THICK SOUPS.—Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish is used in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked and mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,—usually milk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulp uniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquid with a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cooked as in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" the vegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply White Sauces to which vegetable pulp is added.
GENERAL PROPORTIONS.—The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree to liquid is:One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts of liquid,i.e.milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock.
The proportion of flour to liquid is:1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, as celery, is used.
Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and to increase the food value.
Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas and beans, or corn and beans.
3 potatoes 1 tablespoonful flour 1 pint milkor1 pint milk and potato stock 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 slices of onion Celery salt 3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley
Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler, then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through a strainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all other ingredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add more liquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsley just before serving.
"Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup.
Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bakeslowlyin the oven until a golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups.
Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.
What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce forVegetables?
How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soup differ from the above proportion?
Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainerafterrather thanbeforeadding the hot milk?
Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (seeToast)?
FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.—Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid, their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however, are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of all soups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, to say nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups are more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods.
Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid taken into an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, and thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal.
1 can of corn 1 pint water l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 slice onion 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful white pepper 1 pint milk
Add the water to the canned corn andsimmer20 minutes. Melt the fat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dry ingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn and strain.
Reheat before serving, if necessary.
NOTE.—The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (i.e.browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods, especially meats and sauces.
Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter.Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepareDried Bread Crumbs with them.
[Illustration: FIGURE 42.—DRIED BREAD CRUMBS. (Note that the jar is covered with a cloth.)]
Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread. Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling on a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs are desired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs in separate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (The muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber band.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from the crumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried and stored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42).
Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal.
Why is it served as the first course of a meal?
Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it to the other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavor extracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavor extracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining the soups.
If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ from that of canned corn?
How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (seeGreenCorn)?
What is the price per can of corn?
In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread before buttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into strips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread for Soup Sticks with butter?
How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why?
What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipe for Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used for scalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the dishes which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of crumbs could be used. Explain.
CUSTARDS.—Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, they are often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickened with eggs is calledcustard.
There are two kinds of plain custards: (a) steamed or baked custard and (b) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is the same, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking differ.
That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, all milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of water. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hot water or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not too quickly, the water in the double boilershould not boil rapidly.
If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. It exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamy appearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomes hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milk mixture. The custard is then said to becurdled.
A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custardat oncewith a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plain custards.
1 pint milk 2 or 3 eggs 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls caramel sirupor1/16 teaspoonful nutmeg
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggsslightly, add the sugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture, flavor, and pour it into a mold. Ifsteamed custardis desired, steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in the steamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking by inserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is done.
Ifbaked custardis desired, place the cups of custard in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes or until firm. Test as steamed custard.
If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold after steaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing a little Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily be turned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gently on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. The caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirup may be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in makingPeanut Candy) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Use equal quantities of sugar and water.)
1 pint milk 1/4 cupful sugar 2 eggs 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Instead of pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook (stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon. Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained and flavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking.
In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked with the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff and beaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may be used as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods.
To Decrease the Eggs in Custard
When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg.For methods of thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV.
What is the purpose of eggs in custard?
Why are eggs beatenslightlyfor custards?
How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking?What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each?
What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strained and flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking?
In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdled custard be made smooth?
Custard
1 pint milk 3 egg yolks 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Meringue
3 egg whites 3 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar
The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs.
Prepare the custard as Soft Custard.
Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding I tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue by spoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits of jelly or colored gelatine.
From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider most advisable for preparing Meringue?
If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished in several ways: (a) place it on thehotcustard at once after preparing the custard, (b) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on the hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg white cook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken the milk with the egg yolks, (c) Drop the uncooked Meringue on the cooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly by placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking oven.
In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, instead of the eggs to the hot milk?
How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard?
What is Meringue?
Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs.How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost?
1 cupful dried apricots 1/3 cupful powdered sugar 3 egg whites
Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or press through a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites of eggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture. Chill and serve with Custard Sauce.
Driedprunesmay be substituted for apricots, using less sugar and adding a little lemon juice.
If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, it should be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful of granulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Add the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir until the gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as directed above.
Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolks for 2 whole eggs.
Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for this dessert?
Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg yolk. What is the difference in thickness and color?
How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening?
EGG AND STARCH.—How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (seeBlanc Mange)? How long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used for thickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch and egg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch can be cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling.
1 pint milk 1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca 1/2 cupful dark brown sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter
Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water until the tapioca is transparent (seeApple Tapioca, above). Mix the sugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg mixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler. Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turn into dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream.
The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a very soft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca.
Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the serving dishes.
For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the greater quantity of tapioca should be used.
3 potatoes 2 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/8 teaspoonful celery salt
Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning, combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens.Serve immediately.
In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca? How much of this ingredient should be used (seeBlanc Mange, above)?
What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup?
Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs?
How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see above)?
What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange?
When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of adding the egg.
Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard.
1 can cornor6 ears green corn 1 teaspoonful salt l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful milk 2 eggs
Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs, add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking- dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable.
One egg may be omittedand the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2 tablespoonfuls respectively.
1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces 1 egg 1 cupful milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca Cayenne
Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method of preparingDried Bread Crumbs).
What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture?
What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture?
What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two foods bake? Give a reason for your answer.
In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the same length of time?
Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn.
How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve?
How many will the Cheese Pudding serve?
Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk.
How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or BakedCustard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in BreadPuddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference.
2 cupfuls milk 1 cupful bread crumbs 1 tablespoonful butter 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanillaor1/2 teaspoonful spices 3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants
Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see below).
If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change should be made in the other ingredients (seeChocolate Corn-starch Pudding)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and Chocolate Bread Pudding.
1 cupful bread crumbs 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1 ounce chocolate 1/4 cupful boiling water 1/3 cupful sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture. Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or whipped cream or Lemon Sauce.
1/2 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10 minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla [Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just before serving.
1/2 cupful sugar 3 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful water 1 cupful milk 3/8 cupful cocoaor2 squares (or ounces) chocolate 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water; stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over boiling water for at least 15 minutes.
If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over desserts.
What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding?
What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk mixture?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding, and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result, if baked in a very hot oven?
What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of baking?
Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding.
What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water?
In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (seeExperiment 24)?
How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast?
Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one pint of sauce.
What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce?
Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures? What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked only over boiling water?
THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.—To show the relation of cheese to milk, and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.—Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it. Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see Lesson XLVI)?
EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY—Again heat the contents of the test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted milk?
Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the cheese firm.
There are two general classes of cheese,—hard cheese and soft cheese. A hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in this country.
ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.—The rennet or junket used to clot the casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in the stomach.
EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.—Add a few drops of vinegar to warm milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has been curdled by the acid?
To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material (seeCare of Milk)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the clotted condition of sour milk.
1 quart milk 1/4 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful liquid rennetor1 junket tablet Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg
Heat the milk in a double boiler until it islukewarmonly; do not heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm,i.e.body temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like the wrist"—neither warmer nor colder—it is lukewarm in temperature. If a junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve with cream.
1 quart thick sour milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cream, top milk, or butter
Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve lightly heaped, or molded into balls.
Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (seeExperiment 12)?
In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the digestion of milk in the stomach?
Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested.
How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk?
Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour milk.
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home?
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market?
FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.—Cheese is concentrated food,i.e.it contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven).
Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese.
Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487,The Digestion of Cheese, p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should be heated at low or moderate temperature.
It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already been eaten, is not advisable.
CARE OF CHEESE.—Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (seeWhy Foods Spoil). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it.
1 cupful macaroni 1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs 3/4 cupful grated cheese
Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling, salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown.
Rice or noodles, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for macaroni.
What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce?
What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity?
What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)?
Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water?
What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain?
What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (seeCheese Sauce,)?
What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of rice? What is the price per pound of cheese?
How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese?
How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve?
How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food?
MEAT.—The flesh of animals is calledmeat. In market this term is applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton (sheep), lamb, and pork (pig).
To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try the following experiments with beef:
EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.—Scrape a piece of lean beef on both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat. What is the color and texture,i.e.toughness, of the two parts into which the muscle is divided?
Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (a) connective tissue or framework, and (b) muscle fiber.
Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52.
EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (a) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.— Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more tender or tough by dry heat?
(b) MUSCLE FIBER.—Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (a). Is the fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber?
EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (a) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.—Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and heat affect its toughness?
(b) MUSCLE FIBER.—Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook in water at simmering temperature as directed in (a). How do heat and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has a more pleasing flavor?
From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the length of time—long or short—thatconnective tissuemust be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with regard to the kind of heat—dry or moist—that must be applied to connective tissue to make it tender?
What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more pleasing flavor?
[Illustration: FIGURE 43.—STRUCTURE OF MEAT. A. muscle fibers; B. fat cells; C. connective tissue.]
THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.—The connective tissue of meat is the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump. This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination, however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes, microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as shown also in Figure 43.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, TeachersCollege. FIGURE 44.—CLUB OR DELMONICO STEAK.]
The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the following lesson.
CARE OF MEAT.—As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking.
SEARING MEAT.—Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor, it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are prevented from escaping.This process is called searing.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers CollegeFIGURE 45.—PORTERHOUSE]
From the results of Experiment 51 (b), one can understand why seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat.
TENDER CUTS OF BEEF—Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts.
[Illustration: FIGURE 46.—SIRLOIN,—HIP STEAK (portion next to the porterhouse)Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College]
[Illustration: FIGURE 47.—SIRLOIN,—FLAT BONE (choice cut in the middle of the sirloin section).Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College.]
Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts of the beef would one expect to find most tender?
Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts. Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts of meat: (a) broiling, (b) pan-broiling, and (c) roasting (baking).
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers CollegeFIGURE 48.—SIRLOIN,—ROUND BONE (next to the rump and round).]
The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure 44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin.
Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (seeFigures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers CollegeFIGURE 49.—FIRST CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers CollegeFIGURE 50.—SECOND CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughlysearedon both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10 minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serveat once.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications, Teachers CollegeFIGURE 51.—BLADE RIB ROAST (7th and 8th ribs).]
Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying panwithout any fat. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is the same as for broiling.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.—Pan-broiled steak differs from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (a) ease of digestion and (b) flavor. As explained previously (Frying and Digestion), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested. For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit the fat, and to broil a steak.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofBureau of Publications. Teachers CollegeFIGURE 52—CHUCK RIB ROAST (9th and 10th ribs)]
Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In "fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the addition of any other flavor.
Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as follows:
[Illustration: FIGURE 53.—COLONIAL FIREPLACE, SHOWING A "ROASTINGKITCHEN"—a device for roasting meat—at lower right-hand corner.]
Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven (500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400 degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with flour, and continue baking as before.
Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one, the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of beef should weigh at least 4 pounds.
The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for beef roasts,15 minutes to each poundis allowed.
Explain the purpose of searing meat.
If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared?
Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or pan-broiled?
Why cannot meat be broiled overblazingcoals?
What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak?
What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak?
How many persons will each serve?
PROTEIN IN MEAT.—It was mentioned previously that there are several different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins exist in:
(a) Connective tissue.
(b) Walls of muscle fibers.
(c) Muscle juice.
Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz.,collagenandelastin.Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water. Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of muscle fibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,—myosin or muscle globulinandalbumin.
Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meat because it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meat broth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form of albumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold water, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of its nutriment is lost.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 54—ROUND.]
[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE 55.—CHUCK.]
Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists in greater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insoluble in both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. As not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making,the solid part of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment. Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat.
CHOPPED BEEF.—If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting on its structure? How would this affect its toughness?
It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, if the meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder or chuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose.
1 pound beef steak, chopped 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 onion, grated 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 cupful water or 3/4 cupful tomatoes 1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying pan until hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat;then remove the fat. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking. Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meat mixture.
The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg is thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef.
Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed into one large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan- broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful in turning over the steak.
Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg.Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven(450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato orBrown Sauce.
The use of tomatoes instead of water inBeef Loafmakes the meat especially tasty.
Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after searing it?
What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder?
How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat?
How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat?
2 pounds chopped meat 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put it into a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a large cavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows:
2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful marjoram 1/4 teaspoonful thyme 1/4 teaspoonful savory 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stir and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned.
Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that the latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot oven and bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,—plain or with Brown Sauce (see below).
Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used inStuffed Meat Roast.
Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (seeBeef Loaf).
POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food AdministrationBulletin.]
2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes 1 egg (beaten) 1 small onion, grated 1 tablespoonful fat 1 stalk celery finely mincedor1/2 teaspoonful celery salt 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper
Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing.
EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.—When flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (see Experiment 26, above)?
Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful of flour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the same ingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauce as to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,—starch or dextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order to make it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid.
NOTE.—If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasoned and used with the Stuffed Meat Roast.
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 cupful meat stock or hot water 1 teaspoonful scraped onion
If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the"Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them.Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook asWhite Sauce.
What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why?
Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them successfully.
EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.—Place a bit of meat in a test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand for a few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into the water? What practical application as to washing meat can be made from this?
Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the water contain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth? Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer be used? Why?
EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.—Pour boiling water over a bit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water? Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out.
EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.—Sprinkle some salt on a piece of meat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practical application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this?
NOTE.—The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved and used for soup-making.
TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.—From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found to be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking was used to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughness of meat depends upon (a) amount of connective tissue, and (b) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin). These conditions depend upon (a) the age of the animal, and (b) locality of muscle or cut of meat.
Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked, tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is necessary to make them palatable.The long cooking must be accomplished in water or steamin order that the meat may not burn or become too dry.
Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender than beef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because they are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue. Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence tough cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not always appreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely extracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentioned previously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop flavor in meat.
USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.—Bone contains a substance which long cooking changes into a jellylike mass calledgelatine. In the center of the bone there is a fatty substance calledmarrow. This fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making soup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes the air from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, in soup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the lean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stock before using.
2 pounds meat, bone and fat 1/4 teaspoonful celery seed 5 peppercorns 2 cloves 2 quarts cold water 1/2 bay leaf 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brown about 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add the seasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook below boiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour it through a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowed to solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used.
1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in small pieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bones of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut into small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces of meat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel, provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness.
CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).—The feeding, care, and age of an animal have much to do with thequalityof its meat. It is considered that good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef should be firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be a generous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. In most markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several days at a temperature near freezing.
Thecostof the different cuts of meat varies greatly. The difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, and upon the demand,—not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in different localities, and in different seasons.
Thewasteof a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs to consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containing no waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower.
[Illustration: Adapted from diagram inUniversity of IllinoisBulletin, No 158 FIGURE 56.—CUTS OF BEEF.]
The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks the division of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of the various cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicated around the outer boundary of the diagram.
The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the cut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such as shown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for roasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces into which a cut is usually divided.
ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting. 1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing. 57). Corning.
B. Round (not including Sauteing.rump and shank). Stewing.2-14. Round steaks (see Braising.Figure 54). Pot-roasting.
C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting.15. Pot roast. Stewing.
D. Hind shank.16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making.17-19. Soup bones.
LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut intosteaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces5-6. Flat-bone sirloinsteaks (see Figure 47).7. Hip-bone sirloin steak(see Figure 46).
F. Porterhouse. Broiling.8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into(see Figure 45). thick pieces).16-18. Club or Delmonicosteaks (see Figure 44).
FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing.Rolling and Braising
H-H. Flank stew. Stewing.Corning.
NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKINGRIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting.1-4. Prime-rib roasts (seeFigures 49 and 50).
CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising.Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting.2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling.(see Figure 55). Sauteing.10-13. Pot roasts.NOTE.—In some localities, a potroast is cut from the lower portionof the chuck. It is called CrossRib, Boston Cut, or English Cut(see Figure 58).14. Clod, no bone (over knucklesoup bone).
L. Neck. Stewing.15. Stew. Soup-making.Corning.
PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing.1, 2. Stews. Soup-making.Corning.
N. Navel. Stewing.3. Stew. Soup-making.Corning.
O. Brisket. Stewing.4. Stew. Soup-making.Corning.
FORE P. Shin.SHANK 1. Stew.2. Knuckle soup bone (underneath Stewing.clod,J, 14). Soup-making.3-6. Soup bones ("3" underneathclod,J, 14).
Skirt steak,—diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising.ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing.
Tail. Soup-making.
Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in using tough cuts of meat for soup?
Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making.Give the price per pound of these cuts.
In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of cracking the bone?
Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (seeExperiment 56)?