FOOD FATS.—Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined so as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal and vegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet, lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed and peanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats. A discussion of various food fats follows:
(a)Butteris made by churning ripened cream so as to separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It is salted and usually colored before putting it on the market.
The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel value is not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as much fat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats. Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and lard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certain growth-producing substances calledvitamines(see Division Seven). All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but are not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat.
Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use, therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor, for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is to be combined with foods ofpronounced flavor, i.e.foods whose flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may be substituted with satisfactory results.
(b)Oleomargarinis a combination of several different fats. It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral (i.e.carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butter and cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin is highly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the market.
The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the composition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat prepared as a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at market and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin.
(c)Nut Margarinis also a mixture of various fats. It usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil.
(d)Meat Fats.—The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or "rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from trying out the fat from around the kidneys is calledleaf lard; ordinary lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former is considered of superior quality.
Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also tried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat—cooked or uncooked—as well as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be saved and used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so cannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials (seeMutton). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup and drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and other uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out.
(e)Vegetable Oils.—The oil from cottonseed, corn, and peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oil is also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Its food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "olive flavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oils are bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most persons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor is disagreeable.
FAT COMBINATIONS.—Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of fats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may be combined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteing and frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such as butter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat.
1 cupful salt codfish 4 small potatoes 1 egg 1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare the potatoes. Cook the fish and thewholepotatoes together in gently boiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain and shake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, and salt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls, mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six balls at one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White or Cheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls.
The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, must be soaked or cooked in water.
Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water before cooking?
Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are cooked?
If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to the water when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave the potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is it especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying?
What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on being heated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be fried?
What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measure of a package?
EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.—Pour a little corn or cottonseed oil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube. Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to the top? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from this concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water?
EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.—In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2 tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. What familiar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute. Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in an emulsified condition.
BREAKING UP OF FATS.—Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found in the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote 41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which acts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic juice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote 42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acid properties.] and glycerin.
During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules which do not coalesce.
When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat in an emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises to the top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several different substances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify fats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in Experiment 36.)
If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soap comes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formed by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty acids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thus formed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat is broken up into fatty acids and glycerin.
FRYING AND DIGESTION.—Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats, but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer time in the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances.
When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed and irritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances are absorbed by foods which are browned in fats.
It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into foods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fat when sauted (i.e.browning in a small quantity of fat) than when fried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have the fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as possible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (see Experiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned food drained on paper.
Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use of an excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils in sauces, dressings, and pastry.
CROQUETTES.—Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fish mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. These food mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes are usually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed into cones.
Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be "dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead of frying in deep fat.
Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals commonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick White Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably contain a starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, it is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that the starch may be as stiff as possible.
1 pint mashed potatoes Celery salt 2 tablespoonfuls butter Onion juice Cayenne 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg-yolk or 1/2 egg
Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then into cylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (seeFried Oysters). Fry in deep fat until brown.
How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of boiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite for heating fat (seeCaramelized Sugar)?
What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (seeExperiment 32)?
What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried?How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"?
How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing PotatoCroquettes?
If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, what ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted?
BAKINGVS.FRYING.—Foods fried under the most ideal conditions and in the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried, especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat.
Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked instead of fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the fried food. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before serving.
Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes.
Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the cleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process of baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying.
3/4 cupful rice 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 teaspoonful salt
Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak for several hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils. Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water). (Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce of the following ingredients:
4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt Dash pepper 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful milk
To 2/3 of the White Sauce add:
Cooked rice 1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped 1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped
(Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of CheeseSauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets.
Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for FriedOysters.
Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of the cutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot with the following sauce:
Remainder of the White Sauce 3/4 cupful milk 1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces 1 pimento chopped
Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat and stir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hot over the cutlets.
FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.—The housekeeper who endeavors to waste no food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food. Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-making is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial days.
The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should, however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using in the preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.)
Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fat and lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. A commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeper does not.
Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the time consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it is a saving to make soap at home.
1 can Babbit's lye 1 quart cold water 6 pounds clarified fat 2 tablespoonfuls ammonia
Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirring with a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting the lye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye, the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool.
Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Then remove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it. Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia and continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick cream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a granite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces of suitable size.
The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap.
NOTE.—If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in the classroom. The following recipe may be used:
1 teaspoonful lye 4 teaspoonfuls cold water 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1/8 teaspoonful ammonia
Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cup of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box.
How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the former takes a longer time to cook than the latter (seePolished and Unpolished Rice).
Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for serving, while fried croquettes do not.
State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them. Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at home?
No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is an absence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to be overlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. The basis of all good manners is tact,i.e.a kindly consideration of others. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well as at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the pleasure of one's associates in the dining room.
Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend ease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been established by custom and long usage.
THE CHAIR.—If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just touches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair when taking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair until the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair to assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of the chair.
THE KNIFE AND FORK.—There is but one "right" way to hold the knife or fork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of the knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the handle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almost cover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the blade of the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife is held in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreading butter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader, is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, it should be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partly on the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest at the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is talking.
[Illustration: FIGURE 35—HOW TO HOLD THE KNIFE AND FORK.]
The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. It should be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with the knife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. It used to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in lifting food to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the right hand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method of keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now accepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and used for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle should be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen is held.
When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placed together on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. At the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in the center of the plate.
[Illustration: Figure 36—Keeping the Fork in the Left Hand to Carry Food to the Mouth]
THE FORK AND SPOON—Since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey food, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The fork should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods, such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts served with cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be used for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads, and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it is sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cut lettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into pieces before it is served.
For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not for sipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer (see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side—not the tip—of the spoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup, there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from, rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38).
[Illustration: FIGURE 37—THE TEASPOON SHOULD REST ON THE SAUCER]
THE FINGERS.—Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. The serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork or a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, and wafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread should not be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece of bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. If cake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cut into pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are taken with the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be taken from the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are provided for the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with the knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holding corn served on the cob.
[Illustration: FIGURE 38.—HOW TO HOLD THE SOUPSPOON.]
Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible the hostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruit may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled, scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, are served whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quarter should be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves and eaten with a spoon.
THE NAPKIN.—When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spread entirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to be present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if, however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home for but one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding.
QUIET EATING.—Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrain from talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lips are kept closed while chewing.
Cook and serve a breakfast.
The following is a suggestive menu:
Breakfast Cereal with Dried FruitBaked Fish Balls with White SauceToast—ButterCoffee
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see Lesson XXX).
Cooked Fruit,—fresh or driedCreamed ToastCoffee
See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats which are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3 or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use, weigh it.
Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with Cheese Sauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a substitute for meat.
(1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the cost of an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you have saved by making soap at your home.
(2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute sufficient to serve the family.
EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the egg lessons came in the mid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs is reasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerning the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and the cooking of eggs take place later in the year.]
PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.—An automobile requires not only fuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuel but building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foods considered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is another great class of foods, or foodstuffs—those included under the termprotein—that not only give energy to the body but also build up or promote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building and repairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from an automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and repairing.
The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth is completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live and maintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing away of some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing the foodstuff, protein.
Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, having different properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the body and support life, while others are growth promoting but not life supporting, while still others are only life supporting.
The first type of protein is sometimes calledcompleteprotein, while the two latter types are calledincompleteprotein. In food study and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food contains protein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete. The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods containing the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fish contain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certain cereals contain incomplete proteins.
A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows:
EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.—Put the white of an egg in a dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Then place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat. Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat?
When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white calledalbuminstiffens orcoagulates. The yolk also contains a kind of protein which coagulates when heated.
EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.—Put a small portion of the broken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Then turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch the filtrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear?
Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albumin was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the tube? Explain.
EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.—Place a teaspoonful of white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube and place the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the watergradually. Note and record: (a) Temperature at which coagulation first appears. (b) Temperature at which the egg white is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point when the egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw from this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked?
EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.—Removeat onceabout half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment 39. Examine it and press it between the fingers.
Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing the water to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press it between the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling point of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which do you consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning the temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and palatable?
DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.—The experiments of this lesson show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those cooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender egg more wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below the boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in boiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digested as the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of little importance.
[Illustration: FIGURE 39.—APPARATUS TO DETERMINE THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICHEGGS COAGULATE.]
But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, the difference inpalatabilityis worth some attention. If soft-cooked and soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to be much more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm, while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is raw.
STRUCTURE OF EGGS.—A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk, and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the young chicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white membrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins to spoil.
CARE AND USE OF EGGS.—(a) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote 45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents the entrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they are to be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee.
(b) Keep eggs in a cool place.
(c) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by covering with cold water.
(d) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or decompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in the shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains microorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out of them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran, sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass.
(e) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, break each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest.
(f) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bit of white clinging to the inside of the shell.
TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.—(a) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (b) Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is stale.
Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover, and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes.
The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. The time depends upon:
(a) Temperature of the eggs.
(b) Number of eggs cooked.
(c) Quantity of water used.
(d) Place on the stove.
One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce the desired results.
By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table.
HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The Hard-cooked Eggs prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggs of the following lesson.]—Place eggs in cold water and heat the water gradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire at once; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20 minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily.
Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked, allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer.
Eggs may also be hard-cooked in thedouble boiler. Put boiling water in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in the top part and cook 40 minutes.
If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to cause distress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well to chop them fine and mix them with some other food (seeGoldenrod Eggs). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive disturbances to the normal person.
Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point?Explain your answer.
Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-cookedrather than hard- or soft-boiled?
THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.—It was mentioned previously that proteins are made up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins are calledamino acids. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteins are not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the various proteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity.
When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finally separated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finally absorbed and carried to all parts of the body.
The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the intestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloric acid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsin of the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change protein into soluble forms.
Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings in the pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it into a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the water will keep hotbut not boil. Pour a spoonful of the hot water on each yolk occasionally.
Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a film covers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast, and serve at once.
An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water in the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once into the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separating into pieces.
Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather than in water.
3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 3/4 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 6 pieces of toast Parsley
Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make a White Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whites to the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through a strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the toast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.
If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dip the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted water before adding the sauce (seeCream Toast).
Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the yolks of eggs that are being poached?
Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be more easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, andSolution and Digestion).
TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.—An egg is sometimes broken by cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the edge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been found satisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white and yolk.
Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbs together at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gently break the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from one part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge into a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg.
Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,—the Dover egg beater and the wire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally dropped into a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate.
TO BEAT AN EGG.—When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw the spoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and lifting the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke. Egg whites are beatenstiffwhen the impression made by the beater is retained; and they are beatendry, when the gloss has disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks are beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than before beating.
TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.—Pour the beaten egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with a tablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them over the whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly.
EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.—Break an egg into a bowl. What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoon beat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What has been beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beaten and an unbeaten egg?
(Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.)
EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITH A WIRE SPOON.—Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover egg beaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is the difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different utensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs? Which contains the more air?
EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.—Separate an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover egg beater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Which becomes lighter when beaten,—a whole or a separated egg? From this explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before beating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible.
(Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.)
4 eggs 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1 teaspoonful butter
Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs and add the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return the whole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When the mixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the double boiler and serve at once.
For economy, the butter may be omitted.
4 eggs 4 tablespoonfuls milk or water 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggs until creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in an omelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cookslowly, occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When the omelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot oven for a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately.
[Illustration: FIGURE 40—METHOD OF HOLDING PAN TO TURN AN OMELET ON TO APLATTER]
TO FOLD AN OMELET—Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Make a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right angles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself away from the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand, placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from you. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40).
How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning the effect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the method given above for Scrambled Eggs.
What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet?
Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly.
What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"?
What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet?
How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggs and Foamy Omelet?
3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk Pepper 4 eggs 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate thewhites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the WhiteSauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve asFoamy Omelet.
Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan, pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and golden brown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked.
MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.—Mix and cook a Foamy or White Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it while cooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cook and then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet.
Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to the sauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat with either omelet.
Foamy Omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk. Tomato sauce may be served with either of these omelets.
Sweet Omelet may be made as follows: Add 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar to the Foamy Omelet mixture; after cooking, spread with softened jelly; after folding, sprinkle with powdered sugar. Use 1/2 cupful of jelly for the Foamy Omelet recipe.
Why is the White Sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in White SauceOmelet?
Point out the most important differences between a Foamy and a White SauceOmelet.
What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in omelets?
What is the purpose of beating eggs?
What are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry?
What are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk?
MILK, AN INVALUABLE FOOD.—It has been said that there is no one foodexcept milkwhich cannot be eliminated from the diet. Milk is the only food for which there are no easily found substitutes. The housekeeper or one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily, if possible, a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child under ten years. She should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely used either as a beverage or in cooked foods. If one must economize in foods,less should be spent for meat, and more for milk.
Although more than 4/5 of milk is water, it contains only a little more water than do potatoes and lean meat. The value of milk is due to the fact that it contains: (a)Proteins of "excellent quality." An authority on diet says [Footnote 48: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," by McCollum, p. 74.]: "There can be no doubt that the proteins of milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetable sources." The most important protein existing in milk is calledcasein.
Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has a peculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milk sours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acid causes the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzyme occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach.
(b)Valuable ash. Lime which is so essential to bodybuilding is one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United States Food Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime is calcium oxide.)
[Illustration]
(c)Vitamines. These are substances contained only in certain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk is rich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven).
Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs in milk is shown by the following:
(a) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle of milk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry. What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper?
(b) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to blood temperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, seeJunket Custard). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stir until the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until it is clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filter paper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remains in the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")?
(c) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare a solution of Rochelle salts,—175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams of sodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solution of copper sulphate,—57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimeters of water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 part of the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4 parts of water. Boil the mixture.
This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by using a "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] in a flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from (b) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixture change? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this test indicate that milk contains?
(d) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (b) in a custard cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. What foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue?
(e) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during evaporation?
(f) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines.
EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.—Fill the lower part of a double boiler one third full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of the double boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutes examine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explain why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold water, and then washed in warm water.
Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible to boil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk to make cocoa and chocolate.)
The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Less change, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is also apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessary to boil milk to sterilize it.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. The latter grow in pods,—the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure 41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, and roasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans.
Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate. In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered chocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the fat is removed.
Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. These materials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the beverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. But in addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoa and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentage of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in addition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes no ill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys.
Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are very finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas.
[Illustration: FIGURE 41.—CACAO PODS.]
When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others, but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should be blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory and practical method of accomplishing this is to make asmooth pasteof chocolate and boiling water.
To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling temperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of the cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolate beverage causes the fat to separate and float.
1/4 cupful cocoa 3 cupfuls milk 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch 1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milk and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt. Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired.
Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn- starch may be omitted entirely.
2 squares chocolate 3 cupfuls milk 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water. Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth. Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to the chocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Add salt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beat well. Serve hot.
Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use of whipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively rich in fat.
What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? How can one determine when milk is scalded?
If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually better to scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled?
What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest and when lowest?
If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolate beverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not be boiled after adding the hot milk.
Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (seeFlavoring Extracts)?
What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in an ordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake?
How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the price per box?
See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounce of chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the difference in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa?
WHIPPING CREAM.—A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip it. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold,i.e.surrounded with ice water during the beating process.
To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the following:
EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL AND EARTHENWARE.—Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same size and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in each utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes, take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware utensil. Which is colder? Through which material,—tin or earthenware,—is heat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice water for whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain your answer.
Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream "spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is very satisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered with paper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper, insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream and push the paper down to cover.
Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it is possible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the other constituents, and formbutter. For making butter the cream should be "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then be churned.
On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not to form butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. To accomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat) from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amount of lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Cream may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by surrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safer not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while whipping.
A harmless substance calledviscogenmay be added to thinner cream (i.e.the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latter whip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients:
1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.]
Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and add the milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using. Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directed above.
COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.—Cream is richer in fat than milk, average cream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. But cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk.
Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting to compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for the same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in different places, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk. The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two quantities:
In 1 quart of milk[Footnote 52: By permission Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).]
As much protein as in 5 eggs 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar
In 1/2 pint of cream
As much protein as in 1 egg 3 tablespoonfuls of fat 1/2 tablespoonful of sugar
Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat than does 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more of sugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparison makes us question the advisability of buying much cream.
If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place of cream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milk contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has as much protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole and skim milk is advised.
CARE OF MILK.—Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care, and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy farm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth of microscopic vegetable organisms, calledbacteria(seeWhy Foods Spoil). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce changes in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease- producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk.
Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by:
(a) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm.
(b) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and by keeping it cool.
(c) Placing it in sterilized utensils.
(d) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust.
Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth, bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, and placed in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not be used after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milk in small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle should be washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odors and flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strong odor or flavor.
3/4 cupful cooked rice 3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces 3/4 cupful powdered sugar 1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped
Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple, shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded and cut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert.
1 quart milkor1 quart milk and water 1/3 cupful rice 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar Grated rind of 1/2 lemon
Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding dish. Bake in aslowoven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usually takes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally.
If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1 teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon rind.
From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain whyCream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven.
What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during long cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during long cooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a little rice forms a solid mixture.
What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream?
What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream?
What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased?
Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk (seeCare of Milk).
Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled?