Chapter 2

* * * * *

The more common persuasive fallacies are:

LOGIC FALLACIES.

1. GENERALIZATION—It is raining everywhere. It has not rained anywhere. (The exception is discounted.)

2. CIRCULAR ARGUMENT—That team is the best because it is the greatest. (Similar adjectives describing each other.)

3. EITHER-OR fallacy—Either the city will drill more wells or it will run out of water. (This ignores the possibility of water pipelines, river dams, desalinization, etc.)

4. CAUSE AND EFFECT fallacies—two kinds:

A. SINGLE CAUSE fallacy—The streets are wet, therefore it has been snowing.(This discounts other causes like rain.)

B. GUILT BY ASSOCIATION—He has a friend that is a Japanese, therefore he must be Japanese in his soul.

* * * * *

EMOTIONAL FALLACIES. (These are intended make a person fear loss of friendship.)

[8]

1. GENERALIZATION—Everyone is doing it.

2. SNOB APPEAL—A special thing for a special group: Heroes wear only Hot Stuff clothes.

3. LOADED LANGUAGE—Emotionally connotative terms of derision: He is a "Mutt." (Not only a dog but also a worthless cur.)

4. NAME CALLING—This is often used to discredit someone. It is also often a problem evasion rather than a problem solving strategy that uses:

i. SARCASM.

ii. CYNICISM.

* * * * *

CREDIBILITY FALLACIES.

Credibility fallacies are those in which uncertified people present themselves as experts: the famous actor dressed as a doctor recommending a certain medicine. The actor is not a trained professional and has no professional credibility.

FACT AND OPINION.

Certain keywords can be often be used to differentiate facts from opinions.

1. Generalizations. All inclusive or all exclusive terms that usually have exceptions: everyone, everything, no one, never, always:

It always rains in the summertime. (This does not take into account long droughts or geographic locations where rain rarely falls.)

Everyone drives a Ford.

2. Statements about the future:

We will never go there.

3. Statements of opinion:

It seems to me.

In my opinion.

4. Statements using the emphatic "to be" words. Is, are, was, were, etc. are often facts that can be proven either true or false, but are not necessarily as true as the "is" implies.

He is a genius.

For the purpose of gathering information in problem solving, facts are statements that can be readily verified as true or false; opinions cannot be quickly verified. In problem solving, the practical ability to prove something true without a great deal of effort is the key to practical truth. A statement that might merely hold the possibility of being proven true is, for all practical purposes, an opinion until it is proven true.

* * * * *

DEDUCTIVE REASONING ERRORS

Deductive reasoning[9]is stating a series of valid relationships with a conclusion about them:

When it rains the streets get wet. It is raining. Therefore the streets are wet.

Several types of reasoning fallacies exist: (1) formal deductive fallacies, which occur because of an error in the form of the argument, and (2) informal fallacies that contain false content.

The INFORMAL FALSE CONTENT FALLACIES are listed in Appendix 4 and include:

LOGIC ERRORS.

* The "straw man" deception.

* The "false dilemma" deception.

* The "Domino Theory" deception.

* The "two wrongs make a right fallacies" deception.

EMOTIONAL ERRORS.

* The "attack the speaker" diversion.

* The "commonly accepted practice" deception.

* The "appeal to pity" tactic.

* The "infallible truth or cliche" deception.

The emotional tactics often include cynicism or sarcasm and are sometimes used to belittle another person. The effect is to make them feel worthless and unloved. This is an emotional fallacy that attacks a person's need for love and belonging.[10]This is discussed in greater detail in the section on Internal conflicts.

Sometimes debaters attempt to evade answering an argument using the "red herring" diversion. This tactic was named for game poachers that used a strong smelling fish to mask their scent from dogs used by game wardens trying to apprehend them. This tactic introduces another issue that diverts the discussion. It is often logically unrelated to the issue, and is often an emotional attack directed at the other person.

* * * * *

PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Beyer, Barry K. "Developing a Scope and Sequence for Thinking Skills Instruction".Educational Leadership45(April 1988): 26-30.(return)

2. A Committee of College and University Examiners. "Educational Objectives and Curriculum Development".Taxonomy of Educational Objectives—Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1956.(return)

3. A Committee of College and University Examiners. "Educational Objectives and Curriculum Development".Taxonomy of Educational Objectives—Handbook 2: The Affective Domain. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1956.(return)

4. "The Galileo Affair", Owen Gingerick,American Scientific, August, 1982, #247, p.132-138.(return)

5. Aristotle.Rhetoric and the Poetics. F. Solmsen, ed. New York: The Modern Library, 1954.(return)

6.Critical Thinking and Reasoning: a handbook for Teachers. Albany: SUNY, 1976.(return)

7. "Classifying Fallacies Logically", Ludwig F. Schlecht,Teaching Philosophy, March, 1991, 14:1, p.53-656.(return)

8. Maslow, A. H.Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1954.(return)

9.Critical Thinking and Reasoning: A Handbook for Teachers. Albany: The University of the State of New York, 1976.(return)

10. Maslow, A. H.Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1954.(return)

=============================

DEVELOPING A SOLUTION.

Developing solutions should take into account time, material and manpower. How much time is available to solve a problem? Are the materials available? Is the manpower available?

TIME.

How much time is available? Often problems are best solved by using "Kentucky windage." Artillery gunners use the expression, "One over, one under, one dead center." This refers to making gross adjustments rather than walking a solution toward a problem one small step at a time. This technique has also been called "Eliminating the extremes": walking toward the center from either end, half way at a time. This technique reduces the time required to solve a problem in a binary fashion by halves, rather than in arithmetic progression one small step at a time.

Often the first solutions tried don't work. We may learn more facts about problems as we try to solve them. Many times a problem requires re-defining and the entire nature of the solution changes from one trial to the next. In science, every experiment is valuable because what is disproven is as valuable as the final solution. A disproven solution reduces the possibilities by providing answers about what is not possible.

We need to take into account problems that will arise. It is useful to double or triple the initial time estimate when beginning new projects. It is prudent to plan on finishing the job in one-third to one-half of the time we would like to finish the job. This is particularly true with artistic projects; artists often want to add one final touch, and one more touch ad infinitum (the "Michelangelo" dilemma).

Timing for the various elements in a job can often be charted beginning with the first thing needed to be done and ending with a review of the project and future planning. Such charts are easily constructed on spreadsheets with calendar dates in vertical columns and tasks in horizontal rows. This form of time chart is a marching calendar. Initially, the chart can also be used to back schedule material purchase for future delivery. As sequential tasks are completed, the consecutive days are highlighted. This provides a rapid visualization to the project planners of the status of the project.

Project Calendar.

Task.

Initial planning.

Gather information.

Pick team.

Make drawings.

Assemble materials.

Make prototype.

Review prototype.

Manufacture actual product.

Evaluate project.

Plan follow up.

* * * * *

MATERIAL.

Are the materials available? Can we afford the cost of the materials? Sometimes it is possible to make an "first piece" or "practice piece" out of inexpensive materials. Practice pieces are helpful to learn practical manufacturing methods. Producing detailed drawings and listing manufacturing steps often save time and material in the long run. Practice pieces made of soft and easy to work material, like balsam wood, also serve the purpose of providing an actual mock up that can be quickly modified by cut and paste methods. The practice piece usually does not have to be pretty, only functional. It provides an idea of what changes need to be made before expensive or hard to procure materials are used.

* * * * *

MANPOWER.

Is sufficient manpower available to execute the plan? Are the talents of the available manpower matched to the task?[1]Are the available people qualified to perform the tasks? Are the men being lead by the best method? Several alternative methods exist for leading or managing workers on a project. These will be discussed in the section on leadership.

* * * * *

Developing a Solution.

1. Gardner, Howard.Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books, 1983.(return)

* * * * *

===================================

TRYING THE SOLUTION.

Often complex or new tasks become learning projects, in themselves, to try to more accurately identify the problem, and to gather sufficient facts through failure in experimentation to make progress. Projects should include ongoing evaluation and re-planning. Old World craftsmen, the master craftsmen of yesteryear, had a guiding principle that continues to have merit: "Any job worth doing is worth doing well." Doing a job well often means making a final copy after revising the rough draft.

* * * * *

MANPOWER MANAGEMENT.

Leaders should remember that several approaches to leadership are available. No one style is satisfactory for all situations.

* * * * *

LEADERSHIP STYLES.

Three basic leadership styles exist. They are the authoritarian model, the teacher model, and the team work model.[1]

The authoritarian model is useful for situations requiring immediate compliance by a subordinate. Soldiers occasionally use the authoritarian style to demand instant obedience. It is most useful in dangerous situations where hesitation in complying might be disastrous; for instance, when a child is daydreaming and in danger of walking off of a sidewalk curb into automobile traffic. In business situations, this style is not often used because the authoritarian leader is often destined to fail: "micro-management" often has a belittling effect on subordinates, who subsequently rebel, and failure follows for three reasons: the authoritarian leader often doesn't have the expertise, time, or enough energy to do all of the jobs himself job without other's help. The authoritarian leadership style is seldom useful except in emergency situations.[2](It has been said that a raised voice with someone older than five is usually inappropriate.)

The teaching leadership model is more useful because the people doing the job are contributors. The teacher offers advice and monitors progress.[3]

The team work leadership model is sometimes the most useful. This model works when the students become as knowledgeable as the teacher and each can and will do the other's job. This model is often seen when someone realizes a job needs doing, and does it without being told to do it. These people are conscientious "self-starters."

* * * * *

LEADERSHIP STYLES.

1. Tannenbaum, Robert and Warren H. Schmidt. "How to Choose a Leadership Pattern."Harvard Business Review36(March-April 1958): 95-101.(return)

2. Fiedler, Fred E. "The Trouble With Leadership Training Is That it Doesn't Train Leaders."Psychology Today6(February 1973): 23-30.(return)

3. Goodall, H. Lloyd, Jr.Small Group Communications in Organizations. 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1990.(return)

=================================

DEALING WITH INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT.

Western World values and ideas of dealing with interpersonal conflict originate in the Code of Hammarabi and the Mosaic Code.

King Solomon in the Bible, following the Ten Commandments of Moses, offers some practical suggestions for dealing with interpersonal conflict.

In Solomon's Book of Proverbs, one of Solomon's main themes is drawing a consistent distinction between the wise man and the foolish man. He characterizes a foolish man as someone who neither asks for advise nor accepts it. He further characterizes the foolish man as someone who is scornful, divisive, quarrelsome, and mocking of other's efforts with cynicism and sarcasm.

Solomon's advise for dealing with scornful people has three steps. The first step is to try counseling with them in private, one on one. Failing that, the second step is to counsel with them again, but with two people, together, advising the third. The final step is to cease relations.

Solomon's three steps are seen today in practical statesmanship. We should remember that today's enemy is tomorrow's friend. Member nations of the United Nations generally apply this same three-step plan that ends in economic sanctions being applied by the United Nations as a whole. Sometimes even ceasing relations with another is not enough and force of arms must be taken to protect weaker neighbors from aggression.

Whether with neighbors or nations, armed conflict is ultimately sorrowful. It is an admission that patient diplomacy and logic have not been successful. It is premeditated violence to protect the weak. Many people, still developing in religious maturity and understanding, feel torment when violence is necessary, because their religious understanding does not extend beyond helping "all" others. It is a question of who is helped and why. Some people too choose to pass from this life as martyrs. Others feel compelled to stay until the end and protect the weak like a shepherd keeping predatory dogs away from the helpless lambs. There may be a time for each course of action.

The confusion between religion and forcing our will on others is caused by our understanding of what helping others means. If we help others to hurt someone, we become harmful ourselves. We become "Enablers"[1]to those hurting others. Without our consent, the aggressor could not have taken advantage of his weaker neighbor.

The Eastern religions, particularly Zen Buddhism, which is intimately associated with the Samurai warrior of Japan, take great care to teach tranquility and self-control in the use of force. Anger is not a part of thoughtful action.

Aikido, The Way of Harmony, teaches tranquility in the use of force, and compares it to the calm in the eye of a hurricane.[2]

The great Christian pastor, Dietrich Bonhoffer, pointed out that "just causes" for anger did not exist in the earliest accounts of Christ's Sermon on the Mount.[3]

* * * * *

DEALING WITH INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT.

1. Miller, Angelyn. The Enabler.—When Helping Harms the Ones You Love. New York Ballentine Books, 1988.(return)

2. Stevens, John. Abundant Peace—the Biography of Morehei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido. Boston: Shambhala, 1987.(return)

3. Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. The Cost of Discipleship. New York: Macmillan, 1963.(return)

* * * * *

==================================

INTERPERSONAL PROBLEM SOLVING:

Drama and literary analysis as a tool in personal problem solving.

The structure of Aristotle's Pentad[1]for five act plays is useful as a framework for solving personal problems.

1. Who is the hero? What are his weaknesses? How is he likely to fall?

2. Who is the villain? Is the villain another person, nature or society?

3. What external events lead to the climax with the villain?

4. How does the climax with the villain turn out?

5. What did the hero learn about his own internal weaknesses in the encounter with the villain?

This five part framework is useful in separating the external foes we face from the internal conflicts that are our weaknesses.

EXTERNAL CONFLICTS.

External conflicts are usually found to involve either another man, nature or society. In the man versus man conflict, another person is the adversary. In the man versus nature conflict, the adversary might be a hurricane, or the rigors involved in climbing a mountain. In the man versus society conflict, the opponent might be industrial organizations or lobby groups advocating nuclear waste disposal in the ocean.

The man versus self conflict, such as a man facing a crisis of courage, is an internal conflict.

INTERNAL CONFLICTS.

Internal conflicts are man versus himself and man versus God conflicts.

The man versus God occurs when a person violates his conscience and does something that he knows to be wrong. Many religions advocate resolving the man versus God conflict by admission of wrongdoing and restitution to those harmed. There may be some people that have no conscience, and the internal conflicts they face are not, as yet, well understood.[2]Those people without a conscience are a continuing source of grief for humanity and that problem is discussed in the section on dealing with "unattached people."

The second type of internal conflict, the man versus self conflict exhibit certain human character weaknesses that can be identified with the acronym FALL: fear, arrogance, laziness, and loneliness.

Loneliness is often caused by a combination of several of the other three common human weaknesses, for instance, fear and laziness: fear of rejection while trying to find new friends and laziness in making the attempt.

Fear is a very common weakness and is related to our needs. Abraham Maslow[3]classified these needs as follows:

1. Physical safety.

2. Food and shelter.

3. Love or belonging—the need to love and be loved.

4. Career—the need to be successful at something.

5. Self actualization—the need some people feel to become who God wants them to be.

People must meet their immediate, basic needs for physical safety before they can meet their wishful needs for love or fulfilling a career. While we strive to behave as thinking people, with well thought out plans, sometimes we act purely as animals by instinct alone. If we are suddenly frightened by a snarling dog, we react by running or fighting, instinctively, without conscious thought. Paul MacLean describes what happens in our brains as a stepping down the evolutionary ladder and using those parts of our "Triune" brain that operates on instinct rather than thought.[4]

MacLean divides the Triune brain[5]into three parts that developed over the evolutionary eons. The oldest, which he calls the reptilian brain, controls aggression and passionate impulsiveness. The middle region, the limbic system, controls docile, loving emotions. The outer region, the neo-cortex controls thoughtful planning with an awareness of consequences and cause-effect relationships. This phenomenon is important because fear alone can inhibit successful higher level thinking by keeping the brain at the lowest (reptilian) level preparing to meet the threat. The educator Lev Vygotsky stressed the importance of creating and maintaining a risk-free environment that encourages higher level (neo-cortex) thought.[6]The growing recognition of the Triune Brain might very well have influenced world politics in the replacement of the policy of "mutually assured destruction" with a "kinder and gentler" statesmanship.

Maslow's need and MacLean's brain are both related to animal-like behavioral weaknesses when we react impulsively rather than with thought and planning, and we are more likely to act impulsively when our physical safety or food and shelter needs are threatened.

When we do act like animals, we often are ashamed because we momentarily set aside our conscience. Fear overpowers our desire to be loving because it engages lower brain centers that are not controlled by abstract thought centers in the higher levels of our brain.

How then can we act like we are created in the image of God instead of selfish, impulsive animals? We can begin by analyzing what characters in literature and drama do. We can recognize when fear, arrogance, laziness, or loneliness drives the hero's actions, and imagine how the hero might overcome his weaknesses. We can project a responsible resolution to the hero's internal conflicts. This exercise of recognizing the source of another's actions is merely an intermediate step in the learning process, however.[7]The final step is when we face our own trails, and face the need to analyze our own reactions to stress, as we have looked at those in dramas. Finally, we can plan our own future and make it happen, just as we did with alternative endings to conflicts in dramas.

Occasionally, people face moral choices that seem to confusing to be solved, and the thinking brain tries to step down a notch. It either takes a passive emotional position with MacLean's limbic system, or an impulsive aggressive position with the reptilian system. At these times, a checklist for moral decision making can provide a framework for keeping our actions in the realm of planned activity rather than impulse.

THE STEPS OF MORAL DECISION MAKING.

Moral decision making involves several growth steps in reaching maturity.

Stanley Kohlberg[8]provided us with a framework for making moral decisions:

Age Test Question.

6 Punishment Will I get caught?

10 Golden Rule How would I like to treated?

13 Everyone Rule What would the world be like if everyone made this same decision?

15 Greater Good Rule Will this decision produce the greatest good for the greatest number?

Adult Higher Authority Rule Is this what God wants me to do?

Religious people often experience great internal conflict when faced Many religions advocate gentleness and helping others, as well as protecting the weak from harm: a seeming contradiction. Does one have priority over the other? Part of the answer may involve the Triune brain and the absence of thought involved in impulsive aggression. Sometimes helping others may involve protecting violent people from themselves and that may require the use of force. Often gentle, kind people find the use of force quite foreign, and are especially vulnerable to harm from people that are termed "unattached."[9]

Back to Index Next