Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice of salt pork fat may be used).
The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven.
Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture—1 egg beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water—and again dipped into cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the crumbs are brown.
Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup.
In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked.
1 or 2 eggs 1 cupful milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt 6 or 8 slices of stale bread
Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan. Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French Toast.
1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark) 1/4 cupful boiling water 2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of butter.
In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale bread in the milk and egg mixture?
Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the better for French Toast,—large or small pieces of bread?
What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just before turning it?
Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to be served hot?
What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (SeeCornSirup.)
EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.—Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame. Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble?
EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.—Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the use of cold water in this mixture.
EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.—Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of sugar in the mixture.
EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.—Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this mixture.
To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture can penetrate every grain at the same time.
2 cupfuls milk 1/4 cupful corn-starch 1/2 cupful sugar 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla Nutmeg 1/8 teaspoonful salt
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly. Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve with sugar and cream.
If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold.
NOTE.—While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time after it thickens? (SeeCereals.)
Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4 cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (i.e.1 ounce) of Baker's chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and serve as Blanc Mange.
Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to make them tasty.
3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange.
Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered cereals used for thickening.
Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of BlancMange as directed.
For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?
Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (seeScalding Milk). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double boiler, as cereals.
Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (seeFlavoring Extracts)?
What is the price per package of corn-starch?
How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?
Which material—flour or corn-starch—is the cheaper to use for thickening?
How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?
EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.—Place a teaspoonful of flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomesvery dark brownanduniformin color. Put a little of the browned flour into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?
The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish blue) color when treated with iodine.
EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.—Pour the remainder of the browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake. Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper, but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration: Figure 30.—Method of Folding Filter Paper.]
From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch into a soluble substance calleddextrin. Dextrin is found in small amounts in the crust of bread and in toast.
DIGESTION OF STARCH.—It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the starch to make it soluble. Such a changedoestake place; starch is changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.
Substances calledenzymeswhich are in the saliva of the mouth [Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following experiments:
EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.—Test a bit of cracker with iodine for starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain starch?
EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.—Thoroughly chew a bit of cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor. Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate (see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain? Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.
TOAST.—Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.
Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.
Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the desired kind of toast.
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls milk or cream 6 to 8 slices of toast
Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly. Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.
Moist toastis prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot, salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.
The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild flavored fat or oil may be used.
Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (seeExperiment 25).
What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one cupful of liquid?
What is the use of flour in White Sauce?
Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of comparison for the thickness of other sauces.
What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly digested? Give reasons for your answer.
Plant Roots.—Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.
All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.
Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—This lesson can be conducted most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and carrots as directed above.]—Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared potatoes and scraped carrots.
Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them ingently boilingwater. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water. When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle), drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.
Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.
Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so, it is mineral matter.
Which vegetables,—those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,— lose the more starch and ash?
Which vegetables without the skins,—those cooked in water or those cooked in steam,—lose the more starch and ash?
As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better for vegetables without the skins?
Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice. Prepare about half as muchWhite Sauceas you have of the vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following proportion:
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 cupful liquid
For theliquidof the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, seeCream Toast) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six vegetables.
Which vegetables,—those cooked with or without the skins,—have the more pleasing color?
Which vegetables,—those cooked with or without the skins,—have the more pleasing flavor?
As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?
As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking is better for both vegetables?
Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.—All vegetables growing beneath the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any length of time before cooking.
The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in color when cooked without their skins.
The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable materials. [Footnote 30:Vitamines, see Division Seven]
Satisfactory results may be obtained bybakingorsteamingvegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May, 1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.] however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the steamer.
An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should, of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan (see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated vegetable broth is used.
[Illustration: Courtesy ofGeo H Bowman CoFIGURE 31.—UTENSIL FORSTEAMING—A "STEAMER"]
Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker. This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.
If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes starchy vegetables soggy.
If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around the sprouts.
In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59, Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put through a ricer before serving.
CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.—Cooked vegetables may be creamed by cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts of diced vegetables.
Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 tablespoonful butter or substituteor2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt White pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1/2 cupful vegetable stock
Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (seeCream Toast). The thickness of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.
1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful salt White pepper or cayenne 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.
How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?
Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?
Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or bushel?
Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain their nutriment.
EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,—Over several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of vegetables in water before cooking?
Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (seeCooking Vegetables in Water). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.
Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in the oven.
SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 6 sweet potatoes Salt and pepper Boiling water
Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes. Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes as a sauce for serving.
Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.
MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)
4 parsnips 2 eggs 1 cupful nuts, chopped 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.] 4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt
Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted fromNinety Tested Recipes, Teachers College.)
1/2 can tomatoes 1 cupful water 2 cloves 3 allspice berries 3 peppercorns 2 sprays of parsley 3 tablespoonfuls fat 2 slices onion 1/4 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt
Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow the method of making White Sauce (seeCream Toast). Strain and serve.
From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.
Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after cooking?
From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with white potatoes?
What is the price per pound of parsnips?
In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and spices together for 15 or 20 minutes?
Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?
Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation, tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is prepared for the market in two forms,—pearl tapioca, and minute or granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the quantity is required.
3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or 3/4 cupful granulated tapioca 2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 teaspoonful salt 6 apples 1/2 cupful sugar
If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,—use less than the given quantity of boiling water.
If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of breakfast cereal (seeGeneral Rules for Cooking Cereals). Cook in the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples; place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft. Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.
Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used, substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is cooked.
Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca, substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.
3/4 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 lemon,—juice and rind 1 tablespoonful butter
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10 minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.
For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.
SWEET SAUCES.—Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of the two materials—sugar or butter—should be used to separate the grains of the flour or corn-starch.
The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the starchy material (seeBlanc Mange). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in Lemon Sauce.
Flour Fat Liquid
Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast, sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.)
Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup(Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup(Croquettes, etc.)
(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be used.)
What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it necessary to cook it in a double boiler?
What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a time?
What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?
If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?
For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise a method of preparingsmoothsauce.
STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.—Which is hotter,—the "steam" (i.e.water vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.—Pop corn contains water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the covering and the starch swells at once.
[Illustration: FIGURE 32.—"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HASBEEN UNDER PRESSURE.]
In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are lost.
Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn will become tough.
4 quarts freshly popped corn 1/4 cupful butter Salt
Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring.
1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oilor2 tablespoonfuls oil 1/2 cupful shelled pop corn Salt
Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time.
BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of ahotoven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in ahotoven, to prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming potatoes on a folded napkin for serving.
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 3 tablespoonfuls milk Pepper 6 baked potatoes
Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in ahotoven (500 degrees F.) until brown.
Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over them.
Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking.
Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see Experiment 26 andSolution and Digestion).
Which contains more nutriment,—baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain (seeComparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam).
What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoesat onceafter baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be used to cover them?
DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.—See Suggestions for Teaching,Appendix.]
BASIC PRINCIPLES.—Practically all rules for laying the table and all methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness, convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.—See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general suggestions.
TABLE LINEN.—Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth.
[Illustration: FIGURE 33.—TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note the position of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers. Also note that alowbowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.]
Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong.
If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon. Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than that of a table-cloth.
Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads may be served in a folded napkin.
CHINA AND GLASSWARE.—The term "cover" means the space, with its china, silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33).
The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated. For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and- butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher, salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the guests are seated.
For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers, spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right, and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service.
If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table or on the serving table.
SILVER.—Convenience and order have determined the customary way of placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses, except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course.
While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each cover in the order of its use,the knives are usually all grouped together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the right of the knives.It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and knives in the order of their use,i.e.place the spoon that is to be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure 33).
All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread- and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laidbesidenotinthe dish of food.
TABLE ACCESSORIES.—A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged, makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a real source of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite (see Figure 33).
Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, they should be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasional dinners, are also placed on the napkin.
There are several styles of serving:
ENGLISH (ordinary family service).—The foods are served at the table, the host serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad, and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and the vegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may be passed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may be passed from one person to another. This method is used for family and informal service, and also when serving is done without a maid.
RUSSIAN (serving from the side).—This may be observed in one of two ways:
(a) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates and placed before the guests.
(b) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or the portions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or fork should be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of serving is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid.
COMPROMISE.—Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one course and another style for another course, as the Russian style for the soup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods of one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles of serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served in Russian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise.
ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.—While each hostess follows her own inclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that are always observed:
Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes.
Dishes offered to a guest arepassedto the left of the guest; other dishes areplacedto the right of a guest, except when a plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,—it is then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right when possible.
When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan of removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed:
The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her right hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plate of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty or served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to the kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or served plate, and proceeds as before.
In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first places the dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of the host. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then gets another clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the served plate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She then places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side. Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, and proceeds as before.
At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishes as the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belonging to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soiled dishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them in the neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. When the dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are to be removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes) should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removed one at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of each. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course, two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand.
USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.—Many dining rooms have both a buffet and serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used for holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such as dessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet is used for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffee service, chafing dish, etc.
Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft (i.e.unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before the meal is announced.
USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.—The serving tray should be used for carrying all silver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves, olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers. In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use a folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray.
REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.—For a table with a cloth, the crumb tray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to remove the crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a table without a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may be crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course.
USE OF FINGER BOWLS.—Finger bowls are used after the fruit course of breakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placed on plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl.
For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. The finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same plates may be used for the fruit course.
For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates are brought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. The finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons and nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls may be brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate are exchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to pass finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then the finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served on the same plate.
ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.—The host and hostess usually sit opposite each other,i.e.at the head and foot of the table. If there is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should be farthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, the hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A woman guest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at the right of the hostess.
The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different occasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men. This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few persons are at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usually served in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests are served first, while in others the hostess is always the first to be served. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess should always be served first.
When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform when serving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Much skill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. The underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess must plan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty.
PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.—In planning the menu, a wise selection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but few courses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simple meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should be selected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will not be harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately when taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal.
For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the warming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods as possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced. The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a pan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that a tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-water dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops.
A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to a woman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostess so that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence of a wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and clearing the table; it saves many steps.
[Illustration: FIGURE 34—WHEEL TRAY.]
SERVING AT THE TABLE.—The English style of serving should be followed. The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the family in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air of hospitality.
As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or for many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned, she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of the indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. She should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving of energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soiled dishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the serving table. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from an overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelf of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes.
For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostess use the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it on so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his own cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present and where there is no maid.
The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the hostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start an absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room.
Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes?
Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a folded napkin?
Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and the cups and saucers at the left of her cover?
In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why should the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the plates?
In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left of a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at the right?
Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be followed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes, and finally the crumbs?
Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the end of the course?
Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table?
Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the end of luncheon or dinner?
Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the dining and serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method of serving each course, using the English style.
Cream of Tomato Soup—Soup SticksVeal CutletsRiceRolls—ButterCucumber SaladWafersSnow Pudding, Custard SauceCakes—Coffee
Cook and serve a breakfast.
If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to plan only a simple meal. The following menu is suggested:
Seasonable Fruit,—fresh or cookedFrench Toast with SirupMilk
Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will serve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or more food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should become accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes.
Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper condition—hot or cold—at the time set for serving the breakfast.
Follow the English or family style of serving.
Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson).
Seasonable Fruit SauceBreakfast CerealCoffee
See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at your home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following morning.
Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week.
(1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet flavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that mastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top.
(2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served each time.
COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.—Fat is a foodstuff.Fat and oil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that is liquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-giving or fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy; in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in one pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. By measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of tapioca.
Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and as constituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. The use of fat as a cooking medium follows:
EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."— Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil, corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of the fats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer [Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. It should be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note the temperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fats decompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook.
How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking—hot fat or boiling water?
Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose? If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for your answer.
What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils?
Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils?
FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.—As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is calledfrying. From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which can be heated to a very high temperature without burning.
Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings and lard satisfactory.
EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).—Put some suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats?
EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).— Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for frying foods?
Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for uncooked foods.
GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.—Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron.
If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence,foods that are to be fried should be as dry as possible.
Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them. The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over especially when moist foods are placed in it.
Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained on paper.
When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food.
Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed on the following page.
If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire.
If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before grasping the handle of the kettle.
TO TRY OUT FAT.—The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows:
Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a "cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out.
As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place.
TO CLARIFY FAT.—Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand until solid.
FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the price of oysters is too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in place of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner as oysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.]
Large oystersDried bread crumbsSalt and pepperEggs1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg
Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the fingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft cloth or towel (seeCleaning Oysters). Season with salt and pepper. Beat the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or strained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried bread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the egg mixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place on paper, and serve.
Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsley makes a pleasing garnish.
To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.—An alkaline substance such as washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To show the action of washing soda on fats try the following:
EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.—Into a test tube put 1/2 teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until the washing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat and add it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a few minutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? What has been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can be drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that have contained fat?
Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full of water, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do not use washing soda in aluminum utensils (seePreparing Dishes for Washing).
What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor?
Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg.
Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that are to be fried?