CHAPTER VI.TIMBER AND ITS UTILISATION.

BAMBOO CARRYING FRAME AND PARBUCKLING LOG.

Carrying, rolling, and parbuckling heavy spars.

In some parts of India and China very heavy weights are carried by an ingenious framework of bamboo. A stout pole is crossed at its ends by two lighter ones, and each of these again by two others, each of which is again crossed by smaller ones 2in. or 3in. in diameter and 6ft.or 8ft. long; the sixteen ends of these are raised on the shoulders of as many men; the weight is slung to the centre of the larger beam, and borne with ease and comfort on the elastic frame. In our illustration (p. 352), two gangs of coolies are represented carrying a tree, but more could be employed if requisite. For rolling, the tree should be cleared of projecting stumps as much as possible; long skids should be placed under it, and if the ends from which the tree is to be rolled can be elevated by wedges or otherwise, so as to make an inclined plane for it to roll down so much the better; at all events, get the thick end under the tree and let the thin end be in the direction that you wish to roll it. Parbuckling is effected by making fast the end of a line to a stump or other holdfast in the required direction, then bringing the end of the line under the log, and taking one or more clear turns, bringing the end back over it and hauling on. A few hands judiciously using handspikes or levers will greatly assist this operation.

Ladders.

There are times when the principle of the common step-ladder might be advantageously remembered; and a traveller who expected to have much climbing might have one of those in which a groove is run in the inside of each standard, and the rungs, working on pivots, are shut up into it, the whole forming a light and compact pole, which a man might easily carry on his shoulder. It would, however, be cheaper and better to purchase this at home than to make it abroad. A rope and batten ladder is more easily made. The rope is doubled, an eye is turned in to the bight, holes are bored in the ends of the steps or rungs, the ends of the rope are passed through, and double knots turned on to keep each step in place. A light ladder, either of this kind or that previously described, with a coil of rope to fling over the lower branches, would enable a botanist or collector of birds or insects to climb many trees otherwise inaccessible.

Fire-escapes.

In case of fire in a town, if anything—say the end of a sofa or part of a bed frame—could be projected only 1ft. or 2ft. from a window, and weighted by a chest of drawers on its inner end, it would form what persons unskilled in climbing so much require—a clear point of departure; and the blankets, sheets, and coverlets torn into strips of not less than 4in. or 6in. wide, and twisted into a two-stranded rope, could befastened to this and used—first, to lower the more helpless persons into the street, and, finally, for the active to glide down by. It would be too much to expect, as has been proposed, that every house should have a coil of rope, but it is well to remember that if there be only a ball of string it may serve to haul up stronger lines, brought by volunteers from without. If infants are to be lowered, it is better to put them in a bag than to tie a rope round their bodies; a couple of pillow cases would be strong enough, and there would be no fear of suffocation during the minute or two of their descent. A man may tie a child on his back or descend with it in his arms, but it is much safer to lower it separately. If flames are bursting from the windows beneath, perhaps the rope may be taken to the next lower story of the opposite house so as to avoid the danger of burning the rope or scorching those who descend. Of regular fire-escapes we need say nothing, as where they are provided competent persons, very frequently seamen, are appointed to work them; but it is well to bear in mind that, as the property of flame and heated air is to ascend, a man creeping close to the floor may often traverse in safety a chamber the upper part of which is impracticable. A towel or piece of sheeting dipped in water and tied round the mouth and nose will prevent heated smoke and particles of burning matter from entering the air passages, and thus enable a person to struggle for life in situations where suffocation would be inevitable without some such expedient for its preservation.

Extraction of sap.

We have before stated that timber should never, except in cases of emergency, be felled with the sap in it; still, during the vicissitudes of rough travel, it will frequently happen that, in order to execute repairs imperatively needed, the trees must be cut down, hewn into form, and made use of at once. When this is done, the object will be to get rid of the sap which fills all the minute pores and tubes of the wood as quickly as possible. To do this, a trench, proportioned in length and depth to the quantity and size of the timber to be treated, must be dug in the earth. Lay in the logs, after denuding them of their lateral branches, fill the trench with water, and let them soak in it whilst you build a strong hard wood fire. When this is thoroughly ignited throw a number of large heavy stones into it, and as they become red hot withdraw them with twisted sticks, and throw them into the trench until the water boils actively. Continue to do this until there are a number of heated stones in the already boiling sludge; throw then a thick layer of clay, turf, and earth, over the whole mass, and leave it to steam and stew for the night. A large log, intended for the axle of a waggon or other heavy work, may be, with advantage, subjected to a second application of the same process, when it will be found much more tough and durable than if converted with the raw sap in it.

Seasoning wood.

Before proceeding to fell a growing tree for immediate use, it is well to search carefully about for a dead storm-cast trunk of the kind required, which will, as a rule, be found in tolerable condition. When a depôt is formed, or a point selected as a rendezvous, it is advisable to fell a few trees, and let them lay in store, so to speak, until they are wanted. Cuttinga deep notch round the whole circumference of a tree, and letting it stand until required for use, much improves the quality of the wood. When practicable, and time will allow, it is well to leave logs of timber intended for seasoning to soak in rivers, lakes, or arms of the sea; but it is wise, at the same time, to ascertain, by the examination of pieces of wood which have fallen accidentally into the water, whether any of the creatures addicted to timber boring are found in the locality. The rivers flowing into the Black Sea abound with theTeredo navalis, or ship worm, to such an extent that floating logs very shortly become so perforated as to be perfectly useless except for firewood. Much of the timber we obtained in that part of the world was defective on account of the depredations of this pest, whose range, unfortunately, is a pretty wide one; and his works, and those of other borers, are therefore to be jealously looked for in the neighbourhood of a proposed salt or brackish water timber pond. In countries where hot springs are met with, they may be utilised for timber seasoning and other purposes. Sticks or poles intended for bending into ox bows, or other curved forms, should be placed either in boiling water or the hot embers of the camp fire until thoroughly heated through. They may then, after being properly shaped, be tied in the required form with cords, and hung in the air to dry. Several long crooked sticks may be straightened at once by forcing them side by side into the hollow of a large bamboo cane from which all the knots, except that at one end, have been removed. When a sufficient number of sticks are arranged in the cane, place it mouth upwards, and fill it to the brim with boiling water. When the first charge is cold add a second, and so on until the sticks have been about an hour in their hot bath. They can now be forced separately into smaller bamboos without water, or lashed between battens of stiff wood until cold, when such small irregularities and curves as remain may be removed by heating the part requiring treatment over the fire and carefully straightening it over the knee. Nearly all the spear handles, whether of cane or forest wood, found among wild tribes are straightened and rendered fit for use by the agency of fire. Strong and perfectly straight tubes for blow-pipes, &c., are formed by inserting a small cane into thehollow of a larger one and turning it round till any deviation from the straight line in one counteracts that of the other.

Steaming log.

Hard wood.

Hardening wood.

The elegant curve given to many of the bows found among the Northern Indians is given by first heating them in the camp fire, and then, after bending them carefully to the desired shape, keeping the curves in position by the aid of thongs. We have one of these bows now, which was even charred in the course of making, but has never lost its contour or elasticity. The bending of ships’ planks is effected by a process very similar in principle. In the absence of a properly constructed steaming chamber, the planks of a makeshift vessel may be efficiently steamed in the following manner. A long hollow log should be set horizontally on trestles of convenient height, one end must be stopped with a plug, and the other have a tight wooden stopper and cross-bar fitted to it. When the required number of planks are thrust down the log, steam is admitted through a bamboo, or hollow tube of wood, from a large covered cauldron placed on a fire beneath the log. All the joints of the bamboo should be luted fast with clay, and kept tight until the planks are sufficiently steamed for bending, when they are dragged out with wooden tongs, and put in place on the vessel. The full pageillustrationshows the mode of using a steaming log.Hardening wood.Wood, which does not require straightening, is rendered much more hard and durable than it would otherwise be by the action of carefully applied fire-heat. The clubs and grubbing sticks of natives are generally fortified in this way. Spear, arrow, and blow-pipe darts have their points so hardened by the action of heat, that they more closely resemble the texture of bone than aught else, and perforate almost as readily as sharpened iron. We have seen the tough, dense scales of a large fish penetrated with the greatest facility by a spear prepared in this way. Flat strips or laths of bamboo cut to a fine edge, and fire-hardened, are used by many of the inhabitants of the islands of the Eastern seas as substitutes for knives; some of these truly makeshift blades are as keen as surgical instruments, and are at times used in the performance of minor operations of surgery. Many of the trees of tropical countries will be found to possess heart woodof great strength and density, whilst the outside or “sap” is light coloured, weak, and next to useless.Hard wood.In such cases, all the outside layer of timber should be cut away with the axe or adze, and the central core alone made use of. In selecting poles or sticks for purposes where toughness and durability are matters of importance always, when practicable, take young seedling trees. Next in quality to these are the shoots which spring up from the underground roots of large trees. When either of these kinds are intended to be put aside to season, they should be pulled up by the roots rather than cut; the earth may be beaten out from among the fibres by striking the roots of the sticks together; they can then be hung in an airy place to dry: late in the autumn or in the winter are the best seasons for rooting up saplings.

Larch trees.

In countries where the larch fir grows abundantly, a number of tall young trees will be found from some cause to have died as they stand, to have withered and become perfectly dry. These will be found extremely tough and well seasoned.

Bamboos.

Bamboos must be selected according to the purpose they are intended for. The female bamboo, as it is called, is remarkable for the largeness of the cavities placed between the internodes; this quality renders it buoyant, light, and well adapted for splitting up into planks. We have seen a very large bamboo slit from end to end by making one long cut in the side. The cane is heated and carefully opened. The knots are then all smoothed off, when the hollow shell is laid between boards on which heavy stones are placed, until it is pressed perfectly flat, and becomes a bamboo board. The knots of large female bamboos make excellent pails or water vessels.

A joint of bamboo cut longitudinally in half, and supported on feet formed from another joint of the same cane, after the manner of a pen tray, makes a most convenient receptacle for pins, steel pens, pencils, sail needles, and a host of other matters which are required to lay parallel to each other.

BAMBOO PIPES, BUCKETS, ETC.

Cocoa-nut palm.

Water pipes, for irrigation, can be made from a train of canes with their ends thrust into each other, and secured by transverse pegs, as at Fig. 1, on opposite page. All long bamboos, intended for pipes or tubes, must have their internodes removed. This we usedto do as follows: We prepared some short pieces of round bar iron of a size just to fit the bore of the canes easily. We then pointed one end of the iron chunk and sloped the upper end, by hammering on the anvil, to a wedge form. Through the centre of the upper edge we punched a hole, through which we passed a wire long enough to reach the entire length of the cane to be treated. The chunk was then heated red hot in the fire and dropped down, like a bucket in a well, on the first knot, through which it would rapidly burn. It was then lowered away until it reached the second knot, and so on until all were entirely removed. When the chunk became cooled by contact with the wood, it was reheated and entered again. Fig. 2 shows the form of the knot chunk, &c. Excellent tar buckets (Fig. 3) or water pails (Fig. 4) are to be made from the ends of large cane joints. Boxes for wheel grease (Fig. 5), drinking cups, boxes, and a whole host of other receptacles for various matters, solid and fluid, are made from the same material. The mode of cutting and bending bamboos is shown by Figs. from 6 to 13. In Eastern countries one occasionally meets with specimens of the female bamboo of such gigantic proportions and huge growth that no little wonder is excited as to the mode of cultivation had recourse to in their production. We were for a long time quite at a loss for a solution of the mystery, but at length discovered that among the stools or root clumps of the canes one of promising appearance was by the natives selected for treatment. This was dug up and carefully replanted in a favourable locality. All the shoots which sprout upsave one are cut away. This is allowed to grow up until it has reached a fair average size. It is then cut off to within about 6in. of the ground, leaving a hollow projecting stump. Into the bore of the cane thus left, a mixture of sulphur and stable litter is tightly rammed, just as you would charge a hole for blasting or would load a gun. For a period of three years every shoot which shows above the ground is cut away. The best shoot of the fourth year is allowed to grow to its full altitude and bulk, which at times is truly prodigious, leading to the false conclusion that some cane of peculiar species was the subject of wonder and investigation. From the lesser members of the bamboo family water-wheels, bows, arrows, spear heads, paper, bow strings, pens, baskets, brooms, brushes, shoulder poles, buckets, masts, spars for boats, &c., are made. The male bamboo differs from the female in having scarcely any cavity running through it. Canes of this description are peculiarly well adapted for the handles of hog spears, waggon whip handles, and a multitude of other purposes where great strength and elasticity are required.Cocoa-nut palm.The cocoa-nut palm is a tree which, on the score of usefulness, is perhaps second to none. On the uses of its fruit, leaves, gum, fibre, and sap we shall have more to say further on in our work. The wood is extensively used for canoe building. It is hewn into form by the small sharp adzes of the islanders. Clamps are left on the inside and bored through. Dowels of hard wood are inserted in the edges, and the planks are sewn together with rattan or fibre of the cocoa-nut husk, while the timbers are bound to the clamps by lashings of the same material, as shown in the full page illustration. Much of the coir, or cocoa fibre, used in the manufacture of this and other descriptions of twine, and for caulking seams and crevices in the canoes when finished, is obtained by the natives of the islands which dot the Eastern seas and Pacific Ocean from the underground burrows of the great cocoa-nut-eating crab (Birgus latro), whose subterraneous workings are at certain seasons abundantly stored with this useful material, which is sometimes hooked out with long flexible sticks armed with a species of barb, and at others procured by digging out the crab, nest and all. Canoe paddles and clubs are often made from the stalk of the cocoa palm.

WOODEN SWIVELS.

Wooden swivels.

A great number of useful and almost indispensable articles calledinto daily use by the traveller and explorer can be made from wood. Swivels of one kind or another are in constant demand, as the ropes used for tethering animals would without their aid soon become masses of hopeless entanglement. A very neat and useful form is shown in Fig. 1; it consists of two bars of flexible wood, bent by steaming or otherwise into the requisite curve. The parts which form the neck of a are thinned off, but the ends are left of their full thickness; the neck ofbis also left thick, and in each of its parts a groove is cut, forming a hollow through whichapasses;bis then closed by a lashing, and the swivel is ready for use. Fig. 2 is very effective, and easily made. A bit of wood has three holes bored in it; a short piece of rope is passed through the end holes, and double knots turned upon its ends. This forms a “bridle;” and, if it is requisite to attach a longer line, this should not be looped through so that one cord may saw upon the other, as atc, but properly hitched, as shown atd. The other line is passed through the central hole; and it will work more easily and wear out less quickly if a small ring or washer (f) of hard wood or sole leather is put on before the knot is turned upon its end. Fig. 3 is a plain form of swivel, and easily made, but is apt to chafe the rope. Fig. 4 is a very neat and useful form. A longitudinal hole is bored in a block of wood, two larger ones are bored across it, and with a knife or chisel these are cut into one large opening; the ends of the linesare passed in towards the centre, washers are put on, the knots are made, and the swivel is complete. Fig. 5 is a useful pattern. The swivel is made of the joint of a fir tree, and any number of lines may be hooked on to it. The collar is made of two parts, lashed together and suspended from each end; the washer is also in two parts, like the collar. Fig. 6 is easily made with two pieces of wire. Fig. 7 would form either a crutch for a rowing or sculling oar, or a swivel rest for a gun or telescope, &c. Fig. 8 is a rod of flexible wood, with the two ends passed through the collar and fore-locked, leaving the loop to turn freely. Fig. 9 is simply a broad-headed nail passed through a piece of wood, and with its point bent into a hook: a washer of iron saves wear and tear. This is very similar to the swivels used by rope-makers.

FLAIL SWIVELS.

The common flail swivel is excellent for many purposes. Sometimes it is made with two pieces of stout hide or sole leather, shaped like Fig. 1. One of these is turned so that the narrow part in the middle forms a loop; while the broad ends are nailed, tightly stitched, or lashed to the thick or swinging arm of the flail (Fig. 3); the other piece, being linked through this loop, is also bent till the broad ends meet; and their edges are then securely stitched together so as to form a collar, which works freely on the handle (Fig. 2), at the end of which is a knob to prevent the collar slipping off.

Occasionally two flexible rods (withies) are bent for this purpose: one is firmly fastened by a leather band nailed or lashed to the extremity of the swinging arm (Fig. 5); the other has small knobs left on its ends to prevent the leather collar slipping off, and this works freely on the handle (Fig. 4). Either of these arrangements may be thrown out of gear by taking hold of the knob and drawing the thin end of the handle out of the collar. A slice of bullock’s horn, shaped as Fig. 1, after softening it in hot water, makes an excellent collar.

Extemporary measurements.

Every traveller ought to carry with him the means of measuring feet and inches, and as instruments for that purpose are so cheap and portable there is hardly any excuse for being without something of the kind. We have a little waistcoat-pocket ivory rule, folding into lengths of 3in., and occupying no more room than a small penknife, and with this, even if an elephant were killed, we could mark off 5ft. or more upon a stem of grass, and use it as a measuring rod, with the little rule ready for the fractional parts. We had at one time half-a-dozen rules (sold at a penny each), 3ft. in length, and folding on pivot joints into lengths of 6in., and they were quite correct enough for common carpentry. Tape lines for 6ft. or 12ft. may be had in cases not larger than a Geneva watch. Chesterman’s patent, shutting with a spring, is a good form. And even if a traveller should (as he may often be obliged to do) disburden himself of every incumbrance, he ought to have inches marked upon something he is sure to carry with him, say upon the ramrod of his gun, or perhaps on the rib of the gun itself; but let this be done neatly by a skilled workman before leaving home, for we should esteem the companion of the chase too highly to let it be recklessly disfigured. The inside of the waist-belt may be marked also in inches. It is at all times well to know the length of the different joints of the limbs. Suppose the nail-joint of the forefinger be 1in., the next joint will be 1¼in., the next 2in., and from the knuckle to the wrist 4in.; in this case the finger is bent, so that each joint may be measured separately, though when held straight the distance from the tip of the forefinger to the wrist would be only 7in. The span with thumb and forefinger would be 8in., and with the thumb and any of the other three 9in., or equal to the length of the foot; from the wrist to the elbow would be 10in., and from elbow to forefinger 17in., and from collar-bone to forefinger 2ft. 8in., height to the middle of the kneecap 18in. From the elbow to the forefinger is usually called a cubit, but it is seldom strictly so, a cubit being 18in. In like manner the full stretch of the extended arms is called a fathom, but it is generally somewhat less, a fathom being 6ft.; and in paying Africans with calico, we found it best to let every man measure off his own fathom, even though he protruded his chest and threw back his arms to the utmost, he generally took a trifle less,and was much better pleased than if we had measured it strictly with a rule. If a man stands with his back to a flat wall, and extends his arms, his fathom will be nearly equal to his own height; but if he tries to measure the girth of a tree by placing his breast against it, and as it were embracing it, he will find his fathom many inches short, and on an average perhaps not more than 5ft. The Dutch farmers at the Cape clench both fists, making the extended thumbs meet, and they call the whole 1ft., when it is sometimes nearer 15in.; and an elephant measured in this manner would be reported unduly small were it not that they also measure from the edge of the foot round the curve of the shoulder to the wither instead of taking a straight line, so that one error nearly balances the other. This is a very useful measure, but every man should grasp a foot rule, as in our sketch, and ascertain for himself how much his thumbs overlap in doing so.

FIST MEASURE AND PACING STICK.

The step is commonly supposed to be 3ft., and the pace 5ft., but this is a most uncertain mode of measurement; a man may step 3ft., measuring from the heel of one foot to the toe of the other, but even if he does so two steps must be less than 6ft. by the length of his own foot, and very few men can take with any correctness a hundred consecutive steps or paces. Besides which so many travellers confound the terms step and pace that it is impossible to tell which they mean; it is much better, therefore, to use the word yards and to measure them by a military pace stick; this may be two light sticks like a walking-cane sawed down the middle and riveted at the head like a pair of compasses; then if, at 1ft. from the joint, a stick of 1ft. in length be fastened across the opened legs they will form an equilateral triangle, and the points will be 3ft. apart; with these, used like a pair of compasses, a man may measure off 100yds. almost as fast as he could walk it, and would be certain of his distance. A forked branch cut on the spot and trimmed, so that the ends are 3ft. apart, answers the same purpose.

HITCHES ON MEASURING LINE.

For measuring a base for rough triangulation, a fishing line of 100ft. is easily carried; three measurements will give 100yds., and six will give as many fathoms. 120 fathoms is a cable’s length, a common and useful unit in maritime surveying. To measure successive lengths let your line have a little stray end beyond the marks, and as the hanks are usually sold in lengths of 120ft., an overhand knot may be turned, 10ft. from each end, to mark the 100ft. Stick a perfectly smooth peg in the ground, without projecting head or catch of any kind, make a loop in the end of your line, and put it over the peg, carry out the 100ft. and put in another peg, then jerk the line upward, and you will cause a wave to run along it which will lift it off the end of the first peg (Fig. 1); but, as a permanent loop might catch thorns or projecting branches, it is well to make it with a hitch (Fig. 2), so that it may shake out as it comes off the peg, and leave only a free end to be hauled in. Several hitches, or a sheepshank (Fig. 3), might be used for this purpose, but probably none would answer better than the signal halyard hitch (Fig. 4), and with this the end may be made fast to any convenient tree or bush that stands fairly in the line you wish to measure. Pass the end twice round the branch or peg, then taking the end and a small bight of the measuring part, hitch them as if you were going to tie a reef knot, pull the first hitch tight, but do not complete the knot by making the second hitch; this will hold quite fast enough, and a slight jerk will be sufficient to set it free when you wish to haul in the end. Hitch it to another branch, and so in succession you may measure any number of lengths you wish, taking care always to keep the several pegs or points of fastening in a straight line.

A measuring line should merely be straight upon the ground, and never be subjected to any tension, still less should it be liftedup and then stretched to a straight line in the air; slopsellers know this when they ask sailors to hold up a length of serge while it is being measured, but any experienced hand meets this by insisting that his cloth be laid fairly on the deck and measured there.

To make or build wheels.

The first step in diminishing the labour of dragging a heavy body along the ground is to put rollers underneath it, and the use of these is exemplified in the earliest Assyrian monuments; but these are left behind as the mass moves onward, and have to be constantly carried forward and replaced beneath. The next step is to connect them with the mass, or with the carriage supporting it, by axles, forming either integral parts of the rollers and turning with them, or by fixed axles, on which the rollers or wheels revolve. It is probable that many of the ancient vehicles were supported on axles revolving with the wheels; but we now only retain this form in that of the wheelbarrow, and the simplest way of making this, where timber is cheap and plentiful, is to cut a log of sufficient length, then to saw or chop down the ends so as to leave a disc of sufficient size and thickness in the centre, with two arms projecting from it to form its axle, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The barrow itself may upon occasion be made of a forked tree, of which the single part is thick enough to have a space cut in it to receive the wheel, while the two branches serve as the handles, and minor ones from them perhaps answer the purpose of legs; otherwise a rough frame, as shown in our sketch, may be built, and pegged or treenailed together.

SOLID LOG WHEELS.

In Mexico, Chili, Tartary and elsewhere, rough discs of timber (Fig. 1) are sawed or chopped off from large trees. A hole is made in the centre to receive the axle. These wheels answer well enough for countries where time is of no value, mercy to draught oxen unthought of, and where the inhabitants would rather hear a dry wheel grate on its axletree than take the trouble to grease it. “Evil spirits dread a creaking wheel,” say they, and so the primitive contrivance is allowed to revolve noisily. A wheel of this kind might be made much more efficient by leaving a nave or boss in the centre, sheathed with hardwood or raw hide, and by binding it with the latter material let into a groove cut round the circumference in place of a tire; an endless band cut out of the hide of a rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephant, or giraffe, put on wet, and allowed to shrink and dry before it was much used, would be almost everlasting.

WHEEL BUILT IN SEGMENTS.

A very neat and serviceable barrow wheel may be thus built: Take a piece of deal 4in. wide, 3in. thick, and 14in. long; set a pair of compasses to a radius of 8in.; and, fixing the centre leg 4in. from the block, describe on it the segment of a circle; draw this on both sides, and cut the block truly to the outline; then saw it down into six thicknesses of somewhat less than ½in.; lay three of these together, so that their chords form an equilateral triangle, each angle being 60°, and their segments will complete the circumference of a true circle. Then take the other three, and lay them on so that the centre of each shall cover the ends of each pair of the lower series; then bore holes and screw or nail them together (inch copper boat nails, with rooves for clenching them, are the best for this purpose), and you will have a wheel ¾in. thick, and 16in. diameter. Take a 1in. bar of wood 3in. broad, half check it into the opposite triangles where there is but one thickness of wood, strengthen it by bars from the other angles, bore a hole in the centre, and insert an axle of hard wood or iron. If you have a piece of iron hoop, reduce it, and rivet the ends together, so that it forms a tire that will just not go on; punch half a dozen holes in at intervals, heat it, put it on quickly, hammer it into place, and cool it with water; then put nails or screws through the holes, to keep it from working off, or tire it as before with an endless band of raw hide; or bore holes through it 1in. or 2in. apart all round, at about 1in. from the edge, and lace thongs of raw hide through these and round the edge, so as to preserve it from splitting, or being worn by contact with the ground.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A WAGGON WHEEL.

To build a waggon wheel, clear a smooth place upon a floor, levelled with ant-hill clay, or preferably smooth planked. Take a ½in. straight-edged batten of rather more than 5ft. in length, and 3in. or 4in. in width; clench or screw a cross piece on this, so as to form a boss in the centre, as in the figure on next page; and through this, at the edge of the batten, bore a hole with a bradawl, which being also bored into the floor forms a pivot for it to work on. At 1in. from the centre, bore a hole, through which a pencil or a pointed scoring iron can be passed, to draw the first circle for the bore of the nave. At 4½in. bore another, to mark the circumference of the nave. If a front wheel is required, bore two holes at 15in. and 18in. for the inner and outer circumference of the felloes, or make them at 2ft. 2½in. and 2ft. 6in. for a hind wheel. Having drawn these circles, decide upon the number of spokes you intend to use, which will most likely be eight or ten for a fore wheel and twelve or fourteen for a hinder, such as is shown in our example (Fig. 1). Divide 360, the number of degrees in a circle, by the number of spokes, thus—360° divided by 8 is 45°; in like manner, 10 spokes would form angles of 36°, 12 of 30°, and 16 of 22½°. To obtain these angles, strike a circle on a good-sized sheet of writing or cartridge paper; fold it across the centre, exactly in half, open it and fold it in half the other way, taking care that the two parts of the previous fold perfectly coincide with each other; you will thus have angles of 90°, which may be called north, south, east, and west. Fold it again between every two of these, and you will obtain angles of 45°; these again divided will give angles of 22½°; and the next subdivision would give the thirty-two points of the compass, equal to 11¼° each. To obtain angles of 10°, divide each angle of 90° into three parts, and subdivide each of them into three. The strong lines in our next figure indicate angles of 22½° for a sixteen-spoke wheel, and the faint linesangles of 10°. Our diagram of the wheel was drawn with a bit of card cut to the exact size shown in our figure, pivoted on one pin, while the point of anHHpencil was passed through other pin-holes to draw the circumference. If two of these lines should come very close together, it will be seen that the pin-holes are not pierced in the same radial line, or they would break one into the other; but by placing them a little on either side concentric circles can be drawn as closely as requisite.

diagram of wheel

Now, cut a piece of thin board or stiff paper to the angle at which the spokes are to be set—in this instance 22½°—and with the aid of your straight-edge draw a line across, through the centre, to both sides of the circumference of your wheel; draw another across this at right angles, and test the lines by trying whether each quarter will contain four times the mould you have cut to the angle of 22½°; then draw two other lines of 45°, and subdivide each space into the required angles of 22½°.

Suppose your spokes are to be 1in. thick, withdraw the bradawl that has served you as a pivot, and bore two holes, each ½in. from the central line, and, pivoting the batten on each of these in succession, you will be able to draw the lines showing the thickness of your spokes,a, the original line still indicating the direction of their centre. Then divide the circumference of your felloe into eight segments of 45°, and draw short lines across it as atd(p. 368), to indicate the length of the felloe pieces, each of which must contain one pair of spokes, while its ends come fairly in the centre of the space between two others. Take a thin piece of board and cut a mould for the felloe pieces, marking on it the lines for the dowel holes,d, and those for the insertion of the spokes,c. Then in like manner cut a board with a circumference of 9in. as a mould for the nave, and on it draw the lines which mark the mortices for the insertion of the spokes,b. The nave should be turned of some good solid even-grained wood, not too hard; elm is well calculated for the purpose. It is generally 9in. or 10in. long, and it should have a hole 1in. in diameter through its centre. A narrow pit, 3ft. in depth, is dug, and two stout beams, 9in. apart,laid along its edges; a 1in. rod of iron is passed through the hole in the nave, which, with its iron bands already driven on, is placed between the beams, supported by the ends of the rod which rest upon them (stout trestles, 3ft. high, are sometimes used instead of the pit). In one of the beams at the back of the nave is a stout upright, with a line marked upon it as a guide in boring the holes truly.

turning naves

Naves, to turn.

To turn a nave to the proper form without the assistance of a turning lathe, the following makeshift contrivance will be found useful and efficient. Fit up four strong planks, or a strong stool, of form shown in the accompanying illustration. Cut out two upright cheeks, which must be fitted by mortices to the upper surface of the stool. Then make aＴrest, and fit it in the centre of the stool, in one of a train of square holes cut behind the line of the cheeks. The block of wood intended to form the nave must have an ordinary auger hole bored through its true centre, and in this must be firmly wedged an iron bar, with a crank or handle bent at one end; this bar rests on bearings prepared for it in the cheeks, one bearing is formed by boring a hole just large enough to let the plain end of the bar through, and the other by sawing out a deep notch for the handle end to drop into, when it is prevented from becoming displaced by a pin passed in above it. The man about to officiate as turner sits astride on the stool, presses a long-handled gouge or chisel by the action of his shoulder firmly down on the rest, with its cutting edge against the nave log, which is turnedsteadily round by an assistant who has charge of the handle; the whole operation being conducted much on the principle of tool grinding, only that the motion of the log is always towards the man who manages the chisel. The rest is advanced as the log decreases in diameter.

Wheels, to build.

If the wheel is to have what is called a dish, cut a small piece of wood (Fig. 3, p. 368) to the angle at which the spokes are to project forward; and, having marked off all the mortices, which will be ¾in. wide by 1½in. long, take a brace and ¾in. bit, or a ¾in. screw auger, and bore two holes in the space marked for each mortice, as in Fig. 2, taking care to centre most accurately the spot at which the point of your bit or auger is inserted, and to keep its true direction by the aid of the upright line and the small angled board. The mortices will then be finished with a ¾in. mortice chisel and mallet. The holes in the felloe (Fig. 4) will be bored at the same angle with a 1in. auger; for, as the spoke will be 1½in. from back to front, there will be shoulder enough in those directions without weakening it by cutting a shoulder on the sides. Of course, the shoulders, both at the felloe and at the nave, will be cut to the same angle at which the holes are bored. The tenon should be less than 3in. in length, so that it may allow of the subsequent boring of a 3in. hole in the nave to receive the bush or iron sheathing in which the axle turns; and in like manner the ends inserted in the felloes should be less than 3in. long, so that they may not receive any pressure from the tire. Fig. 5 shows the centreing of the felloe ends to bore the dowel holes. Now, resting the nave on its iron rod upon the beams of the pit or trestles, drive in the first spoke, testing it by the upright line and by your angled board. Then, boring a hole in your upright, drive in a peg and cut it off at such a length that the first spoke may just touch it in passing. Drive in all the other spokes so that they also touch the end of the peg, and then in the end of each spoke make a cut 1in. deep, with a fine tenon saw, to receive a wedge of hard wood when the wheel is built. Then in one end of each felloe drive a dowel (d) rather stiffly, but so that it does not bottom in the hole; leave half its length projecting. Take a screw clamp and compress two of the spokes together till their ends will enter the holes in one felloe piece; drive it about ¾ in. on, and slackoff the clamp. If you have not a clamp, pass three or four turns of rope or thong round the two spokes, and twist them tightly with a hammer handle or other lever. Do the same with the next pair, and fit on the next felloe piece, taking care that it receives fairly the dowel of the first. Proceed in this manner all round, then look carefully to the fair insertion of all the spoke ends and dowels, and, being satisfied of this, keep the wheel turning slowly, and strike the felloe pieces homeward by smart blows of a mallet as each spoke passes you. When they are all fairly home, drive in the wedges to the spoke ends, trim off the felloe as neatly as you wish, insert the bush in the nave, and have the wheel tired in the manner described at pp. 195, 196.

steering wheel

To make a steering wheel.

A ship’s wheel differs from that of a waggon in being, not a roller moving freely on its axle and supporting the carriage and its load, but rather a series of levers arranged as spokes, connected and supported by the felloe for the purpose of turning the axle and gathering in or slacking off on either side the ropes or chains by which the tiller is moved; the spokes, therefore, project 6 in. or 8 in. beyond the circumference of the felloe, and are smoothed and rounded off so as to be easily and conveniently grasped by the steersman’s hand. The diameter of the felloe should not be less than 30 in., or it will not give sufficient leverage; nor more than 4 ft., or a man cannot command it easily. Neither the nave nor the felloe are made solid, but are built up in the following manner: The lines of circumference are traced, and the angles of the spokes set off in the manner already described. A disc of hard wood 9 in. in circumference, about 2 in. thick, and with a hole 3 in. square in its centre, is laid upon the floor. The spokes are arranged on this, and screwed or clenched firmly to it; the interstices are then filled up, and another disc of similar size is screwed or clenched over all to form the front. The bush, or axlebox, which of course is square, is fitted in, and an ornamental boss, generally covered with brass, is screwed over to conceal it. The felloe pieces are 3in. or 4in. broad, and 1in. thick: the back pieces are laid so that their centres come upon the spokes and their ends between; the next set, exactly as thick as the spokes, are laid in the intervals; and the front pieces are laid so that their ends meet upon the spokes, where they are generally confined by an ornamental lozenge, a cross, or an oval of brass, screwed down upon them. The axle is supported in a true fore and aft line by a couple of stancheons, with bushes for it to work in; and on some part of it, behind the wheel, is fixed the drum, over which the tiller chains or hide ropes are passed with two or three turns, so that as one is gathered in by a turn of the wheel, the other may be slacked off.

SPANISH WINDLASS.

Windlass.

A windlass may be of any size, from that of the old crossbow, to one fitted to weigh the anchor of a vessel, although in large ships the capstan is thought to afford the best and steadiest means of applying the continuous exertions of the men. A windlass may be roughly formed by setting up a couple of forked logs, or still better, if possible, choosing two forked trees firmly rooted in the proper place, and laying across them another log, thinned off as much as possible where it rests in the forks, to reduce the friction without too much impairing the strength. The central part ought to have paul notches cut in it, and a heavy paul log may be hinged or pivoted to a stout staple, nearly level with the ground, so that its end, acting as a “paul,” catches the paul notches and prevents the windlass giving way to the strain of the cable while the men are shifting their handspikes. The barrel of the windlass ought to be chopped or adzed down to an octagonal form (expressively though erroneously called 8-square), and holes should be morticed right through in each face so that each man, without change of position, should have eight opportunities of inserting his handspike. A Spanish windlass may be extemporised with the boat’s oars. Two of them are lashed together as sheers with legs of unequal length, the longer leg being in the direction of the strain. A pair are set up in each side of the boat and lashed to the thwarts, care being taken to put some piece of wood or other dunnage under the ends, so that they may not hurt the planking. Another oar is now laid across,with its loom resting in the forks; a grummet strop or a short piece of rope is made fast to the middle of each of the boat’s stretchers; if the end is frayed out, so much the better. The end is applied to the loom of the oar that represents the windlass, and the stretcher is turned round and round it until the rope tightens so much as to make it an efficient handspike. It should then be “stopped” in position with a bit of yarn. If there is a davit in the boat, the buoy rope is carried over the sheave, three or four turns are passed over the “windlass oar” and the end is carried forward and held by one of the boat’s crew, who gathers in all he can and loses none as the men heave round. When the boat’s stern is hove down as low in the water as is prudent, all the men go in the bow, and sometimes jump there, to jerk the anchor from the ground.

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