1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑3Azara, II p. 160.↑4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑8Levchine, p. 413.↑9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑10Sombart, I p. 342.↑11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑38Hale, p. 105.↑39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑48Geiseler, p. 42.↑49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑51Jung, p. 68.↑52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑55Ibid., p. 118.↑56Hale, p. 83.↑57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑58See above, pp. 107–109.↑59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑63Ribbe, p. 272.↑64Ribbe, p. 116.↑65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑66Inglis, p. 24.↑67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑71Haddon, p. 334.↑72Hunt, p. 7.↑73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑77Jung, p. 67.↑78Hale, p. 102.↑79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑81Rochas, p. 243.↑82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑86See above, p. 322.↑87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑92Mariner, II p. 350.↑93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑99Radiguet, p. 156.↑100See above, p. 319.↑101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑3Azara, II p. 160.↑4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑8Levchine, p. 413.↑9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑10Sombart, I p. 342.↑11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑38Hale, p. 105.↑39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑48Geiseler, p. 42.↑49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑51Jung, p. 68.↑52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑55Ibid., p. 118.↑56Hale, p. 83.↑57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑58See above, pp. 107–109.↑59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑63Ribbe, p. 272.↑64Ribbe, p. 116.↑65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑66Inglis, p. 24.↑67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑71Haddon, p. 334.↑72Hunt, p. 7.↑73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑77Jung, p. 67.↑78Hale, p. 102.↑79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑81Rochas, p. 243.↑82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑86See above, p. 322.↑87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑92Mariner, II p. 350.↑93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑99Radiguet, p. 156.↑100See above, p. 319.↑101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑3Azara, II p. 160.↑4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑8Levchine, p. 413.↑9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑10Sombart, I p. 342.↑11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑38Hale, p. 105.↑39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑48Geiseler, p. 42.↑49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑51Jung, p. 68.↑52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑55Ibid., p. 118.↑56Hale, p. 83.↑57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑58See above, pp. 107–109.↑59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑63Ribbe, p. 272.↑64Ribbe, p. 116.↑65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑66Inglis, p. 24.↑67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑71Haddon, p. 334.↑72Hunt, p. 7.↑73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑77Jung, p. 67.↑78Hale, p. 102.↑79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑81Rochas, p. 243.↑82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑86See above, p. 322.↑87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑92Mariner, II p. 350.↑93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑99Radiguet, p. 156.↑100See above, p. 319.↑101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑3Azara, II p. 160.↑4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑8Levchine, p. 413.↑9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑10Sombart, I p. 342.↑11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑38Hale, p. 105.↑39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑48Geiseler, p. 42.↑49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑51Jung, p. 68.↑52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑55Ibid., p. 118.↑56Hale, p. 83.↑57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑58See above, pp. 107–109.↑59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑63Ribbe, p. 272.↑64Ribbe, p. 116.↑65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑66Inglis, p. 24.↑67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑71Haddon, p. 334.↑72Hunt, p. 7.↑73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑77Jung, p. 67.↑78Hale, p. 102.↑79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑81Rochas, p. 243.↑82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑86See above, p. 322.↑87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑92Mariner, II p. 350.↑93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑99Radiguet, p. 156.↑100See above, p. 319.↑101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑3Azara, II p. 160.↑4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑8Levchine, p. 413.↑9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑10Sombart, I p. 342.↑11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑38Hale, p. 105.↑39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑48Geiseler, p. 42.↑49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑51Jung, p. 68.↑52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑55Ibid., p. 118.↑56Hale, p. 83.↑57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑58See above, pp. 107–109.↑59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑63Ribbe, p. 272.↑64Ribbe, p. 116.↑65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑66Inglis, p. 24.↑67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑71Haddon, p. 334.↑72Hunt, p. 7.↑73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑77Jung, p. 67.↑78Hale, p. 102.↑79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑81Rochas, p. 243.↑82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑86See above, p. 322.↑87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑92Mariner, II p. 350.↑93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑99Radiguet, p. 156.↑100See above, p. 319.↑101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑
1In this paragraph we shall use the same abbreviations as in Part II, Chap. I, § 3.↑
2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑
2Cunningham (English Industry, I p. 31) remarks that “primitive agriculture is perfectly consistent with a very migratory life.”↑
3Azara, II p. 160.↑
3Azara, II p. 160.↑
4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑
4Lery, pp. 123, 127, 141–175, 312.↑
5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑
5Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 201, 214.↑
6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑
6Hahn,Die Haustiere, pp. 388 sqq.↑
7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑
7Radloff,Aus Sibirien, I pp. 463–465.↑
8Levchine, p. 413.↑
8Levchine, p. 413.↑
9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑
9Bagehot, pp. 72, 73. Hutter (pp. 353, 354), speaking of the Bali tribes of Cameroon, remarks that there is a difference between rich and poor, but the poor are not so badly off as in Europe, for the land is open to every one.↑
10Sombart, I p. 342.↑
10Sombart, I p. 342.↑
11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑
11Adam Smith as referred to by Ingram, p. 282. Loria (p. 97) also holds that production was decreased by the introduction of slavery.↑
12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑
12Cairnes wrote in 1862.↑
13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑
13Cairnes, pp. 43, 44, 49–52.↑
14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑
14Such was the slave system of the ancient Germans described byTacitus: “You cannot tell master from slave by any distinction in education: they spend their time among the same flocks, upon the same land, until age separates the nobles and their valour causes them to be acknowledged.” Tacitus, Germania, 20. On the character of primitive slavery, see also Schmoller,Grundriss, I p. 339.↑
15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑
15Bagehot, pp. 73, 74; see also Flügel, p. 96, and Jhering’s excellent description of the character of slavery in early Rome (Jhering, II Part I pp. 172 sqq.).↑
16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑
16Cairnes, pp. 53–56, 62, 179 sqq.↑
17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑
17Weber’s Article “Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 3rdedition (1909) I p. 63.↑
18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑
18Cairnes is also aware of the difference between ancient and modern slavery (pp. 109 sqq.).↑
19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑
19Loria,pp. 2–6.↑
20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑
20On Loria’s incorrect manner of reasoning, see B. Croce’s essay on “Le teorie storiche del Prof. Loria”, in “Materialismo storico ed economia Marxistica”. A much better opinion of Loria is held by Sombart (I p. 358).↑
21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑
21Wakefield, pp. 323–325. Marx (I pp. 795–804) gives a detailed account of the same argument as developed in another book of Wakefield’s, and adds that the exclusion of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalistic mode of production (ibid., p.798).↑
22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑
22On the practical result of Wakefield’s plan, see Cunningham, English Industry, II pp. 603–607. Professor Cunningham justly calls Wakefield “a judicious and far-seeing man” (ibid., p. 605, note 3).↑
23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑
23Merivale, pp. 305, 313–317. See also Waltershausen, article “Negerfrage”, inHandwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 2ndedition, V p. 973.↑
24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑
24See Dargun, pp. 49 sqq. Hildebrand (Recht und Sitte, pp. 134 sqq.) rightly remarks that in primitive societies the uncultivated land is not the property of the community, but nobody’s property (res nullius).↑
25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑
25Where the State owns the land and gives it in use gratuitously or at a low rent, the land is practically free. Such was the case in China, in the 5thcentury of our era, where the State gave allotments to farmers at a definite tax. “It is obvious, that the condition of the free cultivators without land could not become intolerable so long as they were able to rent in on the simple condition of paying the ordinary tax; and as long as the State had land to let on these terms, private agglomerators would be unable to get farmers to pay more to themselves; so that large estates could only be profitable on condition of evading the land tax, or being tilled for the ownerbyservile labour.” Simcox, II p. 127.↑
26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑
26“Destitute of land” is not the same as: “who own no land.” When the population is so scarce that even the most fertile land has no value, nobody owns land; but there are no men destitute of land, any more than in our countries there are men destitute of air or water; every one has land at his disposal. Only when every piece of land has an owner, can there be people destitute of land,i.e.who have no land at their disposal.↑
27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑
27Ricardo, pp. 35, 36.↑
28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑
28Spenser St. John, I pp. 74, 60.↑
29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑
29Jenks, pp. 160–163.↑
30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑
30Dr. Tönnies, in his review of the first edition of this work, remarks that the last sentences contain a most important qualification of our theory of the connection between slavery and land tenure. Every one does not want to take land into cultivation, though he may do so without any payment. On the other hand, where there are people destitute of land, it is not certain that they serve the landowners and so make slavery superfluous. It may be that, though they own no land, they have other resources to live upon, or that they are not apt to perform such work as is most wanted by the rich, etc.
We are well aware of all this. Yet we think we are justified in concluding that, generally speaking, slavery only exists where there is still free land,i.e.free land fit for cultivation. That we admit many exceptions to this rule, will appear from the last paragraphs of this chapter.↑
31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑
31Mahler, pp. 58, 59.↑
32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑
32Waltershausen, pp. 17, 18.↑
33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑
33Mariner, II pp. 162, 160; West, p. 262.↑
34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑
34Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑
35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑
35Turner, Samoa, pp, 176, 177; Von Bülow, p. 192.↑
36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑
36Hoagis a large family-group of which thepureis the head.↑
37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑
37Gardiner, pp. 483–485; 497.↑
38Hale, p. 105.↑
38Hale, p. 105.↑
39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑
39Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 116; I pp. 109, 103; Moerenhout, II p. 12.↑
40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑
40Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 412, 413, 416; Hale, p. 36; Remy, p. XLVI; Chamisso, in Kotzebue, p. 149; Marcuse, p. 95.↑
41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑
41Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, II p. 148.↑
42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑
42Waitz-Gerland, VI pp. 216, 217; Meinicke, l.c., p. 254; Hale, p. 36.↑
43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑
43Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 219.↑
44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑
44Meinicke, l.c., p. 264.↑
45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑
45Tutuila, as quoted by Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355; Lister, p. 54.↑
46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
46Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑
47Tregear, p. 106; Thomson, New Zealand, I pp. 96, 97, 98; Taylor, p. 355; Polack, II p. 69.↑
48Geiseler, p. 42.↑
48Geiseler, p. 42.↑
49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑
49Kubary,Die Ebongruppe, pp. 36, 37.↑
50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑
50Senfft, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 448, 452; Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑
51Jung, p. 68.↑
51Jung, p. 68.↑
52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑
52Kubary,Soc. Einr. der Pelauer, pp. 47, 48; Kubary,Die Verbrechen, p. 85.↑
53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑
53Kubary,Mortlock-Inseln, p. 253.↑
54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑
54Waitz-Gerland, V, 2 pp. 120, 121, 78.↑
55Ibid., p. 118.↑
55Ibid., p. 118.↑
56Hale, p. 83.↑
56Hale, p. 83.↑
57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑
57Waitz-Gerland, l.c., p. 114.↑
58See above, pp. 107–109.↑
58See above, pp. 107–109.↑
59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑
59Wilkes, p. 96; Hale, p. 102.↑
60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑
60Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 306; see also Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 59, 60.↑
61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑
61Codrington, Soc. Reg., pp. 311, 312.↑
62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑
62Somerville, New Georgia, p. 404.↑
63Ribbe, p. 272.↑
63Ribbe, p. 272.↑
64Ribbe, p. 116.↑
64Ribbe, p. 116.↑
65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑
65Woodford, pp. 32, 33.↑
66Inglis, p. 24.↑
66Inglis, p. 24.↑
67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑
67Brainne, p. 241; Glaumont, p. 75; Lambert, pp. 82, 85; Meinicke,Die Inseln des stillen Oceans, I p. 230; Rochas, pp. 245, 262.↑
68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑
68Williams, pp. 18, 22; Seemann, p. 233; Hale, p. 59; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, pp. 336, 338, 343.↑
69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑
69Pfeil, p. 69; Hahl, p. 82; Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 158.↑
70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑
70Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 422.↑
71Haddon, p. 334.↑
71Haddon, p. 334.↑
72Hunt, p. 7.↑
72Hunt, p. 7.↑
73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑
73See above, p. 107. In Tahiti there were also people destitute of land, of whom we shall have to speak in this paragraph.↑
74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑
74Ellis, Pol. Res., I p. 107.↑
75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑
75Ibid., IV p. 414; Wilkes, IV p. 36; Remy, p. 155.↑
76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑
76Thomson, Savage Island, p. 143.↑
77Jung, p. 67.↑
77Jung, p. 67.↑
78Hale, p. 102.↑
78Hale, p. 102.↑
79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑
79Waterhouse, p. 316; Williams, pp. 43, 54; Wilkes, III p. 85; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 343.↑
80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑
80Ellis, Pol. Res., IIIp.360; Thomson, New-Zealand, p. 148.↑
81Rochas, p. 243.↑
81Rochas, p. 243.↑
82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑
82Von Bülow, p. 193.↑
83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑
83Williams, p. 29; Fison, l.c., p. 345; see also Wilkes, III p. 98.↑
84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑
84Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 122.↑
85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑
85Thomson, Savage Island,p. 143.↑
86See above, p. 322.↑
86See above, p. 322.↑
87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑
87Krämer, Hawaii, etc., p. 334.↑
88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑
88Ibid., p. 451; Jung, p. 65.↑
89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑
89Codrington, Soc. Reg., p. 311.↑
90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑
90Gardiner, pp. 485, 470.↑
91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑
91Turner, Samoa, p. 173; Von Bülow, p. 194.↑
92Mariner, II p. 350.↑
92Mariner, II p. 350.↑
93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑
93Thomson, Savage Island, p. 138.↑
94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑
94Turner, Samoa, pp. 175, 171; Hale, p. 28.↑
95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑
95Ellis, Pol. Res., III pp. 96–98; Wilkes, II p. 22.↑
96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑
96Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 413, 416, 417.↑
97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑
97Wilkes, IV p. 37.↑
98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑
98Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 199.↑
99Radiguet, p. 156.↑
99Radiguet, p. 156.↑
100See above, p. 319.↑
100See above, p. 319.↑
101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑
101Tutuila, in Schurtz,Anfänge des Landbesitzes, p. 355.↑
102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑
102Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 535.↑