103Polack, II p. 156.↑104Geiseler, p. 41.↑105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑108Ibid., p. 112.↑109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑112Elton, p. 98.↑113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑114Hahl, p. 77.↑115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑117Haddon, p. 342.↑118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑122Gardiner, p. 486.↑123Hale, p. 85.↑124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑131See above, p. 332.↑132Mariner, II p. 349.↑133Radiguet,p. 156.↑134See above, p. 338.↑135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑138Wakefield, p. 326.↑139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑142Amira, p. 138.↑143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑144Ashley, I p. 21.↑145Ibid., p. 7.↑146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑149Ashley, I p. 37.↑150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑154Ashley, I p. 31.↑155Ibid., p. 27.↑156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑164Krieger, p. 225.↑165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑167Ashley, I p. 13.↑168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑169Ibid., p. 251.↑170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑172Ibid., p. 407.↑173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑177Ashley, I p. 26.↑178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑179Ashley, I p. 20.↑180See above, p. 350.↑181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑184Ibid., p. 37.↑185Ibid., p. 29.↑186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑187Ashley, I p. 32.↑188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑189Ashley, II p. 277.↑190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑191Ashley, II p. 265.↑192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑200Ashley, II p. 267.↑201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑204Ashley, II p. 281.↑205Ibid., p. 284.↑206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑207Ibid., p. 393.↑208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑
103Polack, II p. 156.↑104Geiseler, p. 41.↑105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑108Ibid., p. 112.↑109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑112Elton, p. 98.↑113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑114Hahl, p. 77.↑115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑117Haddon, p. 342.↑118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑122Gardiner, p. 486.↑123Hale, p. 85.↑124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑131See above, p. 332.↑132Mariner, II p. 349.↑133Radiguet,p. 156.↑134See above, p. 338.↑135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑138Wakefield, p. 326.↑139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑142Amira, p. 138.↑143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑144Ashley, I p. 21.↑145Ibid., p. 7.↑146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑149Ashley, I p. 37.↑150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑154Ashley, I p. 31.↑155Ibid., p. 27.↑156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑164Krieger, p. 225.↑165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑167Ashley, I p. 13.↑168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑169Ibid., p. 251.↑170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑172Ibid., p. 407.↑173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑177Ashley, I p. 26.↑178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑179Ashley, I p. 20.↑180See above, p. 350.↑181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑184Ibid., p. 37.↑185Ibid., p. 29.↑186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑187Ashley, I p. 32.↑188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑189Ashley, II p. 277.↑190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑191Ashley, II p. 265.↑192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑200Ashley, II p. 267.↑201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑204Ashley, II p. 281.↑205Ibid., p. 284.↑206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑207Ibid., p. 393.↑208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑
103Polack, II p. 156.↑104Geiseler, p. 41.↑105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑108Ibid., p. 112.↑109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑112Elton, p. 98.↑113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑114Hahl, p. 77.↑115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑117Haddon, p. 342.↑118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑122Gardiner, p. 486.↑123Hale, p. 85.↑124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑131See above, p. 332.↑132Mariner, II p. 349.↑133Radiguet,p. 156.↑134See above, p. 338.↑135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑138Wakefield, p. 326.↑139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑142Amira, p. 138.↑143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑144Ashley, I p. 21.↑145Ibid., p. 7.↑146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑149Ashley, I p. 37.↑150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑154Ashley, I p. 31.↑155Ibid., p. 27.↑156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑164Krieger, p. 225.↑165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑167Ashley, I p. 13.↑168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑169Ibid., p. 251.↑170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑172Ibid., p. 407.↑173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑177Ashley, I p. 26.↑178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑179Ashley, I p. 20.↑180See above, p. 350.↑181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑184Ibid., p. 37.↑185Ibid., p. 29.↑186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑187Ashley, I p. 32.↑188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑189Ashley, II p. 277.↑190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑191Ashley, II p. 265.↑192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑200Ashley, II p. 267.↑201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑204Ashley, II p. 281.↑205Ibid., p. 284.↑206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑207Ibid., p. 393.↑208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑
103Polack, II p. 156.↑104Geiseler, p. 41.↑105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑108Ibid., p. 112.↑109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑112Elton, p. 98.↑113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑114Hahl, p. 77.↑115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑117Haddon, p. 342.↑118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑122Gardiner, p. 486.↑123Hale, p. 85.↑124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑131See above, p. 332.↑132Mariner, II p. 349.↑133Radiguet,p. 156.↑134See above, p. 338.↑135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑138Wakefield, p. 326.↑139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑142Amira, p. 138.↑143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑144Ashley, I p. 21.↑145Ibid., p. 7.↑146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑149Ashley, I p. 37.↑150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑154Ashley, I p. 31.↑155Ibid., p. 27.↑156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑164Krieger, p. 225.↑165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑167Ashley, I p. 13.↑168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑169Ibid., p. 251.↑170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑172Ibid., p. 407.↑173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑177Ashley, I p. 26.↑178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑179Ashley, I p. 20.↑180See above, p. 350.↑181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑184Ibid., p. 37.↑185Ibid., p. 29.↑186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑187Ashley, I p. 32.↑188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑189Ashley, II p. 277.↑190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑191Ashley, II p. 265.↑192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑200Ashley, II p. 267.↑201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑204Ashley, II p. 281.↑205Ibid., p. 284.↑206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑207Ibid., p. 393.↑208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑
103Polack, II p. 156.↑104Geiseler, p. 41.↑105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑108Ibid., p. 112.↑109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑112Elton, p. 98.↑113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑114Hahl, p. 77.↑115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑117Haddon, p. 342.↑118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑122Gardiner, p. 486.↑123Hale, p. 85.↑124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑131See above, p. 332.↑132Mariner, II p. 349.↑133Radiguet,p. 156.↑134See above, p. 338.↑135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑138Wakefield, p. 326.↑139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑142Amira, p. 138.↑143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑144Ashley, I p. 21.↑145Ibid., p. 7.↑146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑149Ashley, I p. 37.↑150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑154Ashley, I p. 31.↑155Ibid., p. 27.↑156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑164Krieger, p. 225.↑165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑167Ashley, I p. 13.↑168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑169Ibid., p. 251.↑170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑172Ibid., p. 407.↑173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑177Ashley, I p. 26.↑178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑179Ashley, I p. 20.↑180See above, p. 350.↑181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑184Ibid., p. 37.↑185Ibid., p. 29.↑186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑187Ashley, I p. 32.↑188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑189Ashley, II p. 277.↑190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑191Ashley, II p. 265.↑192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑200Ashley, II p. 267.↑201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑204Ashley, II p. 281.↑205Ibid., p. 284.↑206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑207Ibid., p. 393.↑208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑
103Polack, II p. 156.↑
103Polack, II p. 156.↑
104Geiseler, p. 41.↑
104Geiseler, p. 41.↑
105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑
105Waitz-Gerland, VI p. 165.↑
106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑
106Steinbach, p. 297; Krämer, Hawaii, etc., pp. 430, 431.↑
107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑
107Waitz-Gerland, V, 2p. 121.↑
108Ibid., p. 112.↑
108Ibid., p. 112.↑
109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑
109Rochas, pp. 245, 246; Glaumont, pp. 74, 75; Brainne, p. 246; Lambert, pp. 79, 82, 83.↑
110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑
110Williams, pp. 23, 90, 157, 39, 40; Waterhouse, p. 311; Fison, Land tenure in Fiji, p. 342; Wilkes, III pp. 81, 108; see above, pp. 91, 92.↑
111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑
111Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 21, 22.↑
112Elton, p. 98.↑
112Elton, p. 98.↑
113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑
113Hagen and Pineau, p. 335; Turner, Samoa, pp. 315, 328; Ribbe, p. 138.↑
114Hahl, p. 77.↑
114Hahl, p. 77.↑
115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑
115Sorge, in Steinmetz’sRechtsverhältnisse, pp. 401, 414.↑
116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑
116Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre, p. 396.↑
117Haddon, p. 342.↑
117Haddon, p. 342.↑
118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑
118Moerenhout, II p. 223.↑
119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑
119See Gerland,Das Aussterben der Naturvölker, pp. 5, 6; and Mahler’s essay, pp. 60, 61.↑
120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑
120Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑
121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑
121One reason why these islanders wanted little labour may have been that they relied for a considerable portion of their food on the fruits of trees which, when once planted, required little care.↑
122Gardiner, p. 486.↑
122Gardiner, p. 486.↑
123Hale, p. 85.↑
123Hale, p. 85.↑
124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑
124Mariner, II pp. 159–162.↑
125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑
125Ellis, Pol. Res., III p. 96.↑
126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑
126Wilkes, pp. 99, 108.↑
127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑
127Williams, pp. 71, 32.↑
128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑
128Blumentritt,Conquista, pp. 56, 57.↑
129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑
129Ellis, Pol. Res.,Ip. 296.↑
130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑
130Ibid., IV p. 152.↑
131See above, p. 332.↑
131See above, p. 332.↑
132Mariner, II p. 349.↑
132Mariner, II p. 349.↑
133Radiguet,p. 156.↑
133Radiguet,p. 156.↑
134See above, p. 338.↑
134See above, p. 338.↑
135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑
135Williams, p. 45, and see above, p. 339.↑
136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑
136We have not spoken of landed property among hunters, because there are reasons enough to be found, apart from the appropriation of the land, why slavery is not likely to exist among them. We will only remark here that among many Australian tribes property in land is stated to exist (see Dargun, pp. 49, 50). Sometimes even the whole of the land seems to be held as property. “It seems curious” says Macgillivray “to find at Cape York and the[347]Prince of Wales’ Islands a recognised division and ownership of land, seeing that none of it by cultivation has been rendered fit for the permanent support of man. According to Gi’om, there are laws regulating the ownership of every inch of ground on Muralug and the neighbouring possessions of the Kowraregas and I am led to believe such is likewise the case at Cape York.” Macgillivray, as quoted by Haddon, p 432.↑
137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑
137Wakefield wrote in 1849.↑
138Wakefield, p. 326.↑
138Wakefield, p. 326.↑
139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑
139Ashley, I pp. 17, 18.↑
140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑
140Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 73, 74.↑
141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑
141Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 5.↑
142Amira, p. 138.↑
142Amira, p. 138.↑
143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑
143Oppenheimer, David RicardosGrundrententheorie, pp. 152, 153.↑
144Ashley, I p. 21.↑
144Ashley, I p. 21.↑
145Ibid., p. 7.↑
145Ibid., p. 7.↑
146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑
146Ibid., pp. 8, 9.↑
147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑
147Ibid., pp. 22, 31.↑
148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑
148Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 476.↑
149Ashley, I p. 37.↑
149Ashley, I p. 37.↑
150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑
150Hildebrand,Natural-, Geld- und Creditwirthschaft, pp. 4, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18.↑
151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑
151Absolute self-sufficiency does not appear to exist anywhere, not even among savage tribes, see above, p. 255. But there certainly is a great difference between those countries which get their chief necessaries directly by their own labour, and those which produce mainly for export.↑
152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑
152Ellis, Pol. Res., IV pp. 416, 417.↑
153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑
153Among many hunters, fishers and hunting agriculturists slavery and serfdom are also wanting. But among these there are no labouring classes (as opposed to owning classes) at all, whether free or otherwise. Only the Eskimos have free servants.↑
154Ashley, I p. 31.↑
154Ashley, I p. 31.↑
155Ibid., p. 27.↑
155Ibid., p. 27.↑
156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑
156Inama-Sternegg, II pp. 167–177.↑
157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑
157See Inama-Sternegg, II p. 283.↑
158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑
158Ochenkowski, p. 11.↑
159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑
159This was done on a large scale by the German landlords towards the end of the Middle Ages, see Inama-Sternegg, III Part I p. 384.↑
160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑
160Kovalewsky,Régime économique moderne, pp. 358–362.↑
161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑
161Malthus, p. 438, note 1.↑
162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑
162Lange,Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 227.↑
163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑
163Ratzel,Anthropogeographie, II p. 242.↑
164Krieger, p. 225.↑
164Krieger, p. 225.↑
165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑
165Inama-Sternegg, I p. 382.↑
166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑
166See Ochenkowski, pp. 11, 15, 21; Inama-Sternegg, I pp. 236, 237; Cunningham, Western Civilization, pp. 73, 74, 95, 108, 192. According to Marx (Vol. III Part II pp. 332, 333), the substitution of money payments for dues in kind necessarily leads to free contracts between landlords and cultivators.
Grupp (Zeitschrift für Kulturgeschichte, IV p. 242) asserts that the rise of money economy caused the transition from slavery to serfdom. We shall not discuss this point, as it is not directly connected with the subject of this paragraph.↑
167Ashley, I p. 13.↑
167Ashley, I p. 13.↑
168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑
168Cunningham, English Industry, I p. 95.↑
169Ibid., p. 251.↑
169Ibid., p. 251.↑
170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑
170Ochenkowski, p. 7.↑
171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑
171Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑
172Ibid., p. 407.↑
172Ibid., p. 407.↑
173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑
173Ashley, I p. 13; Cunningham, l.c. I pp. 95, 96.↑
174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑
174Cunningham, l.c. pp. 158, 159.↑
175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑
175Ashley, I p. 17; Cunningham, l.c. p. 160.↑
176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑
176Cunningham, l.c. p. 5.↑
177Ashley, I p. 26.↑
177Ashley, I p. 26.↑
178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑
178Ochenkowski, pp. 33, 34.↑
179Ashley, I p. 20.↑
179Ashley, I p. 20.↑
180See above, p. 350.↑
180See above, p. 350.↑
181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑
181Cunningham, l.c. p. 253.↑
182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑
182See Ashley, I. p. 27.↑
183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑
183Ibid., pp. 38–40.↑
184Ibid., p. 37.↑
184Ibid., p. 37.↑
185Ibid., p. 29.↑
185Ibid., p. 29.↑
186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑
186Cunningham, l.c. p. 225.↑
187Ashley, I p. 32.↑
187Ashley, I p. 32.↑
188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑
188Cunningham, l.c. p. 305.↑
189Ashley, II p. 277.↑
189Ashley, II p. 277.↑
190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑
190See Ashley, II pp. 264–267, and Ochenkowski, pp. 18–20.↑
191Ashley, II p. 265.↑
191Ashley, II p. 265.↑
192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑
192Cunningham, l.c. pp. 356, 357. On the Black Death and its effects, see also Thorold Rogers, Work and Wages, pp.5–26, and The Economic Interpretation of History by the same author, pp. 24 sqq.↑
193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑
193Cunningham, l.c. p. 306.↑
194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑
194Ibid., pp. 307, 308.↑
195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑
195Ibid., pp. 355, 356.↑
196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑
196See Ochenkowski, p. 37.↑
197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑
197This date is given by Ashley, II p. 264.↑
198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑
198Cunningham, l.c., p. 361.↑
199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑
199Lange (Die Arbeiterfrage, p. 241) also remarks that in England the transition from agriculture to sheep breeding engendered a relative over-population. On relative and absolute over-population, see further Oppenheimer,Das Bevölkerungsgesetz, etc., pp. 79–84.↑
200Ashley, II p. 267.↑
200Ashley, II p. 267.↑
201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑
201Ashley, II pp. 270–272; Cunningham, l.c., p. 362.↑
202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑
202Ashley, II pp. 272, 273.↑
203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑
203Cunningham, l.c., p. 474.↑
204Ashley, II p. 281.↑
204Ashley, II p. 281.↑
205Ibid., p. 284.↑
205Ibid., p. 284.↑
206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑
206Cunningham, l.c., p. 408.↑
207Ibid., p. 393.↑
207Ibid., p. 393.↑
208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑
208Ashley, II pp. 336, 352.↑
209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑
209Cunningham, l.c., pp. 361, 476.↑
210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑
210See Ashley, II pp. 286–288.↑