CHAPTER VI

quartersColonel's Quarters, School of Sergeants.

Colonel's Quarters, School of Sergeants.

OfficersOfficers' Club Room, School of Sergeants.

Officers' Club Room, School of Sergeants.

The extract which I am quoting continues as follows:

"Whatever reasons the enemies of the Government may set forth in justification of their conduct, it cannot be doubted that the country has resisted the movement grandly, and has caused the failure of another attempt, which adds one more to the number which have aided to discredit the country abroad, and characterized our land as one of convulsive nations, incapable of making reasonable use of their Governments, such as we now enjoy. We must not lose sight of the fact that the eyes of Europe are upon us, thanks to the important rôle which Salvador is destined to play in uniting the civilizations of the East with the West."

It cannot be too emphatically pointed out that the Salvadoreans are not naturally a rebellious or warlike people, and, except when compelled to take up arms in their own defence or in favour of a righteous cause, they ask nothing better than to be permitted to devote themselves to the congenial and profitable occupation of cultivating the bounteous land which is theirs by inheritance. In the troubles which afflicted the country in the years 1907-08, the whole cause was the incitement which was offered to them by their turbulent and troublesome neighbours the Nicaraguans and the Honduraneans. As I have shown very conclusively, it was the long-established policy of Santos Zelaya to foster an outbreak in Salvador which should broaden into a revolution, in the course of which Salvadorean troops would be compelled innocently to commit some overt act which would give Honduras or Nicaragua a cause for the initiation of a movement against the Republic. This, it was hoped, would ultimately result in the election to the Presidency of Salvador of Dr. Prudencio Alfaro, who was always a creature of Santos Zelaya, and who formany months was his guest at Managua, where he formed all his plans, for the execution of which President Zelaya was ready to pay. As we have seen, the agitators did not wait for thecasus bellion the part of Salvador, but most unwarrantably invaded that country and committed certain outrages, only, however, to have to execute a most humiliating retreat before any beneficial results could possibly have accrued to them. Had it come to an actual encounter or series of encounters between the allied forces of Honduras and Nicaragua on the one hand and the Salvadoreans on the other, there can be no question that the latter would in the long-run have emerged victorious; out of a population of 1,100,000, the Salvadoreans can claim a fighting force of at least 100,000. The Salvadoreans are the best and most plucky fighters in South or Central America, as has been proved upon several occasions, displaying great intelligence on the battle-field and in the conduct of their campaigns. At the memorable battle of Jutiapa, fought between the Salvadorean troops and the Guatemalans in the previous year (1906), and in spite of the fact that the latter numbered over 40,000 as against little more than half that force arrayed on the side of Salvador, the former gave an extremely good account of themselves, and showed that the excellent military training which they had received had not been thrown away.

The invasion of Salvadorean territory in the month of June, 1907, by the Nicaraguans was a direct and unprovoked violation of the Treaty of Peace and Amity of Amapala, only signed on the previous April 23, and ratified on May 8, by which the Governments of the two countries agreed to submit theirgrievances to the Presidents of the United States and Mexico for arbitration. The news was first received through the telegram sent by President Figueroa, dated June 11, 1907, and addressed to Dr. Manuel Delgado, the Salvadorean Minister at Washington. In this despatch, General Figueroa says:

"This morning the revolutionists bombarded and captured the port of Acajutla. The forces were commanded by General Manuel Rivas, and came from Corinto in the warshipMomotombo, armed by the President of Nicaragua. It is in this manner that President Zelaya complies with the terms of the Treaty of Amapala, which was the result of the intervention of the American Government."

The gunboat mentioned was one of six warships which Nicaragua at that date possessed, and which composed the whole of the Nicaraguan "Navy." The vessel was capable of transporting 1,000 troops, and the facility with which these landed and seized the port of Acajutla is explained by the fact that the Salvadoreans were entirely unsuspicious and unprepared for such an outrageous act upon the part of the treacherous Zelaya, with whom they had every reason to consider themselves at peace. The civilized world has denounced the Nicaraguans' act of aggression, and unhesitatingly expressed the opinion that President Zelaya had committed a grave violation of international ethics in opening hostilities against Salvador without having made a preliminary declaration of war or giving any reasons for such an action.

Outbreak of hostilities between Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala—Discreditable conduct of Nicaragua proved—Failure of United States and Mexican intervention—Dignified and loyal attitude of General Figueroa—Warning to Honduras—President Dávila used as Zelaya's cat's-paw—The latter's subsequent regret—Central American Court of Justice trial of claim for damages, and result of judgment.

The true friends of interstate peace, of whom there are as many in Latin America as other parts of the world—although, from the frequent turmoils which occur in that part of the globe, one might be excused for doubting it—were much distressed by the serious quarrel which broke out between the neighbouring Republics of Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, in the years 1907-08. This was not by any means the first conflict which arose between Salvador and Honduras, for the two States were at war in 1871, when General Miranda invaded Honduras with the object of proclaiming General Xatruch as President in place of General Medina; again in 1872, when were fought the famous battles of Sabana Grande and Santa Bárbara; and in 1873, when Salvador sent an armed expedition against President Celio Arias, and in order to restore General Ponciano Leiva to the Presidency of the neighbouring Republic. Although the relations between Nicaragua and its adjoining States had long been on a questionable basis owing to the ambitious projects of General J. Santos Zelaya,its President, there was no reason to anticipate any disturbance, more especially as at the most critical time, owing to the intervention of the United States and Mexico, the cloud had blown over, and to all appearances peace reigned.

The worthlessness of the intervention, and the absolute ineptitude of the United States to effect any permanent improvement in the prevailing conditions, was, however, proved conclusively a few months after the Treaty of Peace and Amity had been signed, amid somewhat premature rejoicings at Washington, on December 20, 1907. Almost before the ink was dry upon the document, Honduranean and Nicaraguan troops had violated the terms and conditions, and continued, moreover, to do so in spite of all diplomatic reminders and serious warnings from the United States. In these "warnings," however, Mexico took no part, merely using the good offices of President Diaz to effect what the threat of the Big Stick had failed to accomplish. Eventually peace was proclaimed, and since then it has been strictly maintained as between the different Republics, although not by any means so within their own borders, as witness what has recently occurred, and is still occurring, in Honduras, and, alas! within Mexican territory, also. It seems a cruel irony that Diaz the Dictator should so soon have become the Deposed. The fact recalls forcibly the poet Burns's well-known words:

"And may you better reck the rede,Than ever did th' adviser!"

The true history of these Republics' quarrels of recent times would at this stage be somewhat difficult to record, since an immense quantity of official documentswould have to be translated and given in full. To do this, however interesting, would prove impracticable within the limits of a single volume. The matter has been sketched by me from personal knowledge, and I trust that I shall escape the charge of prejudice or unfairness to any of the parties involved.

For the facts set forth abundant evidence can be procured, and possibly, if my account be compared with the many versions which have been from time to time adduced by others, who have spoken and written from authoritative or personal information, it will not be found to vary very much in the main particulars. I have patiently listened to the accounts of all that took place both on Salvadorean and on Nicaraguan territory, and, furthermore, the incidents which both led up to and followed the clash of arms were related to me by the participants when all feeling of animosity and bitterness had disappeared, and the usual friendliness between the members of this strangely mercurial people had been restored. Thus very little for spirit of resentment—although perhaps something for the vainglorious spirit of the individuals concerned—need be allowed.Il est difficile toujours d'estimer quelqu'un comme il veut l'être.

Considerable as is the space which I have given up in this volume to the relations of the Salvadorean, Honduranean, and Nicaraguan troubles, I find it impossible to publish in its entirety, as I should have liked to have done, the text of the complaints presented by the Governments of Honduras and Nicaragua against that of Salvador, and which were heard before and decided by the Central American Court of Justice, as well as the final answer and arguments which were later on issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofSalvador. All these documents, which fill two substantial and closely-printed pamphlets, the one consisting of 84 pages and the other of 108 pages, are extremely interesting and instructive, serving as they do to throw a particularly clear light upon the methods of some of the Central American States, which imagine that they are acting in an "honourable" manner and fulfilling a respectable destiny.

It is significant that these publications, which are complete and official, were issued by the Government of Salvador, from which it is clear at least that this country had nothing to fear from the world at large being made acquainted with the history of the troubles. No less worthy of comment is it that neither Honduras nor Nicaragua has ever made any rejoinder to the arguments and conclusions of the Court of Justice or of the Salvadorean Government, and in this action, perhaps, they have for the first time shown some intelligent discretion.

The impartial reader of these publications can only arrive at one conclusion, nor, indeed, is it even necessary that he should know anything of either the countries or their inhabitants to be able to form some sensible deduction from the actual position. The correspondence, the genuineness of which is unchallenged, speaks for itself. It seems clear that the Government of Salvador, while subscribing in Washington the Central American Treaty of Peace, swore faithfully to fulfil the International Agreement which bound it to its sister Republics, and at the same time opened for itself and for them, as it had every reason to hope and believe, a new era of confraternity to be maintained in dignity and mutual advantage. To the principles of that Treaty, Salvadoradhered with the utmost rigour; and, in the face of the most intense provocation, refused to depart one inch from its solemn obligations. The attitude which this small but high-principled State showed at this time of trouble and trial has evoked the admiration and commendation of all statesmen, independently of country, or creed, or political belief.

penitentiaryPenitentiary at San Salvador.

Penitentiary at San Salvador.

ClubOfficers' Club Room, Military Polytechnic School.

Officers' Club Room, Military Polytechnic School.

To particularize more minutely from the abundant evidence which exists to this effect, and which may be gathered from every page of these two pamphlets, is unnecessary in this volume; but one fact at least I may call attention to, as exemplifying the honesty of purpose and the good faith of the Salvadorean Government towards the Republic of Honduras, at a time, moreover, when only armed retaliation could reasonably have been looked for.

In all probability the friendliness of President Figueroa for his neighbours would never have been questioned, nor their relations have been in any way embittered, but for the Machiavellian interference of Santos Zelaya. It is an eloquent fact of the sympathy felt for Honduras, that President Figueroa of Salvador wrote personally, and almost affectionately, to President Dávila, on June 10, 1907, drawing his attention to the revolutionary plans of certain Honduranean exiles who were making Salvadorean territory their temporary headquarters. Only feelings of friendship and good-nature could have prompted a neighbourly action of this kind, which, however, some few months afterwards was rewarded by President Dávila allowing his troops to join forces with the Nicaraguans in their invasion of Salvadorean territory.

This I may say in defence of ex-President Miguel R. Dávila, whom I know quite well, and with whom Ihave had many long and interesting conversations: he is a man of great honesty of purpose, but of singularly weak will; in fact, he has neither initiative nor power of moral resistance. Quiet and modest to an extraordinary degree, speaking very little above a whisper, and with the manners of a curate rather than those of a soldier, one is inclined to rather wonderque diable fait-il dans cette galèreof President of an unruly and half-savage Republic.

In agreeing to join Zelaya upon his mad and mendacious enterprise, President Miguel Dávila, who had only assumed the Presidency in the month of April of that year (1907), undoubtedly allowed his better judgment and sense of decency to be overruled. This do I know, also: he has deeply and sincerely repented of his action, not because it failed and he lost the game at which he had consented to try his hand, but because, being a man, as I have said, of innate honesty of purpose, he perceived when too late that he had committed what is a worse offence than a mistake—a crime against personal honour.

General Fernando Figueroa, however, did something more than merely warn President Dávila of the plotting going on against his government and his life, and which was proceeding beyond his own jurisdiction. He actually prevented the leader of the Honduranean revolutionists, General Téofilo Cárcamo, from leaving Salvadorean territory, keeping him, with many other conspirators, in prison, and thus helping to quell an uprising against President Dávila's government.

The magnanimity of the Salvadorean Government continued to the end. Notwithstanding the finding of the Central American Court of Justice, (delivered on December 19, 1908), and which, being in favour ofSalvador upon all points raised, shouldsequentiahave carried costs, the Government forewent any such claims, which by the terms usually prevailing under International Law could have been insisted upon, and found its share of the expenses incurred by the inquiry.

Subsequent to the troubles related in the foregoing pages, the Honduranean Government stupidly courted fresh disasters by prosecuting a claim for damages against the two Republics of Salvador and Guatemala for injuries which it declared it had sustained as a result of those two sister-States having harboured Honduranean agitators and conspirators within their borders. The exact value of this claim can best be judged by perusing the following questions that were considered and determined by the Special Court of Justice which was formed in Costa Rica (the only State which stood aside and refused to be concerned in this Central American squabble), and the members of which were made up of five different nationalities. Attached is a faithful translation of what transpired on this occasion:

In the Central American Court of Justice at Cartago, Costa Rica.THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURASVERSUSTHE GOVERNMENTS OF THE REPUBLICS OF EL SALVADOR AND GUATEMALA.Decision: in the City of Cartago, Costa Rica, at Midnight Of The 19th of December, 1908.Upon the closing of the deliberations of the Court for pronouncing judgment in the complaint filed by the Government of the Republic of Honduras against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala, charging responsibility that took place in the first-mentioned Republic in the month of June last, the Chief Justice submitted the following queries to be voted upon in rendering the decision that is to settle the controversy:First Question.—Should the Court sustain the exception taken by the representative of the Government of Guatemala as to the inadmissibility of the complaint, on grounds that it was filed before all negotiations for settlement, between the two respective Departments of Foreign Affairs, had been resorted to without success?The result of the vote cast was as follows:First Question.—The five justices answered in the negative.Second Question.—Should the Court sustain the exception taken by the same party, as to the insufficiency of basis of action, considering that no evidence was filed together with the complaint?Second Question.—The five justices answered in the negative.Third Question.—Is it proven, and should it thus be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and to submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their country?Third Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.Fourth Question.—Is it proven, and should it thus be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated Article 2 of the additional convention to said treaty by fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?Fourth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Astua, and Madriz answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.Fifth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has contributed to the realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable negligence?Fifth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.Sixth Question.—In consequence, should the Court hold that the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of El Salvador is according to law, and, if so, should that Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages that the complainant prays for?Sixth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.Seventh Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their country?Seventh Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.Eighth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article 2 of the additional convention to the said treaty by fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?Eighth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.Ninth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has contributed to the realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable negligence?Ninth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.Tenth Question.—In consequence, should the Court hold that the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of Guatemala is according to law, and, if so, should the Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages the complainant prays for?Tenth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.Eleventh Question.—Should costs be awarded against the losing parties?Eleventh Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the sense that costs be awarded against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala.From the above-stated result, judgment is rendered dismissing the action instituted against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala without costs.José Astua Aguilar.Salvador Gallegos.Angel M. Bocanegra.Alberto Uclés.José Madriz.Witness:Ernesto Martin, Secretary.

In the Central American Court of Justice at Cartago, Costa Rica.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURASVERSUSTHE GOVERNMENTS OF THE REPUBLICS OF EL SALVADOR AND GUATEMALA.

Decision: in the City of Cartago, Costa Rica, at Midnight Of The 19th of December, 1908.

Upon the closing of the deliberations of the Court for pronouncing judgment in the complaint filed by the Government of the Republic of Honduras against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala, charging responsibility that took place in the first-mentioned Republic in the month of June last, the Chief Justice submitted the following queries to be voted upon in rendering the decision that is to settle the controversy:

First Question.—Should the Court sustain the exception taken by the representative of the Government of Guatemala as to the inadmissibility of the complaint, on grounds that it was filed before all negotiations for settlement, between the two respective Departments of Foreign Affairs, had been resorted to without success?

The result of the vote cast was as follows:

First Question.—The five justices answered in the negative.

Second Question.—Should the Court sustain the exception taken by the same party, as to the insufficiency of basis of action, considering that no evidence was filed together with the complaint?

Second Question.—The five justices answered in the negative.

Third Question.—Is it proven, and should it thus be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and to submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their country?

Third Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.

Fourth Question.—Is it proven, and should it thus be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has violated Article 2 of the additional convention to said treaty by fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?

Fourth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Astua, and Madriz answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.

Fifth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of El Salvador has contributed to the realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable negligence?

Fifth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.

Sixth Question.—In consequence, should the Court hold that the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of El Salvador is according to law, and, if so, should that Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages that the complainant prays for?

Sixth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justices Uclés and Madriz in the affirmative.

Seventh Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article 17 of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, signed at Washington on December 20, 1907, by failing to bring to the Capital and submit to trial Honduranean exiles who endangered the peace of their country?

Seventh Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.

Eighth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has violated Article 2 of the additional convention to the said treaty by fostering and promoting the revolutionary movement referred to?

Eighth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.

Ninth Question.—Is it proven, and should it be held, that the Government of the Republic of Guatemala has contributed to the realization of the said political disturbance, through culpable negligence?

Ninth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.

Tenth Question.—In consequence, should the Court hold that the action instituted against the Government of the Republic of Guatemala is according to law, and, if so, should the Government be sentenced to pay the indemnity for damages the complainant prays for?

Tenth Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the affirmative.

Eleventh Question.—Should costs be awarded against the losing parties?

Eleventh Question.—Justices Gallegos, Bocanegra, Madriz, and Astua answered in the negative, and Justice Uclés in the sense that costs be awarded against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala.

From the above-stated result, judgment is rendered dismissing the action instituted against the Governments of the Republics of El Salvador and Guatemala without costs.

José Astua Aguilar.Salvador Gallegos.Angel M. Bocanegra.Alberto Uclés.José Madriz.

Witness:Ernesto Martin, Secretary.

A more impudent or baseless claim than that put forward by Honduras, and decided by the Central American Court of Justice, can hardly be imagined. That the Honduranean Government would ever have thought of prosecuting it at all but for the instigation from its immediate neighbour seems hardly probable.

That the Court should have found a decision overwhelmingly in favour of Salvador and Guatemala was only natural, but it seems unfair that, having come to that inevitable conclusion, costs should not have followed the event, and that Honduras should not have been condemned to pay them.

There is but one consolation (a poor one, I am afraid) open to the Republics of Guatemala and Salvador in this connection—namely, that had the Court ordered Honduras to pay the costs of the inquiry, it would never have done so, any more than it has paid back to its foreign creditors either the principal of, or, even the interest upon, the money which it borrowed.

Were the creditors American instead of British, some satisfactory settlement would have been arrived at long ago. Even as it is, the British bondholders will be unable to obtain a settlement of any kind without recourse to American interference, and, as may be well believed, it will be upon such terms as the Americans choose to approve of, and subject to such profits out of the transactions as the Americans choose to demand.

It is satisfactory at least to observe that Honduranean impudence did not succeed in the above instance in getting "any rise" out of either Salvador or Guatemala.

That the relations existing to-day between thetwo Republics of Salvador and Honduras are upon a more friendly basis, and that they are destined to so remain as long as the present Governments of the two countries remain in power, is proved from the interchange of congratulatory despatches made by Dr. Bertrand, President of Honduras, and Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, President of Salvador, in the month of March last, and copies of which I am enabled to give in this volume. The correspondence, conducted by telegraph, was as follows:

"Tegucigalpa,"March 28, 1911.

"ToH.E. the President, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo,San Salvador.

"I have the honour to bring to the knowledge of Your Excellency that I have to-day taken possession of the Presidency of the Republic before the National Congress. In communicating this to you, I take pleasure in anticipating the good sentiments that animate me for the cultivation of better relations with the Government over which Your Excellency so worthily presides, presenting to you at the same time my good wishes for the well-being of the Republic and for Your Excellency's personal happiness.

"I am, Your Excellency's sincereand devoted servant,"F. Bertrand."

Reply from the President of Salvador.

"San Salvador,"March 28, 1911.

"To H.E. President Dr. Bertrand, Tegucigalpa.

"I am delighted to receive Your Excellency's important message, which conveys to me the flattering news that such a distinguished citizen, to whom I am bound by chains of fraternal sympathy, has to-day taken possession of theelevated office of President of that Republic. Such a happy event is received with immense rejoicing by my Government and the general public, because it implies for the sister-Republic of Honduras peace and progress. I send good wishes for the well-being of Your Excellency, to whom I am pleased to offer the testimony of my perfect friendship and sympathy.

"Manuel E. Araujo."

The army—Division of forces—Active reserve—Auxiliary—Republic's fighting strength—Military education—Strict training—Excellent discipline—Schools and polytechnics—Manual training—Workshops and output—Economies in equipments—Garrison services—Barracks—Destruction of Zapote Barracks—New constructions at Capital, Santa Ana, Santa Tecla, Sitio del Niño, Ahuachapán, Cojutepeque, San Miguel—Annual expenditure.

The National Army of the Republic of Salvador is divided into three main sections, each of which is under the orders of a Departmental Commander, the only superior to whom is the Minister of War. In the Department of San Salvador, which comprises the Capital, the command of the troops is vested in the hands of the Minister, and special commissions are held in connection with this command. The first of these commissions covers the Attached and Reserve Forces of the whole Department; the second relates to the Active Forces of the Department quartered outside the Capital; and the third deals with the two military zones into which the Military District of San Salvador is divided.

The entire strength of the Salvadorean Army is, approximately, as follows:

Active Force consists of 78 Staff Officers, 512 Officers, 15,554 Troops, or, approximately, 26 Battalions.Auxiliary Force consists of 49 Staff Officers, 356 Officers, 11,176 Troops, or 181⁄2Battalions.Reserve Force amounts to 251 Senior Officers, 1,743 Officers, 56,151 Troops, or 931⁄2Battalions.

Active Force consists of 78 Staff Officers, 512 Officers, 15,554 Troops, or, approximately, 26 Battalions.

Auxiliary Force consists of 49 Staff Officers, 356 Officers, 11,176 Troops, or 181⁄2Battalions.

Reserve Force amounts to 251 Senior Officers, 1,743 Officers, 56,151 Troops, or 931⁄2Battalions.

ColonelColonel, Adjutant, and Captains of Company.

Colonel, Adjutant, and Captains of Company.

cadetsCadet Corps, School of Sergeants.

Cadet Corps, School of Sergeants.

This gives the total strength of the Effective Army as—378 Senior Officers, 2,611 Officers, and 82,881 Troops, or 138 Battalions, more or less.

The Government, on the advice of the late President, General Figueroa, have devoted the closest care and attention to the question of military instruction, and the system at present in force is the outcome of the intelligent study of similar systems in force in other countries, and the adaptation of the best features existing in each. A very highesprit de corpsexists among the Salvadorean troops, and, for the most part, they enter upon their schooling and training with both zeal and interest. It must be remembered that a great proportion of the troops are merely Indians; and it speaks well for them that they should take so kindly to a course of what really amounts to mental and physical restriction, which, after all, is an experience somewhat different to what they and their ancestors have been accustomed, except when serving as serfs under a brutal Spanish dominion.

Conspicuous success has attended these courses of military instruction, especially in regard to the 1st Infantry Regiment, which is quartered at San Salvador, and to the 1st Artillery, which is quartered at Santa Ana. Here the men punctiliously attend the lectures upon military subjects which are delivered by the regular officers, as well as by means of ordinary instruction classes. In other garrison towns night classes are held regularly each evening of the week, the instructors in these cases being the officers quartered with the garrison, as well as an eminent German Professor (Herr Alfred Vischer) who was engaged from Germany especially to impart military education to the Salvadorean troops.

A School for Sergeants and Corporals has also been established, with the idea of training these non-commissioned officers for appointments to higher rank in the army. This school was some time ago joined to the Polytechnic Institute, and placed under the command of the Director and Sub-Director of the latter institution; but subsequently, owing to a disastrous fire which broke out and destroyed a portion of the Zapote Barracks, in which the classes were customarily held, the two schools had to be separated and conducted in separate establishments.

It is characteristic of the broad-mindedness of the Salvadorean Government that among the instructors engaged was Colonel Armando Llanos, of the Chilian Mission, who for a considerable time had been Instructor of the Polytechnic, and later was appointed Director and Commandant of that school. In addition to the Director and Sub-Director, the School for Sergeants and Corporals has a Doctor, a Paymaster, two Captain Instructors, eight official Company Ensigns, and two Civilian Professors. All of the officers who serve in this corps have to enter through the Polytechnic School, and among them have been many distinguished cadets.

For the use of the officers there exists a very agreeable Club, at which they can procure their full meals and all kinds of light refreshments at moderate prices; while the usual amusements, such as drafts, cards, billiards, etc., are provided for them. So comfortable is this Club made that the officers, as a rule, find very little inducement to visit the larger towns in search of their amusements; a matter of great importance is this to them, in view of the fact that the barracks are, as a rule, situated at some distance from the City, andrailway travelling is, under any circumstances, rather expensive.

In addition, this school has a number of workshops attached, where shoemaking, blacksmithing, tailoring, beltmaking, etc., are carried on, the output providing the principal requirements of the garrison, including the supply of uniforms for the officers.

The staff of officers and cadets of this school, together with the troops who occupy the annex, take part in periodical reviews and manœuvres; and even severe military critics have been obliged to admit that the smartness and orderliness of the troops are in the highest sense of the word praiseworthy.

The course of instruction which is followed appears, indeed, to be very thorough, while the examinations through which officers have to pass are in every way drastic and thoroughly "stiff." The Polytechnic has turned out some very smart officers, the supply being fully equal to the demand.

Of late the Polytechnic School has been provided with a first-class physical and chemical laboratory, equipped with most modern apparatus. The annual expenditure upon this establishment may be put at between $65,000 and $70,000, which includes all the salaries paid to the Professors and the fees to the officers who deliver lectures, the maintenance of the cadets and troops, forage for their horses, and all general expenses.

It is the practice at these schools to have field-days, when the troops, as well as the cadets undergoing instruction, take part. Upon these occasions they go through most of the features of an ordinary campaign, including embarking and disembarking upon the various lakes and inland watercourses, shooting and camp-pitching,bridge-building, and a thorough training in the evolutions of field artillery. The various cadets who are attached to the Engineers Corps, Telephone and Telegraph Sections, and Medical Staff, have to go through courses in the duties of these particular branches of the army; and it is, therefore, quite easy to understand—when one considers the thoroughness of the training in all branches of its service—why the Salvadorean Army should stand first among the five Central American Republics for military efficiency. That such training is thoroughly effective and conducted with the bestmoraleresults was proved in connection with the earlier unfortunate trouble, when many of the officers from the Polytechnic Schools distinguished themselves not only by fighting gallantly, and in some cases meeting their death with bravery, on the field of battle, but also in regard to the skill and ability with which they handled their troops, both in defence and in attack.

In regard to the garrison services, the infantry and cavalry are almost exclusively employed, the artillery being quartered both in the Capital and the City of Santa Ana. The officers serve for one year certain, and they are thus afforded every opportunity of acquiring a sound and finished instruction, and of becoming thoroughly disciplined. The 1st Infantry Regiment occupy commodious and suitable quarters, and they are generally noticeable for their smartness and soldierly appearance, when both on and off duty. Santa Ana is garrisoned by the 1st Artillery Regiment; and here, again, the troops are comfortably quartered, and the strictest discipline is maintained. The barracks are located at the Casa Mata, an old but commodious building, which has been remodelled and adapted topresent-day requirements. A new story has been added, and this is used as offices for the Commanders and Majors of the corps, while one side of the building has been converted into extensive stabling for twice the number of animals that are actually needed.

In point of cleanliness and comfort the Casa Mata Barracks, as well as those at the Capital, which I was invited to inspect, leave little room for improvement; and it is worthy of remark that no epidemic of any kind has broken out in these barracks for many years past, these having remained perfectly free from contagion even when smallpox was raging in some other parts of the Republic. The Military Authorities are commendably particular in regard to vaccination and re-vaccination, not only when the troops go on active service, but at all times. There is a well-maintained army dispensary attached to all the barracks, and every regiment in the Republic is entitled to free supplies of medicine, drugs, and attendance.

While duly economical in regard to its expenditure, and zealous in seeing that nothing is wasted, the Government has done everything that is necessary to keep the troops adequately equipped both in arms and ammunition, uniforms and supplies. The extensive and efficiently-equipped Government workshops are in the charge of a German mechanic, and here many of the military criminals, who are confined in the Central Prison, are taught useful trades, and their services as masons, tailors, and mechanics, are employed to good purpose. Some capital work is turned out in these workshops, such, for instance, as military equipments, uniforms, etc. I was informed that during the year there had been made there 2,710 complete uniforms for the infantry and artillery, 890 for thecavalry, 545 for colour sergeants, 200 for the port police, 258 for marines; 931 soldiers' caps, 537 cartridge-holders, 2,023 putties, and 2,378 rifle-slings. Special orders had been executed in regard to 22,914 uniforms and 11,311 caps, giving the considerable total of 27,447 uniforms of all kinds, besides a large number of heterogeneous military uniform fittings.

During this period there had been delivered to the different garrisons of the Republic 27,223 uniforms of various kinds; 14,299 caps; 5,840 scabbards with their ferrules; 2,550 kitbags; 1,200 blankets; 1,550 pairs of cotton gloves; 562 cartridge-belts; 1,790 pairs of canvas putties; 200 pairs of leather spats; 2,040 rifle-slings; 271 pallets for soldiers; 354 cloaks; 600 pairs of gaiters; 1,350 water-coolers; 450 canvas nosebags, etc. Although the not inconsiderable sum of $151,723 was expended upon these and other equipments, it will be readily recognized that the Government must have saved enormously in its expenditure by employing the services of its own workshops.

It is desirable to say something in regard to the character of the buildings which the Government uses for military purposes. References have already been made to the serious conflagration which destroyed the handsomest and most generally used barracks in the Republic—viz., the Zapote building. The fire broke out on March 27, 1908, the actual cause being a mystery, although it was supposed that the disaster had its origin in the defective installation of the electric light, a badly insulated wire having been allowed to get into contact with one of the wooden turrets. The building had been almost completed when this accident took place; but fortunately, owingto the quick services which were rendered by the garrison staff, the police, and some volunteer helpers, the total destruction of the barracks was prevented, and the greater part of the war material stored therein for use was saved. The barracks have now been completed, and form one of the handsomest blocks of Government buildings in the Capital.

In Santa Tecla, which is situated but ten miles distant from the Capital, a large and handsome block of barracks has been constructed, and is also practically complete, the work having been in hand since the year 1905, but progress being considerably impeded from time to time through various causes. It seemed, indeed, that these barracks would prove something like Cologne Cathedral, and never see completion; for as soon as one part was finished the work was arrested, and before any new addition had been made the old part had fallen into decay. Neighbouring wars, earthquake shocks, and lack of necessary funds, all played their part in occasioning these delays; but at length the building may be pronounced complete. The front is constructed in two stories, the three other sides being in one story only; and, while the exterior of the building is constituted of handsome cut stone, the interior is of a lighter material suitable for tropical residence. There have been over 50,000 blocks of stone cut and laid for the frontage; the total cost will doubtless prove to be heavy, but the result achieved will have been worth it.

In the town of Sitio del Niño new barracks have been built for the garrison, an expenditure which has been rendered necessary in view of the advent of the railway between Acajutla and Santa Ana, which crosses here, and forms an important junction and stopping-placefor travellers. The barracks took several months to complete, and they now form a very substantial addition to the town's notable structures. The principal block of buildings has 27 yards of frontage by 15 yards of width, including the corridors and other buildings. The extent of frontage, which faces the railway-station, has a notable elevation, and rests on 2 metres of stone foundation, one course below the ground, and the other above the ground level, which is considered to have been the most healthful style to have adopted, the residential part of the building thus being elevated appreciably above its foundation.

In Ahuachapán a substantial and handsome building for barracks is also being erected, the chief material employed being masonry, while the whole structure has been planned with a view to defence in case of necessity. The building has four turrets, one situated at each corner, in addition to two smaller turrets which are placed on either side of the principal gateway. The thickness of the walls has been decided upon with the idea of resisting the attack of artillery of the kind usually employed in these countries. The interior of the building is constructed of unburnt bricks, the arrangement being of the utmost simplicity, the architect bearing in mind that the building is destined to be used entirely for troops, workmen, etc.

In Cojutepeque a block of barracks is about to be erected, but active construction will be postponed until the water-pipes, which are now being laid to convey water to the city, have been completed. In San Miguel various additional defence works have been executed at the existing barracks, while others have been commenced, the Government having resolved to make San Miguel a strongly fortified town. Newmilitary stables have been added to the cavalry barracks at Santa Ana; while in other Departments of the Republic a considerable number of important repairs and additions to military buildings have been completed.

From first to last the annual upkeep of the Salvadorean Army, including both equipment and maintenance, as well as the expenditure upon all the military educational establishments, payments for the services of the national steamer, contributions to volunteer regiments, reserve squadrons, etc., amounts to nearly $1,220,000; and taking the whole of this expenditure for both War and Marine, the total disbursement for the year 1908-09 stood as follows:

$Private staff of the President73,113.731st Artillery Regiment155,155.691st Infantry Regiment461,596.39Cavalry Regiment125,670.58Polytechnic School (including subs.)106,554.71School of Corporals and Sergeants100,887.38Volunteers of the Capital90,602.04Reserve Squadron52,393.87Band of Supreme Power45,741.59National steamerPresident(from January to March)3,943.84$1,215,659.92

British Minister to Salvador—Lionel Edward Gresley Carden—British Legation hospitality—Mrs. Carden—Government indifference to valuable services—British Consul—No report for twenty years—Foreign Office neglect—Salvadorean Consuls and their duties defined—Correspondence with the Foreign Office—Imports and Exports—British Supremacy in 1904—Germany's position.

For some reason known to the Foreign Office, but understood and appreciated by no one else, Salvador is incorporated with Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras in its representation by a Minister-Resident and Consul-General combined. Other nations in Europe of less importance, and the United States of America, are represented by separate Ministers and Consuls-General, and in some instances by both. The niggardly Foreign Office, however, when it has contributed the munificent sum of £2,000 for the Minister-Resident's salary, and a further £300 as office allowance as well as £200 for the Consul's office expenses, has done all that it thinks necessary to sustain the dignity of Great Britain in a foreign country whose people are peculiarly susceptible to compliments of this kind, and leaves Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Honduras—separated from one another not alone by hundreds of miles in actual distance, but by many days' travel on horseback or by steamship—to make the best they can of the arrangement. The inconvenience alike to the particular Minister, to the British subjects living inthese Republics, and to the Governments concerned, is considerable, and at times becomes of very serious import.

The British Minister to Salvador is Mr. Lionel Edward Gresley Carden, a man of altogether exceptional ability and culture, a born diplomat, and one of the most attractive personalities that one could meet with. He was born in 1851, and is a son of the Rev. Lionel Carden, of Barnane, Co. Tipperary, his mother being the beautiful Miss Lucy Lawrence Ottley; and from her Mr. Carden has doubtless inherited much of his physical attractiveness. Educated at Eton, he was at the age of twenty-six given his first Government appointment, namely, that of Vice-Consul at Havana, Cuba, in 1877. A few years afterwards—namely, in 1883—Mr. Carden was attached to Sir S. St. John's Special Mission to Mexico, and two years later he was appointed H.B.M.'s Consul at Mexico City. It was then that his valuable services as the British Commissioner at the Mexican Mixed Claims Court were rendered, the Commission sitting on and off between 1885 and 1889. While in Mexico Mr. Carden upon two occasions took entire charge of the Legation, and in 1898 he went back to Cuba, this time as Consul-General, remaining there until 1902.

Mr. Carden created a profoundly friendly feeling for the British during these four years, and he is still spoken of with the greatest esteem, not only by members of the British community, but by the Cubans themselves, with whom he was alwayspersona grata. In 1902 he was created Minister at Havana, and he remained there until 1905, when he took up his present post as H.B.M. Minister-Resident and Consul-General to Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.

Mr. Carden married Miss Anne Eliza Lefferts, a daughter of Mr. John Lefferts, of "Flatbush," New York, U.S.A., a gracious and talented lady who, by her kindness of heart and refined hospitality, has endeared herself to all foreigners resident or travelling in Guatemala. The British Legation, one of the handsomest residences in Guatemala City, is the centre of much friendly and cultured intercourse, not only among the British and American colonies, but with many of the Guatemalan notabilities and families.

The only recognition that has been paid by the British Government to Mr. Carden so far, in connection with his long and valuable services in Latin America, has been the bestowal of the Coronation Medal in 1902. Beyond relieving him in 1908 of the burden of representing the Government in Costa Rica in addition to Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, the King's advisers have done nothing to show that they appreciate Mr. Carden or recognize the onerous and responsible mission which he has had to fulfil. And yet he is both by education and temperament essentially one of the most useful and reliable diplomats that the Government can call upon. His proper sphere would be at one of the European Courts, or, better still, at Washington, where his valuable and unique knowledge of Latin-American countries and Governments would enable him to more adequately and advantageously represent and protect British commercial interests than does the present complacent Minister, who suggests the idea of being more of an American in his sympathies than a Britisher.

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