684,168heads of familiesArtisans and labourers83,061Traders30,117Officials (fonctionnaires)22,811Professors and teachers6,066Medical and legal professions and druggists995Artists (meaning probably persons engaged in the arts)2,156Priests, monks, andreligieuses18,452Various125,815Of the total heads of families973,941,seventy per cent.therefore are agriculturists.

Agriculturists684,168heads of familiesArtisans and labourers83,061Traders30,117Officials (fonctionnaires)22,811Professors and teachers6,066Medical and legal professions and druggists995Artists (meaning probably persons engaged in the arts)2,156Priests, monks, andreligieuses18,452Various125,815Of the total heads of families973,941,seventy per cent.therefore are agriculturists.

[63]Statistica din Romania, Ministeriu de Interne, Bucuresci, 1881 (State Printing Office); andGotha Almanack, 1882. It may be interesting to compare the outlay in Roumania with that of Great Britain. Last year our State expenditure was 2,683,958l.against about 110,000l.in Roumania, for primary instruction only. (SeeStatistica, pp. 13 and 22: the amount in lei or francs is 3,650,698.) The population of the United Kingdom is about seven times that of Roumania, and the average attendance of children in 1880 was 3,155,534. This gives about 17s.per head forStateaid, without reference to school rates, which brings the total cost for each child in Great Britain to 2l.2s.In Roumania it is 1l.8s.as above.

[64]Œuvres complètes, vol. vi.

[65]Pp. 103et seq.

[66]We heard similar complaints in Transylvania.

[67]It may be interesting to philologists to consider the derivations of the English names of these common things, and compare them with the Roumanian; the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon element in the one and the Latin in the other is very apparent.

[68]Das Magyarische im Romänischen, Roesler, Appendix, p. 346. We have been compelled to translate Roesler's German into English for the significations, and the sense may thus have been changed or lost; he is therefore not responsible for such errors. The words marked with an asterisk are the most striking for our purpose, and they are in constant use in Roumania.

[69]A. de Gerando,Siebenbürgen und seine Bewohner, p. 213. Lorck, Leipsig, 1845.

[70]Most of the works on Roumania deal with the question. Ozanne (cap. xi.) has a few remarks on the subject; Wilkinson (appendix iv. p. 201) gives along list of words derived from Latin, Italian, modern Greek, and Turkish roots, but the Roumanian words are since changed; Vaillant, Obedenare, Neigebaur, Henke, Pic, Roesler, all treat the subject more or less fully. The chief authorities in Roumanian are Hasdeu, Ubicini, and Lauriani.

[71]Reports on Laws of Foreign Countries, presented to the House of Commons, 1881.

[72]In 1874 the Assize Courts had judged in all 1,493 persons (1,441 men and 52 women). Of these there were:Peasants961Roumanians1,394Above twenty years of age1,303Artisans186All other nations99Above sixteen and under twenty153Traders54Under sixteen11Officials60Age unknown26Sundries2321,4931,4931,493In looking over the statistics given to us (by authorities) we found several small errors. In the main, however, they appear to be correct.

[72]In 1874 the Assize Courts had judged in all 1,493 persons (1,441 men and 52 women). Of these there were:

Peasants961Roumanians1,394Above twenty years of age1,303Artisans186All other nations99Above sixteen and under twenty153Traders54Under sixteen11Officials60Age unknown26Sundries2321,4931,4931,493

In looking over the statistics given to us (by authorities) we found several small errors. In the main, however, they appear to be correct.

[73]Obedenare names four, but we believe he has coupled two neighbouring mines together as one.

[74]This does not, however, keep the water effectually out of the mine, for, from whatever source, one portion of it was partially flooded whilst we were there. Some of the prisoners had struck and refused to enter the shaft, and the chief inspector who had come from Bucarest to enquire into the cause of theémeutesaid the men were justified in their refusal to work, considering the condition of that part of the mine.

[75]We understand that the mine is to be lighted with the electric light this year.

[76]A touch of the ludicrous intervened to relieve the painful feelings we experienced on this occasion. We were standing with the engineer of the mine watching the men hewing salt, when the latter said (in German) 'Here are the worst criminals'—meaning in that mine. Not quite understanding him, we got the undeserved credit of making a joke by asking,' Here, where we stand?'—meaning in that part of the mine. The engineer burst into a laugh, which sounded very hollow there, and then we noticed thedouble entendre, and mutual explanations ensued.

[77]Full accounts of the relations, or supposed relations, between the Thracians, the Getæ, and the Dacians will be found in Smith,Geog. Dict., articles 'Dacia,' Geography; 'Thracia,' p. 325; 'Mœsia,' p. 677; and 'Dacia,' p. 679. In Dierauer (pp. 63-4 and note 1) and Roesler (chap, i.) everything of interest from the Greek and Roman historians is fully discussed, but the other German, French, and English writers treat the matter with more or less brevity, in some instances dismissing it in a few words.

[78]Vol. ii. pp. 105-106. The whole question is involved in obscurity.

[79]Dion Cassius (Cocceianus), the Roman historian, was born 155a.d.at Nicæa in Bithynia, where he also probably died in retirement after a long and eventful political life; the date of his death is unknown. He was governor of Pannonia under Severus, and had opportunities of learning about Trajan's expeditions into Dacia. He wrote a history of Rome, including one of Trajan, but of the latter there is only an abridgment by Xiphilinus made in the eleventh century; our extracts are from the French version referred to in the Appendix.

[80]See initial letter, and vignette at the end of this chapter.

[81]Bohn'sTacitus, vol. ii. p. 164. This occurred 70a.d.under Vespasian. Mœsia had been formally constituted a Roman province 9a.d.(or 2b.c., Merivale).

[82]According to Merivale, vol. vii. p. 103 note (Longmans, 1862), it was a title: 'interpreted by some writers "The Strength of the Dacians," by others "Dakhi-Valhus," the Scythian for the Day Falcon.' Smith (Biography, article 'Decebalus') says it was probably a title of honour amongst the Dacians equivalent to chief or king, since we find that it was borne by more than one of their rulers, and that the individual best known to history as the Decebalus of Dion Cassius is named Diurpanus by Orosius, and Dorphaneus by Jornandes. Roesler and Dierauer expend a large amount of research and learning upon the name. The former (p. 35) believes that 'the Dierpaneus of Jordanes' is a king Duras from whom Decebalus received his crown, and he leaves the question an open one. Dierauer says (p. 67) that Decebalus was his name, and quotes an inscription in which he is spoken of as 'Regem Decebalum.'

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