[3]
A paper read before the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania, Dec. 10, 1884.
In carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately, I found that it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the flames of the standard candles always at their proper distance from the light to be measured, because the wick was continually changing its position (of course carrying the flame with it), and thus practically lengthening or shortening the scale of the photometer, according as the flame was carried nearer to or farther from the light at the other end of the scale. In order, therefore, to obtain a correct idea of the extent to which this variation of the position of the wick might influence the readings of the photometer scale, I took a continuous number of photographs of the flame of a candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught; no other person being in it during the experiment except a photographer, who placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed camera, and changed them after an exposure of 30 seconds. In doing this he was careful to keep close to the camera, and disturb the air of the room as little as possible. In front of the candle a plumb-line was suspended, and remained immovable over its center during the whole operation. The candle was allowed to get itself into a normal state of burning, and then the wick was aligned, as shown in the photographs Nos. 1 and 2, after which it was left to itself.
VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.
VARIATION IN PHOTOMETRICAL STANDARDS.
With these photographs (represented in the cuts) I beg to hand you full-sized drawings of the scales of a 100 inch Evans and a 60 inch Letheby photometer, in order to give your readers an opportunity of estimating for themselves the effect which such variations from the true distance between the standard light and that to be measured, as shown in this series of photographs, must exercise on photometrical observations made by the aid of either of the instruments named.
W. SUGG.
Many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of textile fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions, with which they require to be treated, by carrying out the treatment in vacuo,i.e., in such apparatus as shall allow of the air being withdrawn. The apparatus shown in the annexed engraving—Austrian Pat. Jan. 15, 1884—although not essentially different from those already in use, embodies, theJournal of the Society of Chemical Industrysays, some important improvements in detail. It consists of a drum A, the sides of which are constructed of stout netting, carried on a vertical axis working through a stuffing-box, which is fitted in the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir B. The air can be exhausted from B by means of an air pump. A contains a central division P, also constructed of netting, into which is inserted the extremity of the tube R, after being twice bent at a right angle. P is also in direct connection with the efflux tube E, E and R serving to convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the reservoir C. The combination of the rotary motion communicated to A, which contains the goods to be dyed or bleached, with the very thorough penetration and circulation of the liquids effected by means of the vacuum established in B, is found to be eminently favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the dye or bleach.
The operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over other methods of shaping porcelain, for by this process we avoid irregularities of form, twisting, and visible seams, and can manufacture thin pieces, as well as pieces of large dimensions, of a purity of form that it is impossible to obtain otherwise.
The method of moulding small objects has been described with sufficient detail in technical works, but such is not the case with regard to large ones, and for this reason it will be of interest to quote some practical observations from a note that has been sent me by Mr. Constantine Renard, who, for several years, has had the superintendence of the moulding rooms of the Sevres works.
The process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste, thinned with water, into very dry plaster moulds. This mixture gradually hardens against the porous sides with which it is in contact, and, when the thickness of the hardened layer is judged sufficient, the mould is emptied by inverting it. The excess of the liquid paste is thus eliminated, while the thicker parts remain adherent to the plaster. Shortly afterward, the absorption of the water continuing, the paste so shrinks in drying as to allow the object to detach itself from the mould. As may be seen, nothing is simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions; but the same is not the case when we have to mould a large one. In this case we cannot get rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside down, because of the latter's size, and, on another hand, it is necessary to take special precautions against the subsidence of the paste. Recourse is therefore had to another method. In the first place, an aperture is formed in the lower part of the mould through which the liquid may flow at the desired moment. Afterward, in order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft paste from settling under its own weight at this moment, it is supported by directing a current of compressed air into the mould, or, through atmospheric pressure, by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in which the mould is inclosed.
The history and description of these processes have been several times given, and I shall therefore not dwell upon them, but shall at once proceed to make known the new points that Mr. Renard has communicated to me.
The first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's attention is the preparation of the plaster moulds. When it concerns an object of large dimensions, of a vase a yard in height, for example, the moulder is obliged to cut the form or core horizontally into three parts, each of which is moulded separately. To this effect, it is placed upon a core frame and surrounded with a cylinder of sheet zinc. The workman pours the plaster into the space between the latter and the core, and, while doing so, must stir the mass very rapidly with a stick, so that at the moment the plaster sets, it shall be as homogeneous as possible. In spite of such precautions, it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of the plaster from depositing first, through the action of gravity. These will naturally precipitate upon the table or upon the slanting sides of the core, and the mould will therefore present great inequalities as regards porosity. Since this defect exists in each of the pieces that have been prepared in succession, it will be seen that when they come to be superposed for the moulding of the piece, the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of different porosities, which will absorb water from the paste unequally. Farther along we shall see the inconveniences that result from this, and the manner of avoiding them.
FIG. 1
FIG. 1
The mould, when finished, is dried in a stove. Under such circumstances it often happens that there forms upon the surface of the plaster a hard crust which, although it is of no importance as regards the outside of the mould, is prejudicial to the interior because it considerably diminishes its absorbing power. This trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces that it is necessary to preserve with clear liquid paste; but Mr. Renard advises that the mould be closed hermetically, so that the interior shall be kept from contact with warm air. In this way it is possible to prevent the plaster from hardening, as a result of too quick a desiccation. I now come to the operation of moulding. In the very first place, it is necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt the arrangement by pressure of air or by vacuum. The form of the objects will determine the choice. A very open piece, like a bowl, must be moulded by vacuum, on account of the difficulty of holding the closing disk in place if it be of very large dimensions. The same is the case with large vases of wood form. On the contrary, an elongated piece tapering from above is more easily moulded by pressure of the air, as are also ovoid vessels 16 to 20 inches in height. In any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is adapted to it, because this process permits of following and directing the drying, while with pressure it is impossible to see anything when once the apparatus is closed.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 2.
Moulding by Pressure of the Air.—The plaster mould having been put in place upon the mould board, and the liquid paste having been long and thoroughly stirred in order to make it homogeneous, and get rid of the air bubbles, we open the cock that puts the paste reservoir in communication with the lower part of the mould, care having been taken beforehand to pour a few pints of water into the bottom of the mould. The paste in ascending pushes this water ahead of it, and this slightly wets the plaster and makes the paste rise regularly. When the mould is entirely filled, the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the upper level, and, spreading out over the entire thickness of the plaster, forms a sort of thick flange. The absorption of the liquid begins almost immediately, and, consequently, the level lowers. A new quantity of paste is introduced, and we continue thus, in regulating its flow so as to keep the mould always full. This operation is prolonged until the layer is judged to be sufficiently thick, this depending upon the dimensions, form, or construction of the vessel. The operation may take from one to five hours.
The desired thickness having been obtained, it becomes a question of allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to support the piece by air pressure. The flange spoken of above is quickly cut, and the paste is made to rise again for the last time, in order to form a new flange, but one that this time will be extremely thin; then a perforated disk designed for forming the top joint, and acting as a conduit for the air, is placed upon the mould. This disk is fastened down with a screw press, and when the apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened, and the air pump maneuvered.
If the flange did not exist, the air would enter between the mould and the piece at the first strokes of the piston, and the piece would be inevitably broken. Its object, then, is to form a hermetical joint, although it must at the same time present but a slight resistance, since, as soon as the liquid paste has flowed out, the piece begins to shrink, and it is necessary that at the first movement downward it shall be able to disengage itself, since it would otherwise crack.
As soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the air enters the apparatus, and the pressure gauge connected with the air pump begins to lower. It is then necessary, without a moment's loss of time, to remove the screw press, the disk, and the upper part of the mould itself, in order to facilitate as much as possible the contraction of the piece. Finally, an hour or an hour and a half later, it is necessary to remove the lower part of the mould, this being done in supporting the entire affair by the middle. The piece and what remains of the mould are, in reality, suspended in the air. All these preparations are designed to prevent cracking.
Moulding by Vacuum.—The operation by vacuum follows the same phases as those just described. It is well, in order to have a very even surface, not to form a vacuum until about three hours after the paste has been made to ascend. Without such a precaution the imperfections in the mould will be shown on the surface of the object by undulations that are irremediable.
The first flange or vein must be preserved, and it is cut off at the moment the piece is detached.
Moulding by vacuum, aside from the advantages noted above, permits of giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained in the pressure process. According to Mr. Renard, when it is desired to exceed one inch at the base of the piece (the maximum thickness usually obtained), the operation is as follows: The piece is moulded normally, and it is supported by a vacuum; but, at the moment at which, under ordinary circumstances, it would be detached, the paste is made to ascend a second time, when the first layer (already thick and dry) acts as a sort of supplementary mould, and permits of increasing the thickness by about â…– of an inch. The piece is held, as at first, by vacuum, and the paste is introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained.
Whatever be the care taken, accidents are frequent in both processes. They are due, in general, to the irregular contraction of the pieces, caused by a want of homogeneousness in the plaster of the moulds. In fact, as the absorption of the water does not proceed regularly over the entire surface of the piece, zones of dry paste are found in contact with others that are still soft, and hence the formation of folds, and finally the cracking and breaking of the piece. The joints of the moulds are also a cause of frequent loss, on account of the marks that they leave, and that injure the beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile.
Mr. Renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences. He takes unglazed muslin, cuts it into strips, and, before beginning operations, fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of the mould. This light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of the water, and so the operation goes on as usual; but, at the moment of contraction, the piece of porcelain being, so to speak, supported by the muslin, comes put of the mould more easily and with extreme regularity. Under such circumstances all trace of the joint disappears, the imperfections in the mould are unattended with danger, and the largest pieces are moulded with entire safety. In a word, we have here a very important improvement in the process of moulding. The use of muslin is to be recommended, not only in the manufacture of vases, but also in the difficult preparation of large porcelain plates. It is likewise advantageous in the moulding of certain pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate, and, finally, it is very useful when we have to do with a damaged mould, which, instead of being repaired with plaster, can be fixed with well ground wet sand covered with a strip of muslin.
Drying of the Moulded Pieces.—When the moulded pieces become of a proper consistency in the mould, they are exposed to the air and then taken to the drying room. But, as with plaster, the surface of the paste dries very quickly, and this inconvenience (which amounts to nothing in pieces that are to be polished) is very great in pieces that carry ornaments in relief, since the finishing of these is much more difficult, the hardened paste works badly, and frequently flakes off. In order to remedy this inconvenience, it suffices to dust the places to be preserved with powdered dry paste.—Revue Industrielle.
A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.
A PHOTO-TRICYCLE APPARATUS.
This consists of a portable folding camera, with screw focusing arrangement, swing back, and an adapter frame placed in the position of the focus screen, allowing the dark slide to be inserted so as to give the horizontal or vertical position to the dry plate when in the camera. To the front and base-board a brass swiveled side bar, made collapsible by means of a center slot, is attached by hinges, and this renders the camera rigid when open or secure when closed. The base-board is supported on a brass plate within which is inserted a ball-and-socket (or universal joint in a new form), permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary angle, and fixed in such position at will. The whole apparatus is mounted upon a brass telescopic draw-stand, which, by means of clamps, is attached to the steering handle or other convenient part of the tricycle, preferably the form made by Messrs. Rudge & Co., of Coventry, represented in the cut.—Photo. News.
A printing frame is placed in the carrier, and exposed to the light of a gas burner kept at a fixed distance, behind which is a spherical reflector. The same frame may be used for other purposes.-Photographic News.
A selenium actinometer has been described in theComptes Rendusin a communication from M. Morize, of Rio de Janeiro. The instrument is used to measure the actinic power of sunlight when the sun is at various altitudes; but the same principle is applicable to other light sources. The sensitive part of the apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of 38 disks of copper, isolated from each other by as many disks of mica. The latter being of smaller diameter than the copper disks, the annular spaces between the two are filled with selenium, by the simple process of rubbing a stick of this substance over the edges, and afterward gently warming. The selenium then presents a grayish appearance, and is ready for use. Connection is made by conductors, on opposite sides, with the odd and even numbers of the disks, which diminishes the resistance of the selenium. The cylinder thus formed is insulated by glass supports in the inside of a vacuum tube, for the purpose of preserving it from the disturbing influence of dark rays. The whole is placed upon a stand, and shielded from reflected light, but fully exposed to that which is to be measured for actinic intensity. If now a constant current of electricity is passed through the apparatus, as indicated by a galvanometer, the variations of the latter will show the effect produced upon the selenium. A scale must be prepared, with the zero point at the greatest possible resistance of the selenium, which corresponds with absolute darkness. The greatest effect of the light would be to annul the resistance of the selenium. Consequently, the cylinder must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent this effect; and the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be observed, and marked 100. By dividing the range of the galvanometer thus obtained into 100 equal parts, the requisite actinometric scale will be established. In practice, the Clamond battery is used to supply the constant current required.
During the last few years, or rather decades of years, it has become rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of physical research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of the sister sciences is an absolute necessity. But if this is true in general, none, I think, will question the assertion that a proficient in any of the physical sciences must be fairly conversant with photography as a science, or at least as an art. If we take for example a science which has of late years made rapid strides both in Europe and America, the science of astronomy, we shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a great portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is effected by the aid of photography. One eminent astronomer has quite lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require observers of the heavens, but that their place can be better supplied by the gelatine plate of the photographer; and his words have been echoed by others not less able than himself. "Abolish the observer, and substitute the sensitive plate," is a sensational form of expressing the revolution in observational astronomy that is taking place under our eyes; but, although it suggests a vast amount of truth, it might leave upon the mind an exaggerated impression inimical to the best interests of science.
The award of the highest distinction in astronomy, the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, two years in succession, to those who have been most successful in celestial photography is no doubtful sign of the great value attached to such work. Last year it was Mr. Common who received the highest testimony of the merit due to his splendid photographs of the nebula of Orion; and this year Dr. Huggins, who has drawn much attention to celestial photography, by his successful attempts to picture the solar corona in full daylight, has received a similar acknowledgment of his labors in photographing the spectra of stars and comets and nebulæ.
An adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid of photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all that is being at present attempted; but a rapid glance at some of the work may prepare the way for a more thorough investigation. A few years since, the astronomers who had advanced their science by aid of photography were few in number, and their results are soon enumerated. Some good pictures of the solar corona taken during solar eclipses, a series or two of sun-spot photographs, and a very limited number of successful attempts made upon the moon, and planets, and star clusters, were all the fruits of their labors. But now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in this field, which gives promise of so rich a harvest.
Each day the sun is photographed at Greenwich, at South Kensington, in India, and at the Physical Observatory of Potsdam, and thus a sure record is obtained of all the spots upon its surface, which may serve for the study of the periodicity of its changes, and for their probable connection with the important phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology. In France the splendid sun-pictures obtained by Dr. Janssen at the Physical Observatory of Meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts at a photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar surface.
Dr. Huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily photographic record of the solar prominences, and only lately he has secured results that justified a special expedition to the Alps to photograph the sun's corona, and he has now moved the Admiralty to grant a subsidy to Dr. Gill, the government astronomer at the Cape, by aid of which Mr. Woods can carry on the experiments that were so encouraging last summer in Switzerland.
We may, then, reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily picture of the sun and a photographic record of its prominences, and even of a certain portion of the solar corona; but the precious moments of each solar eclipse will always be invaluable for picturing those wondrous details in the corona that are now shown us by photography, and which can be obtained by photography alone.
Again, how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the marvelous photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer by Professor Rowland; photographs that show as many as one hundred and fifty lines between H and K, and which he is still laboring to improve! The extension, too, of the visible solar spectrum into the ultra-violet by Corun, Mascart, and others, adds much to our knowledge of the sun; while the photographs of Abney in the ultrared increase our information in a direction less expected and certainly less easy of attainment. Both these extensions we find most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very interesting photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the corona taken during the total eclipse of May 18, 1882; and the photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can not only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would be impossible otherwise to procure, but also that in a few seconds information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be furnished by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to accumulate, even under the most favorable circumstances.
The advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon and planets, that will permit great enlargements, are too obvious to call for lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the present; for it is principally in the observation of details that the eye cannot grasp with the required delicacy, or with sufficient rapidity, that photography is so essential for rapid and sure progress.
Like the sketches of a solar eclipse, the drawings that are made of comets, and still more of nebulæ, even by the most accomplished artists, are all, to say the least, open to doubt in their delicate details. And the truth of this is so obvious, that it is the expressed opinion of an able astronomer that a single photograph of the nebula of Orion, taken by Mr. Common, would be of more value to posterity than the collective drawings of this interesting object so carefully made by Rosse, Bond, Secchi, and so many others.
Another most important branch of astronomy, that is receiving very great attention at present, is the mapping of the starry heavens; and herein photography will perhaps do its best work for the astronomer. The trial star map by the brothers Henry, of a portion of the Milky Way, which they felt unable to observe satisfactorily by the ordinary methods, is so near absolute perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the photographic method in the formation of star maps. Fortunately this subject, which is as vast as it is fundamental, is being taken up vigorously. The Henries are producing a special lens for the work; Mr. Grubb is constructing a special Cassgrain reflector for Mr. Roberts of Maghull; and the Admiralty have instructed Mr. Woods to make this part of his work at the Cape Observatory, under the able direction of Dr. Gill. Besides star maps, clusters, too, and special portions of the heavens are being photographed by the Rev. T.E. Espin, of West Kirby; and such pictures will be of the greatest value, not only in fixing the position at a given date, but also aiding in the determination of magnitude, color, variability, proper motion, and even of the orbits of double and multiple stars, and the possible discovery of new planets and telescopic comets.
Such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are receiving the most valuable aid at present from photography; but the very value of the gift that is bestowed should make exaggeration an impossibility. Photography can well afford to be generous, but it must first be just, in its estimate of the work that has still to be done in astronomy independently of its aid; and although the older science points with just pride to what is being done for her by her younger sister, still she must not forget that now, as in the future, she must depend largely for her progress, not only on the skill of the photographer and the mathematician, but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her own indefatigable observers.—S.J. Perry, S.J., F.R.S., in Br. Jour. of Photography.
The mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam boilers, and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost danger, resulting in many instances in great injury to life and property, besides eating away the substance of the iron plate, was referred to in a paper lately read by M. Jeannolle before the Paris Academy of Sciences, in which the author described a new method for keeping boilers clean. This method is as follows:
The inside of a steam boiler is placed, by means of piles of a certain power, in reciprocal communication, the current passing at one end through positive, and at the other through negative, wires. In incrusted steam boilers, at a temperature ranging from 212° to 300° Fahr., and a pressure of from 30 to 90 lb. to the square inch, the current thus engendered decomposes the accumulated salts, and precipitates them, from which they may easily be removed, either by means of a special siphon or by means of some other mechanical process. When boilers are free from fur, and where it is intended to keep them free from such, a continuous current may be set up, by means of which the sedimentary salts may be decomposed, and a precipitate produced in a pulverized form, which can be removed with equal facility.
From a series of minute experiments made by M. Jeannolle, it appears that in order to render the various actions of electricity, perfect, it is necessary to coat either with red lead or with pulverized iron, or with any other conductor of electricity, an operation which must be repeated whenever the boiler is emptied with a view to cleaning out. The above system Is being advantageously applied in Calais for removing the incrustations of boilers. The two poles of a battery of ten to twelve Bunsen elements are applied to the ends of the boilers, and after thirty to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom. When a boiler has been thus cleared, the formation of new deposits may be prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the same conditions.
SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.—ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.
SUGGESTIONS IN DECORATIVE ART.—ALPHABET DESIGNED BY GODFREY SYKES.
Among the many designs which have been issued by the South Kensington Museum authorities is the alphabet which we have illustrated here to-day. The letters appear frequently among the decorations of the museum buildings, especially in the refreshment rooms and the Ceramic gallery, where long inscriptions in glazed terra cotta form ornamental friezes. The alphabet has also been engraved to several sizes, and is used for the initial letters in the various official books and art publications relating to the museum, which are published by the Science and Art Department.—Building News.
OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE
OLD WROUGHT IRON GATE
This gate forms the entrance to Scraptoft Hall, a building of the eighteenth century, now the seat of Captain Barclay, and which stands at about five miles from Leicester, England.—The Architect.
I am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best practice, for I am not sure there are any definitely established rules; therefore I can only explainmyways of doing such work, which, though I try to make as complete and at the same time as simple as possible, I know to be far from perfect.
Plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my landscape gardening, and not finding any texts or practice that seemed wholly satisfactory, I have been forced to devise new arrangements from time to time, according to the requirements of the case in hand.
To give all the details of house plumbing this evening, or anyoneevening, would be impossible, for lack of time, and not worth while even if there was time, as much of it would prove matter of little or no interest. I will confine my remarks, therefore, to certain elements of the work where my practice differs, I believe, essentially from that of most engineers, and where perhaps my experience, if of no assistance to other members of the Society, may excite their friendly criticism in such a way as to help me.
There are two kinds of country places that I am liable to be called upon to prescribe for:
First.A new place where nothing has been arranged.
Second.An old place where the occupants have been troubled either by their outside arrangements or by fixtures or pipes within.
Under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two acres of land in some inland town, where the family intends to live but six months in the year, though they are liable to reside there the whole twelve.
There are no sewers and no public water. The soil is a stiff, retentive clay, rather wet in spring. The desire is expressed to have plumbing and drainage that shall be as inexpensive as possible, but that shall be entirely safe.
In considering the arrangements inside the house, I find myself in the same predicament as the French surgeon, a specialist upon setting the bones of the arm, who, when a patient was brought him with his right arm broke, expressed his sorrow at being unable to be of assistance, as his specialty was the left arm.
I have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing, but confess to only knowing partially about the wastes; the supplies I do not feel competent to pass upon.
One class of annoyance caused by plumbing, perhaps the principal one, is due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings.
Second quality of iron, poor hanging, insufficient calking, careless mechanics, putty, cement, rag, or paper joints—all these and a dozen other things are liable to be sources of trouble. Subordinate wastes are apt to be annoying, occasionally, too, to a less extent.
The mechanical work can always be superintended, and within certain limits may be made secure and tight; not so easy, however, with the materials.
There is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes, within a building, of anything but metal.
Earthen tile is frequently used; also, to a limited extent, brick, stone, and wood; twice I have found canvas—all these, however, are inferior, and should never be accepted or specified. The writer believes that at the present time, hereabouts, lead and iron are more used for wastes than any other materials, and are found the most satisfactory on the whole.
One or two arrangements, relative to the wastes, I have made use of that are not, so far as known, in general use, and that may not be the best, though they have served me many good turns, and I have not succeeded in devising any better.
Soil pipe, as it is usually put in, is apt to be of cast iron, four inches in diameter, and is known in the market as "heavy" or "extra heavy." For some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe has been the favorite, as being the more reliable, the writer in common with others making use of the same freely, until one day a cracked elbow, tar coated, was detected. Since that time plain, untarred pipe has been specified, and subjected to the so-called kerosene test, which consists of swabbing out each pipe with kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours. A moment's thought will convince any one that when a pipe is asphalted or tar coated it is very difficult to detect either sand holes or small cracks, and the difficulty of proper calking is increased, as lead does not cling so well to the tar as to plain iron.
At present, the kerosene test, so far as the writer is concerned, is a misnomer, because raw linseed oil is used exclusively as giving more satisfactory results, and being less troublesome to apply.
I have here a length of the ordinary "heavy 4" commercial soil pipe, plain, and selected at random. Yesterday noon I had it oiled at my office, in order to be ready for to-night, and you see, by the chalk marks I have made, just where the leaks were and their area. I may say here that a sound pipe of this caliber and standard weight is the exception rather than the rule, and it was selected for this experiment merely to try and show the reaction a little better than the heavier pipe might.
Experiments of this nature I have carried along for the past two years, and I am glad to say that, since I began, the quality of the soil pipe furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably better than at first. Whether the poorer pipe is still made and sold to other customers I have no means of knowing; probably it is, however.
A large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my suggestion by the Superintendent of Construction of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, at Baltimore. I have not yet heard the results from him, but doubtless they will be interesting. A brief summary of the results may be of some interest.
The different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers hereabouts are:
Mott & Company, Abendroth, Blakslee, Dighton, Phillips & Weeden, and Bartlett, Hayward & Co.
On 4" extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows:
5" pipe extra heavy:
It has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does away with the necessity of any such test as the oil; while I am not prepared to acknowledge or deny the statement, it is well known that much poor pipe is tar-coated and sold in the market as good, and when coated it is almost impossible to detect any butverydefective work.
The price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe, either "heavy" or "extra heavy," is very high indeed, even taking off the discounts, and amounts (as I figure it) to $70 per long ton for 4" pipe. The present rate for the best water pipe of the same caliber is about $38 (now $29) per long ton, and the additional charge for soil pipe should guarantee the very best iron in the market, though it appears to be rarely furnished.
It is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a 50-pound water pressure. I beg leave to question the absolute truth of this, unless it be acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately, whether it bears the test or not, for more than once I have found a single length of soil pipe (5 feet) that could not bear the pressure of a column of water of its own height without leaking.
Having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings, the next trouble comes with the lead calking. Unfortunately, it is frequently found that very shallow joints are made instead of deep ones, and hard lead used instead of soft. My rule is, soft lead, two runnings and two calkings. By soft lead I mean pig lead, and by hard lead I mean old pipe and scrap lead that may have been melted a dozen times. Incidentally it may be remarked that it is quite difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe; the process will crack the hub.
The fixtures used in a house are of minor importance—there are dozens of good patterns of every class. If they are carefully put in, and provided with suitable traps placed just as close to the fixture as possible, the result will usually be satisfactory.
Very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the fixtures they serve as they might be, and yet a very short length of untrapped pipe, when fouled, will sometimes smell dreadfully. A set bowl with trap two feet away may become in time a great nuisance if not properly used. A case in point where the fixture was used both as a bowl and a urinal was in a few months exceedingly offensive—a fact largely (though not wholly) due to its double service.
I have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same water-closets, bowls, faucets, traps, etc.
Of course, the soil pipe will be carried, of full size, through the roof, and sufficiently high to clear all windows.
Avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes; cut off all fixtures not used at least twice a week, lest their traps dry out; have all plumbing as simple as possible, and try and get it all located so that outside air can be got directly into all closets and bath-rooms. As far as possible, set your fixtures in glass rather than tiles or wood. Carry the lower end of the main drain at least five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building, of cast iron.
Let us now look at the outside work. The main drain (carrying everything except the kitchen and pantry sinks) goes through a ventilated running trap. An indirect fresh air inlet is provided on the house side of the trap (example), to prevent annoyance from puffing or pumping, or, better still, a pipe corresponding to the soil pipe is carried up on the outside of the house.
The running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as the main drain (4 inch), and serve as a main drain vent also. Carry this pipe on the outside of the house as high as the top of the chimney.
A grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry sinks. Formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles; it is now to put in Portland cement traps (Henderson pattern), though perhaps I may succeed in devising a cast-iron one that will answer better. The brick ones were occasionally heaved by the frost, and cracked; the Portland cement ones answer better, and when thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an appreciable quantity of sewage to be offensive, but are too high priced ($28 each). I have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones, but none as yet that I feel satisfied with.
Beyond the running trap an Akron pipe should convey the sewage to a tank or cesspool.
Our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care of. The worst would be ledge. We have to contend with, however, hard, wet, impervious clay.
The best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land, and then to distribute the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward filtration. This is rather expensive, and a customer is rarely willing to pay the bills for the same. I should always advise it as the best; but where not allowed to do so, I have had fair success with shallow French drains connecting with the tank or cesspool.
Siphon tanks, such as are advised by many sanitarians, that were used first in this country, I believe, by Mr. Waring, I have not been very successful with. Obstructions get into the siphon and stop it up, or it gets choked with grease. I prefer a tight tank, provided with a tell-tale, and that is to be opened either by a valve operated by hand, or that is arranged with a standing overflow like a bath tub, and that can be raised and secured by a hook.
[4]
Read before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, April 1884Journal A. of E. Societies.
"We may live without poetry, music, and art,We may live without conscience, and live without heart,We may live without friends,We may live without books,But civilized man cannot live without cooks."We may live without books—What is knowledge but grieving?We may live without hope—What is hope but deceiving?We may live without love—what is passion but pining?But where is the man that can live without dining?"
"We may live without poetry, music, and art,We may live without conscience, and live without heart,We may live without friends,We may live without books,But civilized man cannot live without cooks.
"We may live without books—What is knowledge but grieving?We may live without hope—What is hope but deceiving?We may live without love—what is passion but pining?But where is the man that can live without dining?"
Thus saith the poet, and forthwith turns the world over into the hands of the cook. And into what better hands could you fall? To you, my fat, jolly, four-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Gourmand, but more especially toyou, my somber, lean, dyspeptic, two-meals-a-day friend, Mr. Grumbler, the cook is indeed a valuable friend. The cook wields a scepter that is only second in power to that of love; and even love has become soured through the evil instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook. This is no jest, it is a very sad fact.
Now, the question arises, how can the cook preserve the health of her patrons, maintain happiness in the family, and yet not throw the gourmands into bankruptcy? Very simple, I assure you.
When one arrives at adult age, he should have learned by experience what articles of fooddo, and what articles of food donot, agree with him, and to shun the latter, no matter how daintily served or how tempting the circumstances. The man who knows thatpates de foie gras, or the livers of abnormally fattened geese, disagree with him, and still eats them, is not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake him.
The cooking of any article of food has evidently much, very much, to do with its digestibility. It is not the purpose of this paper to teach cooking, but merely to give some general hints as to the best as well as the simplest methods of preparing staple articles of food. The same articles of food can and should be prepared differently on each day of the week. Changes of diet are too likely to be underestimated. By constant change the digestive organs in the average person are prevented from having that repulsion of food which, to a greater or less extent, is likely to result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time.
We often hear from our scientific men that this or that article of food is excellent for muscle, another for brain, another for bone, etc., etc. Now, stubborn facts are like stone walls, against which theories often butt out their beauty and their power. It is well known to almost every one nowadays thatwell-cookedfood, whether it be potatoes, meat and bread, fish, or anything else worthy the name of food, will well maintain, indefinitely, either the philosopher or the hodcarrier.
Many of you know, and all of you ought to know, that the principal ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and albumen. Starch is the principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables and breadstuffs. Albumen is the principal ingredient of meats, eggs, milk, and other animal derivatives.
Starch never enters the system as starch, but must first be converted into sugar either in the body or out of it. The process of this transformation of starch into sugar is beautifully exemplified in certain plants, such as the beet, the so-called sugar cane, and other growths. The young plant is, to a great extent, composed of starch; as the plant grows older, a substance is produced which is calleddiastase. Through the influence of thisdiastasethe starch is converted into a peculiar non-crystallizable substance calleddextrine, and as the plant matures, this dextrine is transformed into crystallizable sugar.
"Dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, alkalies, and malt extract, and by roasting it at a temperature between 284° and 330° F., till it is of a light brown color, and has the odor of overbaked bread."
A simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of bread—that sweetish substance that gives the crust its agreeable flavor. Pure dextrine is an insipid, odorless, yellowish-white, translucent substance, which dissolves in water almost as readily as sugar. As stated above, it is easily converted intodextrose, orglucose, as it is usually named.
Thisglucoseis often sold under the name of sugar, and is the same against which so many of the newspapers waged such a war a year or two ago. These critics were evidently, for the most part, persons who knew little about the subject. Glucose, if free from sulphuric acid or other chemicals, is as harmless as any other form of sugar. Most of our candies contain more or less of it, and are in every way as satisfactory as when manufactured wholly from other sugars.
It is, therefore, self-evident that, as sugar is a necessary article of food, the process which aids the transformation of our starchy foods must necessarily aid digestion. Do not understand me to say by this that, if all our starchy foods were converted into sugar, their digestion would thereby be completed. As I stated a moment ago, this sweet food, if taken into the stomach day after day, would soon cause that particular organ to rebel against this sameness of diet. In order the more clearly to illustrate this point, I will briefly show you how some of the every-day articles of food can be each day differently prepared, and thus be rendered more palatable, and, as a consequence, more digestible; for it is a demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested than the same foods unsavored.
The art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an accomplishment in itself. It is very reasonable that all things that go to make up beauty and harmony at the dinner table should add their full quota to the appetite, and, I was about to say, "to the digestion;" but will qualify the statement by saying, to the digestion if the appetite be not porcine.
Our commonest article of food is thepotato. Let us see how potatoes—which contain only twenty per cent. of starch, as against eighty-eight per cent. in rice, and sixty-six per cent. in wheat flour—can be prepared as just mentioned. We will look for a moment at the manner in which they are usually served by the average cook:
1, boiled with their jackets on; 2, roasted in the embers; 3, roasted with meat; 4, fried; 5, mashed; 6, salad.
1. Potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly prepared. But there's the rub. The trouble is, they are too often allowed to boil slowly and too long, and thus become water-soaked, soggy, and solid, and proportionately indigestible. They should be put over a brisk fire, and kept at a brisk boil till done; then drain off the water, sprinkle a little salt over them, and return to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly, when you will find them bursting with their white, mealy contents.
2. Roasted potatoes are general favorites, and very digestible. A more agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot embers (wood fire), care being used to keep them covered with the hot embers.
3. Fried potatoes, as they are very generally served, are almost as digestible as rocks, but not so tempting in all their grease-dripping beauty as the latter. Many of you have doubtless seen the potatoes neatly sliced and dumped into a frying pan full of hot lard, where they were permitted to sink or float, and soak and sob for about a half hour or more. When served, they presented the picturesque spectacle of miniature potato islands floating at liberty in a sea of yellow grease. Now, if any of you can relish and digest such a mess as that, I would advise you to leave this clime, and eat tallow candles with the Esquimaux.
If you are fond of fried potatoes, cook them in this way:
Take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner; when cold, remove the jackets, and cut into thin slices, season with salt, pepper, and a little Cayenne; have ready a hot frying pan, with enough meat drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom; put in the potatoes and fry a rich brown, stirring constantly with a knife to prevent burning. Serve very hot.
4. Mashed potatoes will be discussed further on.
5. Potato salads are appetizing and piquant, because they are usually made up with strong condiments, onions, etc. They are, therefore, not very digestible in themselves. Nevertheless, they are so palatable that we cannot easily dispense with them; but, after eating them, if you expect to have inward peace, either split wood, walk eight and a half miles, or take some other light exercise.
More palatable, and proportionately digestible, are the following methods of cooking this useful vegetable:
1, Saratoga potatoes; 2, a la maitre d'hotel; 3, potato croquettes; 4, potatoes and cream; 5, a la Lyonnaise.
1. ForSaratogas, pare and slice your potatoes as thin as possible, dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a tiny piece of alum to make them crisp. Let them remain in the water for an hour or longer. Drain, and wipe perfectly dry with a tea towel. Have ready a quantity of boiling lard. Drop them in, and fry a delicate brown. Drain all grease from them, sprinkle with salt, and serve. Here, in the crisp slices, you will have the much desired dextrine. Or, in other words, your potato is already half digested. Eat three or four potatoes prepared thus, and you feel no inconvenience; but how would you feel did you devour three soggy, water-soakedboiledpotatoes?
2. Fora la maitre d'hotel, pare the potatoes, cut into pieces half an inch wide, and the length of the potato; drop into cold water until wanted (an hour or so); then drain, and fry in boiling lard. Just as they begin to brown take them out with a skimmer; let them slightly cool; then put back, and fry a rich brown. This makes them puff up, and very attractive.
3. Forcroquettes, take finely mashed potatoes, and mix with salt, pepper, and butter, and sweet milk or cream enough to moisten thoroughly. Mix with this one well-beaten egg, and form into small balls, taking care to have them smooth. Have ready one plate with a beaten egg upon it, and another with cracker crumbs. Dip each ball into the egg, and then into the crumbs, and brown nicely. Lay the croquettes on brown paper first, to get rid of any superfluous grease, then serve on a napkin.
4.Potatoes and creamare prepared by mincing cold boiled potatoes fine, putting them in a spider with a little melted butter in it, and letting them fry slightly, keeping them well covered. Add a very small piece of fresh butter, season with pepper and salt, and pour over them cream or rich milk. Let them boil up once, and serve. This is a very nice dish, and may be safely taken into delicate stomachs.
5.A la Lyonnaiseis prepared as follows: Take five cold potatoes, one onion, butter, salt, and pepper. Slice the onion finely, and fry it in butter until it begins to take color; add the sliced potatoes, salt and pepper to taste, and keep shaking the saucepan until they are somewhat browned. Serve hot.
A few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods. If the albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking, it is renderedlessinstead of more digestible. Therefore, the so-calledwell-cookedmeats are reallybadly-cookedmeats. Meats should be only half done, or rare. To do this properly, it is necessary to cook with a quick fire. Steaks should be broiled, not fried. I am in accord with a well-known orator, who said, recently, that "the person who fries a steak should be arrested for cruelty to humanity." Some few meats should always be well cooked before eating.[6]
The same law holds good with eggs as with meats. A hard-boiled egg is only fit for the stomach of an ostrich; it was never intended by nature to adorn the human stomach. There are very many ways of preparing eggs—by frying, baking, poaching, shirring, etc. I will only describe briefly a few simple methods of making omelets.
In making this elegant dish, never use more than three eggs to anomelet. Plain omelet: Separate the whites and yolks; add a teaspoonful of water to the whites, and beat to a stiff froth; add to the yolks a teaspoonful of water, and beat until light; then season with salt, and about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich milk. Have your spider very hot; turn your whites and yolks together, and stir lightly to mix them; place a bit of butter in the spider, and immediately pour in your eggs. When set (which takes from ten to twenty seconds, and be careful that it does not brown too much), fold together in a half moon, remove it, sprinkle with powdered sugar, and serve on a hot plate. It should be eaten immediately.
Fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies between the folds. Baked omelets are prepared as above, with the addition of placing in the oven and allowing to brown slightly.
French omelet is prepared in this way: Take a half cup of boiling milk with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it; pour this over one-half cup of bread crumbs (light bread); add salt, pepper, and the yolks of three eggs beaten very light; mix thoroughly; and lastly, add the whites whipped to a stiff froth. Stir lightly, and fry in butter. When nearly done, fold together in a half moon, and serve immediately.
And thus we might continuead infinitum, but, as was stated before, it is not my object to instruct you in special cooking, but to illustrate in this manner how much easier it is, to both the cook and your stomachs, to prepare healthful dishes than to do the reverse.