THE PHILIPPINES

This group of islands is situated about 500 miles off the southeast coast of Asia, between 4 degrees 10 minutes and 21 degrees 10 minutes north latitude and between 116 degrees 40 minutes and 126 degrees 34 minutes east longitude. It is bounded on the west and north by the China sea, on the east by the Pacific ocean and on the south by the Celebes sea. It comprises 3141 islands, of which 2775 contain less than one square mile each. According to the Philippine census of 1903 the total area is 115,026 square miles,[44]although some authorities estimate it to be as much as 127,800 square miles. Two-thirds of this is forest land and not more than 9½ per cent of the entire archipelago was classified underFarmsin 1903. The area devoted to sugar cane the year previous was 177,628 acres, about 5 per cent of the cultivated land.

The islands are chiefly of volcanic origin and their surface is much broken by hills, isolated volcanoes and mountain ranges running north and south, northwest and southeast or northeast and southwest. There are twelve active volcanoes in the group and eight others with well-defined cones that are either dormant or extinct. The highest elevation in the islands is Mount Apo, an extinct volcano on Mindanao, 10,312 feet, with Mount Mayon, an active volcano on Luzon, next, 8970 feet. Earthquakes are frequent and occasionally violent.

The most important of the group are Mindanao, Luzon, Samar, Palawan, Panay, Negros, Leyte, Mindoro, Cebú, Masbate and Bohol. The coast line, which is over 11,000 miles in length, is fringed with coral reefs and indented by many gulfsand bays. There are plenty of good natural harbors, the principal one being Manila in Luzon, which affords perfect shelter for shipping, even in the severest storms. Next in importance are the harbors of Iloilo and Cebú.

Climatic conditions vary widely. However, it may be said in a general way that the climate is characterized by a uniformly high temperature, excessive humidity, heavy rainfall and violent tropical storms. Near the seacoast, it is moderate between November and the first of March. The latter part of March and the months of July, August and September are warm and very hot weather comes in April, May and June. The nights, however, are always cool. The temperature naturally changes as the elevation above the sea increases, but at ordinary levels it averages 77 degrees Fahrenheit in January, and 83 degrees in May.

The annual rainfall is about 74 inches, and two-thirds of this comes in July, August, September and October. Of course the precipitation in certain localities is affected by mountain ranges that cause condensation from moisture-laden trade winds. In the lowlands that are not protected by mountains, the rainfall is regular. Typhoons occur between April and October, but they are not nearly so severe as the hurricanes that visit the West Indies and Mauritius. In October, 1882, a typhoon did a great deal of damage in Manila, and there was a serious loss of life in the great storm that visited Samar and Leyte in 1897. The well-appointed observatory in Manila sends out warnings of the approach of typhoons and much life and property are saved by this means.

The soil is generally reddish-brown in color and is largely made up of disintegrated lava with an admixture of decayed vegetable matter; sometimes decomposed coral limestone is present.

PLOUGHING FIELD BEFORE PLANTING CANE, PHILIPPINES

PLOUGHING AT LA CARLOTA, OCCIDENTAL NEGROS, PHILIPPINES

John W. Dwinelle, in an address delivered in San Franciscoin 1866, said: “Previous to the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, the Portuguese had discovered the Azore islands in longitude 31 W., and on the strength of that discovery claimed that the countries discovered by Columbus belonged to the crown of Portugal, and that the Spaniards should be wholly excluded from them. But the Spaniards refused to admit this pretension and referred the matter for decision to the Pope, Alexander VI. It was then part of the law of nations, and of the public law of the world, that the Pope was the ultimate source of all temporal power; that he could make and unmake kings, and dispose of all the kingdoms of the earth—powers which he frequently exercised and against which it were vain to contend. He was therefore, by general consent, the acknowledged source of all lawful title to land. He assumed to decide the case thus referred to his decision, and on May 3d, A. D. 1493, determined the matter in dispute between the crowns of Portugal and Spain, by drawing an imaginary line of longitude one hundred leagues west of the Azores, and granting to the Spanish monarchs all countries inhabited by infidels, which they had already discovered, or might afterwards discover, lying to the west, and to the crown of Portugal all those lying to the east of that line. This line was afterwards removed two hundred and seventy leagues further to the west, by a treaty subsequently made in the year 1494, between the kings of Portugal and Spain; but so thoroughly was the title thus conceded by the Pope respected by the civilized world, that when Henry VII of England was afterwards about to intrude upon some of the dominions thus granted to Spain, he abandoned his project upon being warned by the Pope to desist.”

This division of the surface of the globe into two parts gave to Portugal all the territory both known and unknown east of the arbitrary meridian drawn 470 miles west of the Cape Verde islands, and to Spain everything west of this line.

Ferdinand Magellan, the famous Portuguese navigator, in the service of the Emperor Charles V of Spain, set out on a voyage west-bound with the object of taking possession of the Moluccas, as they lay west of the line of demarcation. Sailing around Cape Horn, Magellan discovered the Philippine islands in 1521, landing first on Malhou, between Samar and Dinagat. Afterward, he touched at Mindanao, from which he sailed to Cebú. Thence he went to the small island of Mactan, where he was killed in a skirmish.

But little action was taken with regard to this territory until after the accession of Philip II (hence “las Filipinas”—Philippines), when an important expedition was fitted out at the Mexican port of Navidad. It sailed in November, 1564, under the command of Miguél Lopez de Legaspi, the distinguished conquistador, who, in the following year established on the island of Cebú the first permanent settlement in the Philippines. The city of Manila was founded in 1571 and became the capital of the group. Through his tact, courage and resourcefulness, Legaspi won the confidence of the people and placed the colony on a sound footing. At the same time he checked all attempts at encroachment on the part of the Portuguese. Spanish rule was undisturbed until 1762, when a British naval force bombarded Manila and occupied it. At the conclusion of the war between Great Britain and Spain in 1764, the British withdrew and the domination of Spain endured until 1898, when the Spanish fleet was destroyed by Dewey at Manila bay.

The title to the Philippines therefore passed through the Pope to Spain and from Spain to the United States.

When Magellan reached these islands he found that sugar was made in a primitive fashion. The methods employed were very much like those in vogue in China, and the sugar, when made, greatly resembled the Chinese product. This is very strong presumptive evidence that cane and the knowledge of itsmanufacture were originally brought to the Philippines by the Chinese.

HAULING CANE, PHILIPPINES

CARABAO MILL, PHILIPPINES

The industry, however, amounted to very little prior to 1849, in which year the island of Negros was placed under the jurisdiction of the religious order of Recoletos, who did much to encourage the manufacture of sugar, and this movement was stimulated by the high prices resulting from the Crimean war. In consequence, cane sugar was exported with profit from Negros, Luzon and Cebú. Notwithstanding the lack of capital, the rough, crude mills, the planters’ scant knowledge of manufacturing methods and the wretched transportation facilities, the sugar trade forged rapidly ahead until in 1893 the exports totaled 257,550 long tons. A slump in the price of silver, however, brought on a financial crisis, and subsequently internal dissensions affected the crops so that in 1901 only 51,448 tons were exported. Since then a change for the better has taken place and the figures for 1915-16 indicate a production of 345,000 tons.

Sugar cane is used as a delicacy in all of the inhabited islands of the Philippine group, but the growing and manufacture of it as a regular industry are confined to Negros, Mindoro, Cebú, Panay, Luzon and Leyte. In 1914-15 about 350,000 acres altogether were planted in cane, and the quantity of sugar exported during 1916 was about 300,000 tons.

The first care of the United States after its occupancy of the Philippines was the bettering of conditions in sanitation, education, banking methods, railway communication and deep water terminals. Apart from the primitive character of the sugar mills and the loss growing out of poor extraction of juice, open-kettle boiling and curing in earthen pots, the sugar producer was generally in debt to the buyer for advances that carried a high rate of interest. The government has taken steps to correct this evil and has made it possible for the farmer to get credit on reasonableterms, limiting its loans, however, to those who have Torrens titles to their property,[45]but the Filipino has been under the influence of the money-lenders too long for him to break his bonds entirely. Besides, his instinctive dislike for anything new is a hindrance to progress in this direction.

In addition to the measures just alluded to, a special law was passed in 1902, under which all Philippine sugars entering the United States paid 25 per cent less than the regular customs tariff. The Payne-Aldrich bill of August 5, 1909, provided for free admission of Philippine sugars up to 300,000 gross tons, and it stipulated that the small producer (less than 500 tons per annum) was to receive first consideration in the event of the importation exceeding 300,000 tons. Any excess coming into the United States would have been assessed the full tariff. During the life of this legislation, however, the largest production of the islands was that of 1913-14, which amounted to 265,000 tons, of which 225,000 tons were exported.[46]The tariff act of 1913, which became effective March 1, 1914, admits all Philippine sugars free of duty without any restriction as to quantity.

The religious orders were formerly large land owners in the Philippines, and the feeling of discontent that ultimately led to the insurrection of the Filipinos against Spain in 1896 was largely due to agrarian difficulties between the friars and their tenants. When the revolution came, the friars had to flee for their lives, and after peace was restored by the United States, the insular government felt that if they returned to their possessions they would be in constant danger from the hostility of the natives. It was, therefore, decided to acquire these lands and to that end Congress passed an act authorizing the Philippinegovernment to issue bonds to the amount of $7,000,000 and to purchase the lands of the various orders with the money so raised. With one or two minor exceptions, all of these lands, amounting to something over 600,000 acres, were bought by the government and are being resold on long-term payments at a price that will reimburse the government. In disposing of this property preference is always given to the resident tenants.

OLD-STYLE SUGAR MILL, PHILIPPINES—SHOWING POOR CRUSHING

TINGUIAN CANE CRUSHER, LINGAYEN, PHILIPPINES

A measure was carried through the Philippine legislature approving the sale of the unoccupied portions of these friar estates to individuals without restriction as to acreage, and it was under the provisions of this act that large tracts of land were acquired by the interests connected with the Mindoro company in the San José estate in Mindoro and by the people associated with the Calamba estate in the Calamba, Santa Rosa and Biñan districts of Laguna province, Luzon.

Apart from these so-called friar lands, the public lands in the Philippine islands are held for sale or lease subject to the following conditions: Corporations can purchase or lease up to 1024 hectares, or 2500 acres, and individuals up to 64 hectares, or 158 acres. The terms of sale are a minimum of 10 pesos, or $5 per hectare, 25 per cent of which must be paid at the time the contract is entered into and the remainder within five years, with interest at 6 per cent, or leased at a minimum rental of 50 centavos, or 25 cents, per hectare per annum, leases running for fifty years.

The Mindoro and Calamba companies, controlling 55,000 and 20,000 acres respectively, and the San Cárlos Milling company of San Cárlos, Negros, have erected the first and only modern sugar mills in the Philippines, and they have gone into cane cultivation and sugar manufacture in a scientific way. The management of these three enterprises has been entrusted to men who have had thorough field and factory experience in Hawaii.

Unlike the other two large companies, the San Cárlos Millingcompany operates acentralpure and simple. The company owns no land except the site for the mill and the outbuildings connected with it. It has, however, acquired leases of a certain amount of railway trackage. The capacity of the mill is 1000 tons of cane per day, which means about 125 tons of centrifugal sugar. It was completed at the end of 1913 at a cost of about one million dollars, and the first cane ground was from the 1914 crop.

In the Philippines cane is not planted every year. Herbert S. Walker, in his work “The Sugar Industry in the Island of Negros” (Manila, 1910), says: “A decidedly large proportion of the total land under cultivation in Negros is not replanted every year, but is allowed to ratoon, from two to eight crops being taken off without replanting. This is especially true in the rich soils of the districts around Ilog-Cabancalan, Binalbagan-Isabela, San Cárlos and Bais. Theoretically, cane planted in some of these alluvial soils, which are flooded and fertilized each year by silt brought down from the mountains by the overflow of a river, might go on ratooning indefinitely. Practically, the period between plantings is limited strictly by financial considerations.

“Much time and expense are saved by not being obliged to replant. On the other hand, the yield from plant cane is, as a rule, greater than even from first ratoons, and with each successive ratoon crop the total amount of sugar produced per hectare of land is decidedly diminished. This is partially due to the shorter time in which the cane is allowed to ripen. Owing to excessive rains prevalent in this country, canes must be cut every year, and the practice so common in Hawaii of allowing ratoons to ripen for eighteen months or more, is here out of the question. A further obstacle, especially when canes are planted closely in rows, is the tendency of ratoons to spread out in every direction from the original plant so that in the course of a few years thecane rows lose all semblance of regularity, and proper tillage of the soil is rendered very difficult; thus many young ratoons are stunted in their growth by weeds.”

OLD WATER-DRIVEN MILL, ISLAND OF NEGROS, PHILIPPINES

MILL DRIVEN BY WATER POWER, OCCIDENTAL NEGROS, PHILIPPINES

The time of planting in most parts of the islands is usually from December until April, but in Negros, where the soil is good and the rainfall well distributed, planting can be done at almost any time, except during the period of very heavy rains,i. e., from July to October.

The yield of sugar per acre may be approximated as follows:

When the yield drops as low as eight-tenths of a ton of sugar per acre, replanting is necessary, and allowing for the reduced yield of first and second ratoons, it may be reckoned that one-half of the production is from plant cane and the other half from ratoon crops.

The length of time during which the cane is allowed to remain in the ground varies from nine to fourteen months and will probably average between eleven and twelve.[47]

The labor problem is present in the Philippines as in all cane-sugar countries. The natives are willing enough to work, but shrink at the idea of leaving their homes to take employment at any considerable distance away.

Apart from the three modern factories previously mentioned, sugar-making facilities are greatly behind the times, although there are a few minor exceptions. Over one thousand small mills were in operation in the islands in 1907 and of these 528 were driven by steam, 470 by carabao (water oxen) or natives,and 77 by water power. The carabao mills, however, are rapidly disappearing. The capacity of most of these small mills is from 50 to 60 tons of cane per day, and, as the cane is only crushed once, there is a considerable loss in recovery. A little lime is added to the juice to clarify it and it is then boiled to grain in a series of five or six open pans. The general arrangement is shown by the accompanying sketch, which is taken from Herbert S. Walker’s “Sugar Industry in the Island of Negros.”

The drawing shows two sets of pans, each set being built over a separate furnace. The number 5 pan, into which the juicefrom the crusher flows, is connected to both sets. The furnaces are fed directly under number 1 pan, where the final boiling is done and where the greatest heat is required. The two furnaces converge when they reach the boiler, which may be fired separately, so that grinding and boiling may, if necessary, be done independently of each other. As the juice leaves the crusher through an open wooden trough, particles of cane and other matter are removed by straining through a cloth or a close-meshed wire screen. It runs into the receiving pan—number 5—and is heated to between 160 and 175 degrees Fahrenheit, which brings certain impurities to the surface in the form of froth. This is skimmed off and thrown into the scum tank; the juice is then ladled by hand as required into the smaller pans (number 4) where lime is added for clarification. Violent agitation takes place in pans numbers 3 and 2, and as fast as scum forms it is skimmed off. The clarified juices are then concentrated in pans number 2 and number 1, after which the massecuite is put into wooden trays and stirred with a spade until it granulates. It is then ready to be taken to market.

NATIVE SUGAR FACTORY, PAMPANGA PROVINCE, PHILIPPINES

INTERIOR OF CAMARIN, PHILIPPINES

As has been pointed out, the loss in this primitive method of manufacture is very heavy. Notwithstanding the fact that all of the molasses is retained in the sugar, the amount of sucrose that is lost or wasted is 44 per cent, and over one-half of this is left in the bagasse.

Apart from centrifugals, Philippine sugars consist of the following grades:Superior,Humedo(wet) andCorriente(current). Sugars polarizing from 87 to 88.9 degrees are called Superior No. 1, those testing from 85 to 86.9 degrees, Superior No. 2, and those running from 80 to 84.9 degrees, Superior No. 3. Humedo sugars polarize from 76 to 79.9 degrees and Corriente from 70 to 75.9 degrees. Roughly speaking, the proportions are about 85 per cent of Superior of 84 degrees purity and 15 per cent of wet sugar testing somewhere near 75 degrees.

The Bureau of Agriculture of the Philippines maintains experiment stations at La Granja, near La Carlota, Occidental Negros, and at Calamba, Luzon, for the study of cane, soil analysis and the solving of fertilization problems. This work of scientific investigation is sure to be of great benefit to the industry. Some experimental work with sugar cane is also carried on at the station at Alabang, Laguna province, Luzon.

American control in the Philippines promises much for the future of the sugar industry of these islands, for when it is remembered that for many years, in spite of the handicap of crude, uneconomic methods, export duties at home and import duties abroad, sugar was made and sold at a profit in the markets of the world, it is not unreasonable to look for a considerable stimulus to be given to production by advanced scientific management and free admission of the commodity to the markets of the United States.

Quantity of sugar exported from the Philippine islands from 1895 to 1916, in tons of 2240 pounds:

LUZON SUGAR REFINERY, MALABON, RIZAL, PHILIPPINES

LOADING SUGAR ON LORCHAS, PHILIPPINES

Back to Index Next