THE LIBRARY.

171. Rep Darn.

The Rep Darn, as its name implies, is employed in the repairing of rep, as well as poplin, Brussels carpeting, and, in fact, any ribbed material. This darn generally consists merely in replacing the surface by covering each rib with a perpendicular row of sewing stitches, slanting one thread downwards. If by chance the warp threads be also much worn, they will require strengthening by one or two threads passed across vertically, and secured to the back by a few run stitches. Materials: Worsted, wool, or twist to match precisely the colours of the fabric, and a darning needle.

Lace Patch or Darn.—This circular patch is a light and pretty way of mending a hole caused by the accidental fall of a spark or cigar-ash on tablecloths, napkins, &c. It may be executed in any of the open stitches so much used in guipure work, thoughthe feston stitch, being the one generally adopted, is illustrated in Fig. 172. The same stitch can also be applied to lessening the width of stretched-out buttonholes, making an openwork gusset between the fore-finger and thumb of a kid glove, widening the sides of fingers, or filling in a hole that has split near the welt, to which is then added an elastic loop.

172. Lace Patch.173. Lace Patch.

Detail of Lace Patch.—Materials: Embroidery cotton or flourishing thread, which, being soft and flat, fills up the little interstices after washing, and renders the patch almost invisible even in damask; in this case, therefore, twisted cotton or silk should never be employed. Egg-eyed needle.—Shape the circle carefully, then overcast the edge of the hole by buttonhole stitches placed rather far apart, and taken in more or less deeply, according to the texture of the stuff. Fill in the space by working rows of feston or buttonhole stitches round and round, keeping the thread all the time under the needle, and gradually decreasing in circumference till the centre is reached, when draw the thread closely, and secure it safely on the wrong side. Before attempting this patch on the article itself, it is well to practise it upon a piece of coarse material, in order to acquire dexterity in the work, and thus avoid either puckering or tightening. For a triangular patch such as the one used in gloves, lay the foundation on the widest side, letting the stitches be more or less apart, according to the size of the silk or the openness of the work. Form the patch by rows of buttonhole stitches, going from left to right and from right to left, without breaking off the silk, putting the needle in the centre of every loop, and slipping a stitch at each row, until at the angle there is but one left.

174. Swiss Darn.

Swiss or German Darn.—More appropriately called web stitch, as it imitates exactly the web itself, and is, therefore, the true stitch for mending all hosiery and knitted articles. By the web is understood the texture of threads woven in a loom, forming a tissue of threads interwoven with each other, those extending in length being called the warp, and those stretched across, the weft or woof. The origin of this stitch is comparatively of recent date, for it can only have been known since the introduction of stocking knitting in the reign of Elizabeth. The method comprehends the plain web, the rib, Jacob’s ladder, and grafting. Materials: A sewing needle, rather finer than the loop through which it has to pass, smooth darning, or, still better, embroidery cotton, wool or silk matching to a shade, a wooden or indiarubber ball, and a piece of stiff brown paper or toile cirée. Method of working: Cut the hole even, ravel out the edges of the horizontal sides, leaving at each a row of open loops, clear and distinct as if prepared for picking up dropped stitches in knitting. (Fig. 174).—Foundation. Secure the thread onthe wrong side by 3 or 4 perpendicular stitches of common darning. Turn the work, stretching it over the first and second fingers of the left hand; keep it in place by the third finger and thumb. Cover the gap by a succession of vertical threads, commencing, one or two webs from the edge. Bring the needle out at the top between two webs, pass the thread alongside the hole, and insert the needle at the lower part, in the centre of the right-hand web, and draw it through the centre of the left-hand web. Carry the thread upward to the same point from which it started, that is, by putting the needle in the same hole, and take up a complete web. The result will be an elongatedV, with the angle uppermost. Form a secondVin the same manner, and there will then remain half a web only from the hole. Pick up, on the needle, this half web and the first loop, and pass the thread upwards to form the point of theV, by meeting the thread on the last bar; that is, put the needle in the hole from which the previous thread has emerged, and again take up two loops. Continue thus till the gap is covered, letting the needle point always towards the left, and passing it back one loop to the right at each stitch. This fresh ground will then represent a series of long narrow vandykes. Finish by fastening the thread on the wrong side, in the same manner as at the beginning.

175. Crossing.

Crossing.—Conceal the foundation by working backwards and forwards rows parallel to each loop in identical imitation of the web. For the first line attach the thread to the work, and bring the needle out between two webs, precisely as for the first process. Take up the two bars on either side of the thread, entering where the woven stitch is indented, and emerging where it comes out; then insert the needle above, and one bar to the right, picking up again two bars or stitches (Fig. 175). Next enter one bar below, and to the right raise two bars, and so on to the end of the row; each web thus forms aVshape. Special care is needed for the 1st row, as on it depends the arrangement of the webs. This line completed, bring the needle out one bar perpendicularly downwards, in readiness for the second, and work from left to right instead of from right to left, putting the needle above every accompanying purl of the wrong side, or the stitches will be disconnected. The beauty of the work consists entirely in its evenness and flatness, hence the utility of the toile cirée or wooden ball, as it keeps the work well stretched. When a ball is used, the stocking is strained over it and held in place by the left hand, the thumb meanwhile resting on the top of the ball.

176. Web Stitch.177. Foundation of Single Web.

Single Web.—Having now thoroughly explained the ordinary or double web stitch we will just mention the single one, a lighter and consequently less durable mode of repairing, often employed in silk and Lisle thread stockings. Its execution is very similar to that of the former stitch. For the foundation, bring the needle out in the centre of a web, pass the thread across, along the side of the hole, insert the needle again in the centre of a web and the first loop. Then continue to take up alternately two loops on the upper and lower edge, letting the last loop of one stitch be the first of the next. The foundation will then have the appearance of a succession of elongatedU’s in contrast with the series ofV’s formed by the double web stitch (Fig. 176). The crossing follows the same rule as the foundation (Fig. 177). Another single web, more rapid, but not so neat, is executed as follows: Make the whole perfectly even, and holding the stocking lengthwise towards you, fill up the gap with common darning, taking up the edge web on either side, not placing the rows too closely. Now for the imitation of theweb, turn the work so that the darning lines are horizontal, commencing at the lower part of the hole, and ascend to the top by twisting the thread under each bar, to resemble a kind of cord stitch. Descend by stitches in the reverse direction, and thus complete an exact web.

The Ribis a variety of Swiss darning scarcely known, and will doubtless be highly appreciated by mothers in particular. This stitch, though apparently showing the wrong and right side alternately, is really completely executed on the right side alone. Method of working: Lay the foundation, as for a simple web; then cover by an equal number of pearl and plain stitches. The change from plain to pearl is executed thus: instead of putting the needle straight under two threads, pass it beneath the second bar of the raised web, and over the first bar of the adjoining one; point the needle downwards and bring it out one bar to the right, cross over two bars and slant it upwards one thread to the left, so that it emerges from the identical hole the first stitch entered. Continue to slip the needle over two bars, sloping it alternately upwards and downwards, till the hollowed web or purl stitches are completed. Then reverse the work by crossing over the last bar, and passing under the first bar of the raised web or garter stitches, in readiness for the next plain one. The wider the rib, the more easy its imitation.

Jacob’s Ladder, orDropped Stitch.—This frequently occurs in stockings, as well as in silk or cotton gloves, knitted petticoats, &c., and so rapidly forms a long ladder of open bars that we can here almost literally apply the maxim, “A stitch in time saves nine.” No better remedy seems to be devised by careless workers than passing the needle under and over the bars, which, being wider than the space left for them, cannot be properly stretched, and the result is an unsightly and puckered darn, especially when the mischief extends to two or three adjacent rows. The following mode is undoubtedly the right one: Take up a dropped or slipped stitch, as in knitting, by inserting a fine crochet hook into the first loop below, and draw through it the first rung or bar of the ladder. Then continue to pass each succeeding row into the loop left on the crochet needle till all are raised, when the last remaining loop is fastened firmly and neatly by a needle threaded with cotton, silk, or wool. A chain stitch is thus formed, very similar to the web.

178. Grafting.

Grafting.—To graft means to join one thing so that it receives support from another. In the mending of stockings, &c., the term signifies joining two pieces together, or strengthening a thin part. The joining consists of seaming, patching, and refooting. In stockings, vests, sleeves, &c., where the worn part can be taken off all round, a fresh piece is put in by means of a seam perfectly invisible, provided the cotton or silk matchprecisely in colour and quality. Cut off the decayed portion, and prepare the edges of the piece to be united. Rest the work on the first and second fingers of the left hand, keeping it flat by the pressure of the thumb; or hold it as for sewing, in which case graft rather loosely to avoid any ridge. Take up on the needle two loops parallel to each other (Fig. 178), pass the thread through these, drawing two webs together. Repeat on the opposite side, and continue thus to the end of the row; the needle at each time enters a loop already picked up and a fresh one. Fasten off as for web stitch.

179. Detail of Patch.180. Patch set in.

Patchingis a neat and expeditious method of filling up large holes, specially valuable for weak sight, or in repairing silk and thread stockings; or, in short, any fine material with loops so small as to render the raising up of each stitch a very tedious task. It is very similar to the linen buttonhole patch. Method of working: Cut out the unsound part straight to a thread, and prepare a patch of the same material to fit the gap exactly. Border with rather close buttonhole stitch the perpendicular edges of both hole and patch (Fig. 179). Attach lightly the 4 corners, graft the upper and lower edge, and sew the buttonholed by drawing together the opposite loops of each stitch (Fig. 180).

Refooting.—This process comprises herringboning, and the three different stocking, seams—grafting, buttonholing, and stitching. When the foot of a stocking is apparently past mending, separate it from the sound part of the leg, and rip up the 4 seams, thus detaching the sole from the upper part with the heel. Pin or tack each part on brown paper, outline the shape in chalk, then cut out, allowing nearly ¼ in. for turnings. Unpick the leg seam of any old stockings, spread them flat, and upon them place the paper pattern, the lines of which are followed precisely in the cutting out. The two pieces being ready, unite by buttonholing the side seams of the foot, and the centreseam of the leg. Method of working: Leave ¼ in. turnings, and buttonhole each folded edge. Then holding the work as for sewing, join the rows, either by a buttonhole stitch taken in each of the opposite loops, or by neat sewing. In most cases, however, a single buttonholed or sewn seam may suffice. When completed flatten the seam, and secure each turning by tiny herringbone stitches, carefully avoiding puckering. If preferred, a tiny ribbon sewn over the seam, can replace the turnings, though it will not be equally lasting. The toes and the two parts of the heel are united by stitching on the right side. Ravel out the edge loops, and lay the pieces opposite each other as for sewing, with the loops of the back in exact correspondence with the front ones. Insert the needle in the first loop, and bring it out in the next one, pass it back to the hole it first entered and bring it out again; thus each stitch occupies two bars. The joining of the sole and heel is accomplished on the wrong side. The ravelled-out loops of the sole are stitched on the ⅛ in. turning of the heel, which is fastened down on the latter itself by an almost imperceptible herringbone. This stitched seam is also occasionally used in stockings reheeled by knitting. The new foot is lastly grafted to the leg. It is almost useless to make any remarks on the most advantageous way of cutting out the pieces, as this depends so much on the size and condition of old legs at command. Nevertheless it may be advisable to suggest that if the width is insufficient to manage the instep and heel in one single piece, the latter can be slit up at the clocks, thus making two heel parts, to be connected with the front by the buttonhole seam, scarcely visible on the right side, especially when hidden by an embroidered spray. Such refooting may be considered rather long and complicated, but is most important for the elaborate and expensive hose now worn.

Supplementary Literature.

Misses S. F. A. Caulfield and B. C. Saward: ‘The Dictionary of Needlework; an Encyclopædia of artistic, plain, and fancy needlework; with over 800 illustrations.’ London, 1882. 21s.

Beeton’s ‘Book of Needlework; including tatting, crochet, knitting, netting, embroidery, point lace, guipure d’art, Berlin work, monograms, initials, names, crewel work, pillow lace, and lace stitches.’ London. Latest edition. 7s.6d.

The library in a house is a haven to which the unlucky wight, kept indoors by a steady rain overhead and a slushy mire underfoot, may, or ought to be able to, seek retreat and pass many hours of quiet and thorough enjoyment, instead of wandering aimlessly about the house, and looking out of the windows with an idiotic expression on his face at the dim and misty landscape. But how can it be a peaceful, restful refuge, when the would-be reader finds a vast number of volumes, treating of all manner of subjects, intermixed in a most marvellous fashion; flighty romantists, witty memoir writers, heavy theologians, enigmatic scientists, and deep-thinking philosophers elbowing each other and almost crushing the unlucky poets out of sight? Dismay seizes the daring explorer of the wonders of a country-house library; the book he wants is not to be found, and what is more he does not know where to look for it, great names stare at him from all sides, and seem to sneer at him for being so foolish as not to read them; but then he wants a particular book, and in despair, rather than face the long row of books which seem to jeer at his unsuccessful attempt to get what he is in search of, he composes himself down to readPunch, or stare out at the drip, drip, dripping rain.

Let us see if this can be avoided. Of course it can; the way to change the whole aspect of affairs is so to arrange the books on their shelves that the veriest stranger, after he has been in the library a couple of minutes, should know where to look for what he wants, and put his hand on the book if it be in the collection.

The twelve essential rules for the management of the library are:

1. Arrange your books on their shelves into classes, according to the subjects they treat of.

2. Put everything in its proper place.

3. Always keep directories, peerages, gazetteers, atlases, county maps, and lexicons in convenient and easily got at places. It will often save much time and trouble to keep them in book slides on the table, or in a separate bookcase.

4. Write your name and address in a large bold handwriting on the fly-leaf of every volume.

5. If you have your books specially bound, let the same style and colour of binding be used for one class of books.

6. Never allow animals in a library. They are apt to do serious mischief to MSS. and books, while chasing some imaginary rat. Newton had the results of many years of hard brain work completely destroyed through the pranks of his favourite little dog.

7. Keep servants out of the library, except at stated intervals, and, when admitted, let them be under your personal supervision. Everybody will remember that the first part of Carlyle’s ‘History of the French Revolution,’ while yet in MS., was used by a servant to light a fire.

8. Avoiddampnessorexcessive heat; books requirewarm dry air, in order to preserve their bindings. Thus it will be seen that the more the books are read the better it will be for the books.

9. On no account let the library be turned into a refreshment room for a juvenile party.

10. Never allow MS. notes, letters, &c., to litter the tables and the room. MS. notes should be kept in folding pads, or in drawers, and letters carefully filed and put away.

11. No book should be left open and placed face downwards, in order to mark the place where the reader has left off; no other practice so speedily spoils books as this.

12.Always have a good index or catalogue of the contents of your library.

The last is as important a rule as any. A library without a catalogue is, as Thomas Carlyle expresses it, “A Polyphemus without an eye in his head.” Isaac D’Israeli, who has left us such a vast treasure-house of book lore, says that the man who possesses a fine library cannot be “more animated than a leaden Mercury who does not aspire to make some small addition to his library, were it only by a critical catalogue. He must be as indolent as that animal called the sloth, who perishes on the tree he climbs, after he has eaten all its leaves.”

The task of cataloguing must not dismay the amateur; the task is a most useful one, and can easily be managed. The best catalogue would be this:

Let it be divided into three primary divisions: The body, containing the titles, authors’ names, date, and place of publication, and the size and description may be added if considered necessary; index of authors’ names, with the number of the pages of the catalogue on which their works will be found, and an index of subjects.

The body should be divided into thirteen divisions, which are: 1, Theology; 2, history and biography; 3, science and philosophy; 4, art; 5, bibliography; 6, antiquities; 7, political and commercial; 8, poetry; 9, travels; 10, MSS.; 11, novels; 12, miscellaneous; 13, periodical literature. These may be subdivided, if necessary. The subdivisions are: History into (1) national, (2) local, (3) biography, and (4) genealogy; science into (1) medicine, surgery, and chemistry, (2) natural history, (3) geology, and (4) mechanics; art into (1) painting, sculpture, &c., (2) music; antiquities into (1) chronicles, ballads, and other ancient literature, (2) history of antiquities; political into (1) standard works, (2) pamphlets, &c.; travels into (1) ancient, (2) modern; miscellaneous into (1) law, (2) drama, (3) educational, (4) miscellaneous.

The books in the body should be entered under the authors’ names, alphabetically arranged, under each division, the full titles, description, &c., following. A very good plan is to tack to each entry in the cataloguefinding symbols, as “Bookcase A, shelf 3,” which denotes where the book is to be found.

Now as to the actual mode of taking the census of the books to be catalogued. A large number of sheets of paper, about the size of ordinary writing paper, must be procured, each sheet being divided into three columns. The centre column (the largest of the three) is reserved for the full description of the book as it is to stand in the body of the catalogue; the column on the left is reserved for the exact account of the subject treated of by the book; that on the right for the author’s name, as in the following example:

Subject Index.Travels.Author’s Index.Columbus, Life and Voyages.Irving, Washington.Irving, Washington.Page*The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. 3 vols. Crown 8vo. One vignette. London, 1850.Page*

* Of course, the number of the page which should follow these entries cannot be filled in until the body of the catalogue is properly written out, when, as each entry is made in the catalogue, the number of the page in which the entry is made is placed both in the left and right columns.

The slips, when duly filled up, should be set aside in packets under their respective divisions. As soon as every book has been noted down, there remains nothing more to be done but to transcribe alphabetically the various slips on sheets of foolscap, and the task is completed.

Any works which are published anonymously should be entered in the third primary division under the heading “Anonymous,” and have the abbreviation “Anon.” added in the body or first primary division. Supplements may be from time to time prepared, carefully pursuing the same method as observed in forming the original catalogue. The supplement is then attached to the catalogue, the first page having a piece of parchment gummed on, with about an inch protruding from the cover; on this the words “Supplement of 188-” should be written.

The ancient learned Greeks and Romans had their book-shelves, or rather rows of niches, in which the parchment rolls were placed, made of cedar wood, encrusted with precious metals. Although this would, perhaps, be impracticable in our days, still the bookcases should be solid and massive, yet elegant. In some libraries the bookcases run right round the room, but no higher than 3 ft. to 4 ft., the tops forming a resting-place for various curiosities. This method, of course, leaves the upper part of the wall clear, whereon to hang pictures, trophies of arms, armorial shields, or other mural decorations. Other libraries have cupboards, or rather bookcases, with wooden panelled doors of 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. high, the regular bookcases being placed on the top of these. This is a very good plan, for the lower part of the bookcase may serve as a convenient resting-place for magazines, pamphlets, newspapers, and drawings.

One great point to be observed is to have the books protected by good glass; it gives a better appearance to the whole room when the glass is really good, and, above all, the books are safe from the injurious effect of dust or damp.

Magazines and periodicals are generally bound, and, therefore, may be placed on the shelves. A number of pamphlets relating to a certain subject may be cheaply, neatly and easily bound at home. Each pamphlet should be taken and opened at the middle; then, with the aid of a needle and some strong twine, it should be sewn in such a manner as to leave two loops, occupying about two-thirds of the length, on the outside at the back. When each pamphlet has been treated in a like way, taking especial care that each loop is of equal size, two strips of coarse canvas must be cut, long enough to wrap entirely round the whole set of pamphlets. Two pieces of pasteboard, of the exact size you wish the volume to be, must be procured; then, having previously passed the canvas strips under the loops of twine, you carefully paste or glue the canvas, and place them on the boards. Two pieces of clean paper, well gummed, are placed inside the cover over the canvas strips. A piece of canvas, or, better still, leather, of about double the thickness of the back of your volume, and the exact height of the pasteboard cover, is glued on to the back, a good piece overlapping on each side of the cover. Now nothing remains to be done but to glue a piece of parchment behind, writing on it the description of the contents. The whole is placed under a substantial weight, and in a couple of days you have a neat volume instead of a collection of stray sheets of printed paper.

Dabblers in literature, and the searchers after general knowledge, frequently cut out from papers and periodicals articles and paragraphs which interest them. These accumulate and soon encumber the writing-table, library-table, and the mantelpiece, and ultimately find their way into the fire or the waste-paper basket. This may be obviated and a more orderly appearance be given to the room, by collecting these newspaper scraps in a box or drawer, and at convenient intervals pasting them, in alphabetical order, into a large book formed of cheap paper. The cartridge paper should be folded twice; thus each sheet gives eight pages, and the printed scraps pasted in in two rows or three columns, leaving a good margin, whereon the subject treated of in the newspaper scraps should be legibly written, the date and name of the paper whence the scrap has been cut being written at the end of each cutting.

The foregoing notes are due to the late E. C. Rye, Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society.

Books placed in a library should be thoroughly dusted two or three times a year, not only to keep them in all their freshness, but also to prevent any development of insects and to disclose signs of dampness. The interior of a book also asks that care, which unfortunately is neglected very often. After having taken a book from the shelves, it should not be opened before ascertaining that the top edge is not covered with dust. If it is a book that has had the edge cut, it should be dusted with a soft duster, or the dust simply blown off. If it is a book which has uncut edges it should be brushed with rather a hard brush. By this method in opening the volume, one need not be afraid that the dust will enter between the leaves and soil them.

A library has generally three kinds of enemies to be guarded against, viz. insects, damp, and rats or mice. Every one knows how to guard against damp and rats or mice. Several means are adopted to keep insects at a distance. The first consists in the proper choice of woods: these are cedar, cypress, mahogany, sandal, or very dry and sound oak. All these are compact or of very strong aroma, and are such as insects do not like to pierce. Another source of safety is the use of astringent or poisonous chemicals in the binding of books.

The insects that make ravages in books multiply very rapidly; and very few libraries are free from them. The microscopic eggs, that are left by the female, give birth to a small grub, which pierces the leather boards and book for its nourishment, and to get to the air. These are familiarly called bookworms, but by the scientific world they are known asHypothenemus erudituswhich eats the leather, andAnobium striatumwhich bores through the paper. The larvæ of theDermestesalso attack wood as well as books.

Alum, as employed in the paste used by binders, is not an absolute preventive, although it contributes greatly to the preservation of the leather. Resin as used by shoe-makers is preferable, and in effect works in the same way; but oil of turpentine has a greater effect. Anything of strong odour, like aniseed or bergamot, mixed perfectly but in small quantities, preserves the paste during an unlimited time.

This chapter will embrace the ordinary domestic animals, birds, &c., usually kept at a country-house.

Horse.—Choosing and Buying.—The weak points of a horse can be better discovered while standing than while moving. If sound, he will stand firmly and squarely in his limbs without moving any of them, the feet flat upon the ground, with legs plump and naturally poised; if a foot is lifted from the ground, or the weight taken from it, disease may be suspected, or at least tenderness, which is a precursor of disease. If the horse stands with his feet spread apart, or straddles with his hind legs, there is a weakness in the loins, and the kidneys are disordered. Heavy pulling bends the knees. Bluish, milky cast eyes in horses indicate moon blindness. A bad tempered horse keeps his ears thrown back. A kicking horse is apt to have scarred legs. A stumbling horse has blemished knees. When the skin is rough and harsh, and does not move easily to the touch, the horse is a heavy eater, and digestion is bad. Never buy a horse whose breathing organs are at all impaired. Place your ear at the side of the heart, and if a wheezing sound is heard it is an indication of trouble. (Rural Record.)

Examine the eyes in the stable, then in the light; if they are in any degree defective, reject. Examine the teeth to determine the age. Examine the poll or crown of the head, and the withers, or top of the shoulders, as the former is the seat of poll evil, and the latter that of fistula. Examine the front feet; and if the frog has fallen, or settled down between the heels of the shoes, and the heels are contracted, reject him, as, if not already lame, he is liable to become so at any moment. Observe the knees and ankles, and, if cocked, you may be sure that it is the result of the displacement of the internal organs of the foot, a consequence of neglect of the form of the foot, and injudicious shoeing. Examine for interfering, from the ankle to the knees, and if it proves that he cuts the knee, or the leg between the knee and the ankle, or the latter badly, reject. “Speedy cuts” of the knee and leg are most serious in their effects. Many trotting horses, which would be of great value were it not for this single defect, are by it rendered valueless. Carefully examine the hoofs for cracks, as jockeys have acquired great skill in concealing cracks in the hoofs. If cracks are observable in any degree, reject. Also both look and feel for ringbones, which are callosities on the bones of the pastern near the foot; if apparent, reject. Examine the hind feet for the same defects of the foot and ankle named in connection with the front feet. Then proceed to the hock, which is the seat of curb, and both bone and blood spavins. The former is a bony enlargement of the posterior and lower portion of the hock-joint; the second a bony excrescence on the lower, inner, and rather anterior portion of the hock; and the last is a soft enlargement of the synovial membrane on the inner and upper portion of the hock. Either is sufficient reason for rejecting. See that the horse stands with the front feet well under him, and observe both the heels of the feet and shoes to see if he “forges” or overreaches; and in case he does, and the toes of the front feet are low, the heels high, and the heels of the front shoes a good thickness, and the toes of the hind feet are of no proper length, reject him; for if he still overreaches with his feet in the condition described, he is incurable. If he props out both front feet, or points themalternately, reject. In testing the driving qualities, take the reins while on the ground, invite the owner to get in the vehicle first, then drive yourself. Avoid the display or the use of the whip; and if he has not sufficient spirit to exhibit his best speed without it, reject. Should he drive satisfactorily without, it will then be proper to test his amiability and the extent of his training in the use of the whip. Thoroughly test his walking qualities first, as that gait is more important in the horse of all work than great trotting speed. The value of a horse, safe for all purposes without blinds, is greatly enhanced thereby. Purchase of the breeder, if practicable.

TheFieldhas often warned its readers against describing any horse they might have for sale as a “perfect” hunter, or “good” hunter. Describing a horse as a good hunter is giving a very comprehensive warranty of performance, and to a certain extent of soundness as well. No horse can be called a hunter unless he can jump, and his jumping powers may depend a great deal upon the man who rides him. If he jumps at all, he may either take the bit in his teeth and “commit” his rider to a fence 40 yd. off; or he may require a resolute man and a cutting whip to get him over anything like a ditch. No horse to whom either of these peculiarities attaches could be called a “good,” much less a “perfect,” hunter. It has never been expressly decided whether, under these assumed conditions, there would be a breach of warranty if the horse were so described, but the probabilities are against the seller. A horse that is in the very slightest degree touched in the wind is unsound, yet for practical purposes a whistler or a grunter is ten times more useful as a hunter than a horse with bad navicular, or a sprained sinew. But, so far as the law goes, the lame horse might be sold as a good hunter, while the whistler could not. Upon this ground, if a court were to decide that a horse described as a good or perfect hunter must be sound in wind and eyes, there would be every reason to expect that the same tribunal would hold that he must be sound on his feet and legs, or at any rate fit for immediate use. In the case of harness horses, however, it has been held that a warranty of soundness is not involved in one of quietness. Warranties of soundness are going out of fashion. But as the pedigree, or antecedents, of a horse often have a material influence on the price paid for him, a statement concerning one or both is often made by the seller as an integral part of the contract. Such assertions are just as much a warranty as if they referred to his quietness, age, or soundness, and, should they prove false, render the seller liable to an action for breach of warranty. It would be wise of the seller to say nothing, unless he himself received a written description with the horse, which statement he could show and explain to the person purchasing from him, when, should the contents be untrue, he will not be liable. When a horse is sent for sale to a commission stable, the commission agent is justified in repeating to a buyer the description given to him (the agent) by the owner of the horse, and the seller will be bound by that description. Of course the agent has no right to exceed his instructions and give a warranty on his own account. Should he do so, the seller will not be bound. But a warranty by an ordinary servant, or by a person directed by another to sell a horse, and put, for that purpose, in a position which to a stranger might seem to imply an authority to warrant, would bind the seller.

Keeping.—Horse keeping must always be costly. Grooms’ wages, rent of stabling, hay, oats, straw, beans, carrots, bran, linseed, taxes, coals and candles, gas or oil, shoeing, stable implements, and veterinary attendance cost money in every establishment. When the whole cost is taken into account it will be found that in the case of full-sized horses the expense of each varies, according to circumstances, from about 30s.to 36s.or more a week, even when there is no waste. The prime cost of horses, carriages, and harness will depend to a great extent upon the purpose for which they are required. It is well to be circumspect in buying a second-hand vehicle, as getting up worthless carriages for sale is a regular trade. With harness and saddlery the best goods are everywhere the best economy.

The first item is the stable. If one is attached to the house, no extra cost will beincurred. The average charge for renting will be about 5s.per horse per week, inclusive of rates and taxes, but exclusive of fire, lights, or straw. If stabling be rented by the year, the weekly average will be less, as also in places where there is not much demand, and where it is rather of makeshift.

The groom should be a thorough stableman, conversant with the proper mode of dressing horses, methodical in habit, and honest. From 25s.to 30s.per week should secure the services of a good man, and for this sum he would find himself in everything. If accommodation allows, he might sleep on the premises, but should he sleep and live in the house his wages will be much less. He should know how to clip, singe, foment, put on a bandage properly, and give a horse a ball; but it is well to allow no drugs or physic to be given without the directions of a veterinary surgeon. If the man is a hard worker, he will look after 3 saddle horses and clean his master’s breeches and boots, single-handed; but this is rather trying him, and is more than the majority of grooms would undertake; in most instances it would be necessary to have a second hand—a lad at about 14s.a week would do—to “muck out” the stables, help dress the horses, and do rough work. Similarly, 2 hunters, a harness horse, and vehicle, will be heavy work for one man.

Many persons have their horses foraged by contract, supplies being sent in at fixed periods. In London some contractors do it for about 1s.or 1s.2d.a hand, i.e. a horse not exceeding 16 hands will be foraged for about 16s.per week, while a pony not exceeding 12 hands would only cost 12s.When living in the country, purchase of neighbouring farmers. Let all forage be of the best quality—it is cheapest in the end. Oats and hay must be old—that is to say, oats and hay harvested in 1884 should not be used in the stables till the July or August following at the earliest. Some people give the last cut oats after Christmas; but it should never be done. A horse requires feeding often; though 3 times a day is sufficient, 4 times is better. Horses should drink before they eat, because water does not remain in the stomach, but passes through it into a large intestine called the cæcum. If a horse be fed first, the water passing through the stomach would be likely to carry with it particles of food, and thus bring about colic. Whatever a groom may say, let a horse drink just as much as he likes. If he be watered 4 times a day he will never take too much to be good for him. It will be cheaper to buy enough forage to last the season or more, than to be perpetually getting in small quantities. If a hunter—taking him as the typical horse, because he requires the best keep—be fed 4 times a day, he will have a quartern of oats at each feed, or a peck a day (4 quarterns = 1 peck), or 1 bush. of oats will last 4 days, and in 1 week he will eat 1¾ bush. With each feed a couple or three double handfuls of chaff should be given, as this will cause the food to be more thoroughly masticated. Hay is given in the rack morning and evening, about 6-8 lb. each time; though where horses are not limited as to oats they will not require so much. A truss of hay weighs 56 lb., so the weekly allowance to each horse may be set down at about 1½ truss. Some good judges recommend that hay should be in the rack between feeding times. Beans are more nutritive than oats, but are heating, and should not be given to a 4-year-old at all. A 5-year-old should not have them unless he works hard, and then not more than 1 lb. per diem; aged horses may have about 2 lb. per day divided into 3 feeds; but during a frost, or when only used for gentle work, such as hacking in the London season, beans should be dispensed with. Bran is chiefly used for mashes, and it is advisable to follow the time-honoured plan of giving one every Saturday night. Linseed gruel is, by some horses, preferred to that made from oatmeal; but the latter is refreshing and soothing if the horse will take it. A few carrots given every now and then will tend to keep the blood cool. Study the appetite of each horse.

For bedding there is nothing better than wheat straw. Oat straw is permissible, and cheaper. Barley straw must on no account be used. The quantity of straw required per week will vary with the care with which the groom separates the clean from the soiled in the morning, the wish of the owner as to the look of his stable, and the size ofthe box or stall. Speaking roughly, a careful groom can manage in an ordinary sized loose box with about 50-60 lb. per week, and with this allowance a horse can be well bedded and kept clean; this, of course, after the bed has been originally formed with about 2 trusses.

As to cost. Oats vary from 3s.to 4s.per bush.; best upland hay may be set down at 5l.a ton (40 trusses of 56 lb. in a ton); straw at 3l.10s.a ton; and beans at a trifle more than 1d.a lb. Thus the cost of keeping a horse for a week will be:—

s.d.2 bush. oats, at 3s.6d.701½ trusses hay, at 2s.6d.3914 lb. beans1660 lb. straw (say)20——143

Something must be allowed for bran, linseed, and carrots; these may be set down at about 2s.per week.

Groom’s wages must be added. Suppose he receives 25s.per week, and only has one horse to look after, that one horse will cost the owner 39s.3d.at the lowest estimate; if there be 2 horses, they will each stand at 26s.9d., and so on. Shoeing may be set down roughly at 3l.per annum; the tax for a groom is 15s.per year; the veterinary surgeon may have to be called in occasionally; while coals and lights must not be left out of sight. From a money point of view, therefore, keeping horses in a private stable is, generally speaking, no cheaper than sending them to livery at 30s.per week; but the advantage is that they are generally better done at home. (Field.)

Horses need well-ventilated stables, free from draught and damp. The floor should be smooth and nearly level. It should be well drained and light, for sudden change from darkness to light is trying to the eyes, and a damp, offensive odour is injurious. Then, again, the bedding and litter should be carefully separated from that which is foul. They should be well shaken up and dried, and the stall should be thoroughly cleansed; and when the stable is empty, let in plenty of fresh air. A horse’s stall should be large enough to allow him to lie down comfortably in any position. A tired horse will be glad to lie down with his legs stretched out if he has room; but if you cannot give him a loose box, then a light halter block should be used, and care taken to arrange the halter so that it may travel freely to allow the head to come easily to the litter, for rest and sleep are as necessary as food and water. If a horse comes to the stable wet, he should be rubbed dry before the blanket is put on. If he is standing about in the cold, it should be put on. The legs should be rubbed, and the hoofs always examined for stones. When dressed and made comfortable, leave a bucket of chilled water in the box, which should be filled up with cold the last thing at night when closing the stables.

Cleaning.—One of the most important things in the management of farm horses is their cleaning, and yet nothing is more neglected. The horse should never be cleaned or harnessed while it is eating breakfast. Let horses eat their food in peace, for many, from sanguine temperament or greed, bolt their oats when handled during the time of feeding. Harness can be quickly enough put on after the feed is eaten, and time should then be taken to comb the mane and tail, and use a wisp of straw on the body and legs. When the horses come in at dinner-time, they should at once beunharnessed. The feed is then to be given, and before the harness is again put on, the horse should be thoroughly rubbed down with a wisp of straw or hay. If the horses are very warm on coming in, they should be rubbed down immediately after the removal of the harness.

The cleaning or grooming, which should be done at night, consists first in curryingthe horse with a currycomb to free him of the dirt adhering to the hair, and which being now dry, is easily removed. A wisping of straw removes the roughest of the dirt loosened by the currycomb. The legs ought to be thoroughly wisped, not only to make them clean, but to dry up any moisture that may have been left in the evening; and at this time the feet should be picked clean by the foot-picker—i.e. an iron instrument made for the purpose—of any dirt adhering between the shoe and the foot. The brush is then to be used to remove the remaining and finer portions of dust from the hair, which is cleared from the brush by a few rasps along the currycomb. This wisping and brushing, if done with some force and dexterity, with a combing of the tail and mane, should render the horse pretty clean. The skin of the farm horse should at all times becleanif notsleek, and a slap of the hand upon the horse will show if there is loose dust in the hair. The currycomb should not be used below the knees, as it is apt to cause injury. For cleaning the legs and feet, nothing is better than the water brush.

At morning stables, after the carriage horse is “mucked out,” the next step is to quarter him over and pick and wash his feet out. The first quartering may be done with an old water brush, and means roughly removing from the horse with water alone anything imparted to his side by manure. By the time the horse has done feeding the quartering will have nearly dried. If the animal is for morning exercise the above is sufficient. The dressing proper can be done when he comes home. If he is for hunting or hacking that day a good stableman will set to work at him as soon as the horse has finished his feed. If he is a grey, and has become stained with manure in the night, the groom should well rub in, with his hands only, plenty of common brown soap (not soft soap), and use plenty of tepid water in doing it. Then take a clean water brush, and let his shoulder go at his work until the stain is out. This is easily seen, because if the man finds no discoloration in the water in the bucket when he has sponged (with a perfectly clean sponge) all the soap off, no particle of stain will remain. If the water used in stable work is hard, a little soda dissolved in it will cause the soap to lather well. The horse should be tied up short while being washed, and after the sponging the wet places should be thoroughly dried with a rubber, which should be cleanliness itself. Worn-out table linen makes the best stable rubbers, the older the better. When the washed parts are quite dry, the horse should be well dressed with a clean horse-brush; one with any old dirt or grease in it will make fresh stains. After dressing with the horse brush, his coat should be again well rubbed the right way with another dry rubber fresh from the towel-horse and the saddle-room fire. Lazy stablemen are in the habit of using powdered charcoal to remove stains from grey horses. The practice is idle and dirty. In the case of clipped horses, stable stains can be removed in a very short time, and not much more is requisite with that of a well-done horse with his summer coat on. When the coat is shifting, a little more labour is requisite.

Driving.—Strict adherence to the rule of the road will not necessarily protect a driver from being liable for the result of a collision between another vehicle and his own. Sometimes he may be held to be negligent because he remained on the near side, and did not pull out of the way, even into the opposite gutter, if necessary. It is not possible to say what acts constitute negligent driving; the nearest rule that can be given is that drivers should act as reasonable men in the management of their vehicles. If they do anything that a reasonable man would not do, or omit to do anything that he would, then they are guilty of negligence; but acts that would amount to negligence in one case would not necessarily be so in another. Negligence on the part of a driver is not excused merely because the victim was also guilty of some degree of negligence, provided of course that it did not contribute to theimmediatecause of the accident. If, however, the proximate cause of an accident be a driver’s unskilfulness, the injured driver may not recover, although theprimarycause of the accident was the wrong-doing of some one else. If a man leave a horse and cart standing in the street without any one to look after them, and the horse, either by itself, or on being struck by a passer-by, backs into thewindow of a shop, and damages goods, the owner of the cart, having chosen to leave it in the street, must take the risk of any mischief. In cases where there is negligence on both sides, the rule to be deduced is, that a person injured by the negligent driving of another, cannot recover damages if but for own negligence, the accident would not have happened at all. Sometimes it may happen that a person who is driven into, or over, must bring his action, not against the driver of the vehicle inflicting the injury, but against a third party; as, for instance, if one carriage be so improperly driven as to compel a second carriage to take such a line as to make it collide with a third, the driver of the first carriage would be liable to the owner of the third. Lastly, in a pure accident, in which no one has been guilty of negligence, the injured party has no right of action at all. It is not because a man’s horse runs away, or becomes unmanageable, that the owner is to be responsible for any harm that may be sustained by a member of the public; a mutilated person is always entitled to sympathy, but not invariably to damages. (Field.)

Hiring.—Horses, carriages, or both, may be hired under 3 conditions: (a) Where the hired property remains on the owner’s premises; (b) Where, during the period of hire, it is transferred to the premises of the hirer; (c) Where it is hired from the owner for a particular journey, and returned to him as soon as this is performed. Under either of the 2 first conditions, the hiring may be for a period exceeding a year, or for any shorter time. All contracts not to be performed within one year from the time of making must be in writing and signed. An agreement made on the 1st of May, 1887, to hire horses for one year from that day, will terminate on 1st of May, 1888, and therefore be completed within the year, and so not require writing; but if the agreement (made on the 1st) be for a year’s hire, to commence on the 20th of May, the contract will not be completely performed until the 20th of May, or 20 days after the expiration of the year, consequently writing will be needed.

The chief inducement to hire instead of buying carriages and horses is, that by payment of an inclusive charge, the trouble and annoyance inseparable from keeping a private stable are avoided. The owner of a carriage let out to hire undertakes, in return for the sum paid, to do certain repairs, varying according to circumstances.

Most coachmakers now bind themselves to execute only such repairs as may be rendered necessary by fair wear and tear; accidents, however arising, being expressly exempted. The result is that, in the event of a “smash,” the hirer has to pay the owner for the damage; and, if the former or his servant is in fault, the loss falls on him; while, if the other vehicle be in the wrong, the hirer has to get his damages from its proprietor—the owner of the hired carriage being indemnified either way. If the carriage is bought out-and-out during the period for which it was originally hired, the seller is not bound to repair gratis after he has sold it.

Under ordinary circumstances the hirer of a horse is not responsible for any damage that may happen to it, so long as he has not been guilty either of negligence or of using the horse for a purpose other than that for which it was hired. But if he has broken the agreement made at the time of hiring, then he is liable for the loss resulting from his conduct. Where a horse is hired to take the hirer to a certain place, the usual and customary route should be taken, for should the hirer deviate unnecessarily from the most convenient road, he will be liable. In hiring horses for a special journey, care should be taken by the hirer to point out when he does and when he does not mean to go from place to place by the most direct or usual route. So long as he provides for a deviation he is answerable only for negligence or improper driving; but if he deviate materially, such deviation will amount to improper driving, although his coachmanship may be without reproach.

If a person hire a horse or carriage for a stated period, but return it before the expiration of the time, the owner must keep it on his premises till the time for hire has determined, if he wishes to recover the charge from the hirer. He cannot earn hismoney twice over; so, if he sells in the meantime, the hirer will not be liable for the price of the hiring.

The liability of a person sitting in a carriage to make good any damage occasioned to the property of others by the driver’s negligence, depends upon the relationship subsisting between the driver and the person driven. This relationship differs according to the ownership of the equipage, or its component parts. The owner of horses and a carriage, driven by a servant in his exclusive employ, has cast upon him the most extended liability for his servant’s negligence; while, on the other hand, the occupant of a hack fly is discharged from any thought of the horses or the driver. If horses and a carriage are jobbed in the manner already described, they are the hirer’s own, so far as the general public are concerned; and if driven by his own coachman, he will be as liable for the latter’s negligence as though he purchased them outright. Provided the hirer of horses use ordinary care in the selection of his coachman—not a job one—he will not be answerable to the owner of the horses for the casual negligence of the servant so engaged. If the driver be a servant of the jobmaster, he does not cease to be so by reason of the owner of the carriage preferring to be driven by that particular servant where there is a choice amongst more, any more than a hack postboy ceases to be the servant of an innkeeper, where a traveller has a particular preference for one over the rest, on account of his sobriety and carefulness. Even wearing the hirer’s livery does not affect the question.

No satisfactory line can be drawn, at which, as a matter of law, the general owner of a carriage, or rather the general employer of the driver, ceased to be responsible, and the temporary hirer became so. Each case of this class must depend upon its own circumstances; and the jury taking these circumstances into consideration, must decide whether, at the time of an accident, the driver is acting as the servant of the hirer, or as the servant of the owner. Generally it may be taken that when the hirer of horses also has the owner’s servant to drive, the servant still continues in the jobmaster’s employ, the ownership of the carriage being immaterial. The horses and man may be reckoned as one, as constituting the motive and guiding power.

A hirer of horses may by his own conduct render himself a co-trespasser with the driver, or even constitute the driver his own servant for the purpose of becoming liable for the result of an accident. If the hirer of a whole equipage direct the owner’s servant to drive at an increased pace in a crowded thoroughfare, or in some other way assume the control of the horses, he will draw on to his own shoulders that responsibility which would under ordinary circumstances rest with the jobmaster. Still more will this be the case if he drives himself. (Field.)

Care of Carriages.—(a) The coach-room should be large, dry, and well ventilated; the walls and ceiling lined and finished in oil or varnish; the windows large, but curtained with blue curtains, so as to admit a moderate amount of light; the floors and ceilings should be kept free from dust or dirt; if the floor is wet when sweeping, the carriage should not be put in until it is dry.

(b) If the stable is of brick or stone, the walls should be lined with a close board partition at least 3 in. from the wall, with openings at the top and bottom to allow a circulation of air between the wall and partition. Never allow a carriage to stand near a brick or stone wall, or any other that is damp, as the dampness affects the paint and trimmings.

(c) Ammonia destroys varnish and affects colours. Care should be taken, therefore, to locate the carriage-room in such a manner that it will not be exposed to the fumes of the stable or manure heap.

(d) A carriage should never be allowed to stand in the carriage-room without being protected from dust by a cotton or linen cover; but this cover should not be put on when the carriage is wet or dusty. Dust if allowed to remain on eats into varnish: the cover should be so arranged as not to touch the carriage.

(e) Carriages should be washed frequently, even when not in use. They should also be dusted every 2 or 3 days, and be exposed to the air in a shady place. In washing, use cold water and a sponge. Soften the mud by squeezing the water from the sponge on the panel or other part, and do not pass the sponge over the paint until the mud is soaked off. After sponging, dry with a “shammy,” but do not use the sponge and “shammy” in the same pail of water. Be careful to dry thoroughly, and protect the trimming from injury by water. Do not allow any part of the carriage that is washed to dry before wiping with the “shammy,” as it will stain the paint. Hot or even warm water or soap should not be used. Never allow mud to dry on a carriage, as it will produce spots or stains. Always wash in a shady place.

(f) Enamelled leather while new does not need much washing; it should be well dusted, and may be wiped with a moist “shammy”; if it becomes dimmed, make a suds of soft water and Castile or crown soap. Apply it with a sponge and dry with a “shammy” moistened in clean water; if the leather shows spots, rub them with cotton waste and linseed oil; if the leather becomes hard, wash it clean and oil with neatsfoot oil; when the oil has permeated the leather, wash the surface oil off with crown soap suds. Dash and other smooth leather should be treated in the same manner as the paint.

(g) The trimmings require a great deal of attention. All roll-up curtains, aprons, &c., should be unrolled and stretched out smooth. The joints should be “struck” so as to slack the leather, but not enough to allow the top to fall. Cloths, cushions, and other removable portions must be well beaten and brushed, and all immovable parts be well brushed; this, while preventing injury from dust, is also a protection from moths. Moroccos can be cleaned by rubbing them with a moist “shammy.”

(h) Mountings should be kept clean by repeated rubbing; all acids or powders injure the paint, leather or cloth, and it is impossible to clean metals with them without coming in contact with the trimmings. If the metal is tarnished, use a small piece of “shammy,” that has been prepared by having rottenstone, or other fine polishing powder, rubbed into it and afterwards whipped and brushed to remove all surplus powder, then rub with a dry rag. To clean lamps mix whiting with spirits of wine; apply to the reflector and other inside plating; when dry rub off with a rag, clean the glass with water and polish with paper.

(i) Oil the axles frequently, but use but little oil at one time. Support the axle by a jack, having a leather padded top; take off the nuts, and if much soiled, remove the grease with spirits of turpentine; remove the wheel and clean the axle arm and hub box thoroughly, then apply a few drops of castor oil, replace the washers, wheel, and nuts, seeing that each has a thin coating of oil. The fifth wheel and king bolt should also be oiled enough to prevent the metal surfaces from grinding.

(j) A carriage should be inspected carefully to see that there are no moths in the trimming, carpet, &c.; if discovered they can be expelled by beating and brushing; moth preventatives are valueless as against the moth grub, but they will prevent the fly depositing its eggs. Musk and other strong perfumes will keep the flies from depositing their eggs in the trimmings.

(k) If repairs are needed, it is best to send to the carriage shop; but the paint will become worn off of step pads and tires, which can be restored by a little black japan, which should be laid on thin.

(l) Carriages should be revarnished as often as once a year; but if the paint cracks badly, varnishing increases the deformity, and there is but one way to correct it—to burn off the paint and repaint from the wood. Repairing is as much of an art as building, therefore do not send a carriage for repairs to any but skilful mechanics.

(m) If a carriage is not in regular use it should be run out of the coach-house once or twice a week, and thoroughly ventilated, by removing cushions, carpets, &c., and opening the doors and windows. After being well aired, it should be thoroughly dusted, and washed before it is returned to the house.

(n) The person having charge of the carriage should examine it closely each day after it has been used, to see that there are no loose or broken nuts, bolts, tires, &c. If proper attention is given to this matter the carriage will always be ready for use.

Cow.—Choosing.—Form, general appearance, and the “touch” of the skin, are points to be attended to; with regard to these, an idea may be obtained from the following description of a good dairy cow:—Head small, long, and narrow towards the muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and long, tapering towards the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore-quarters light and thin; hind-quarters large and broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short, with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward, thin-skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small, pointing outwards, and at a considerable distance from each other; milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh, handsome and well-proportioned. The extent of the upturned hairs on the escutcheon indicate the properties of the 2 hind-quarters of the cow’s udder as to the quantity of yield of milk, but not as to the 2 fore-quarters. These latter should be separately investigated; judges generally look at the size of these and examine the size of “milk vein” which runs along the belly.

Breeds.—The Yorkshire yields very large quantities of milk when fed liberally; the Ayrshire is held in high estimation for cheese making; and the Alderney (Jersey) for butter and cream. The Suffolk is well fitted for districts where the pastures are poor; the yield of milk is good, and it is comparatively rich in butter. Weight for weight, shorthorns are about 50 per cent. heavier than Ayrshires, and require ⅓ more food. At the same time, it is found that Ayrshires yield quite as much milk as shorthorns. The only difference claimed in favour of the shorthorn is, that it maintains more flesh than the Ayrshire, keeps its money value together better, and can be finished for the butcher with greater ease and more satisfactory results. The small Scotch race is found to be, when used for the production of milk for sale, of greater value than the ordinary dairy shorthorn, producing an equal amount of milk at much less cost, while a far smaller amount of capital is required in the formation of the herd. As a butter maker, the Holstein is nowhere with the Jersey; nor yet as a converter of ordinary farm produce into milk, because no value set upon the Dutch superiority in skim milk can bring them up to the Jersey standard for butter, when the difference in consumption is taken into account. The Jersey milk contains 26 per cent. more solids of all kinds than the Dutch; whilst of butter-fat the Jersey milk contains 80 per cent. more.

Keeping.—Amateur cowkeepers are advised not to think of breeding at all. Buy a cow, newly calved; do not let her be served; feed her very highly all through her time, and when the milk ceases to pay for the keep, sell her at once to the butcher and get another. This is the town dairymen’s system, and they would not so universally follow this plan if it were not the safest. Above all, sentiment must be shunned. The amateur must keep a close watch over each week’s expenditure and income, and sell the cow, however favourite a one, directly these approximate. Then the trouble of settling a newcomer will have to be faced over again. On the whole, it may be doubted if one amateur in a hundred will ever succeed in making a cow pay, even where there is a garden and small paddock, by reason of the costliness of good dairy servants. (Field.)

The great art of feeding is in selecting the foods most suitable for the purpose in view, without entailing waste, or an undue strain on the digestive system. Every cow should have no less than 650 cub. ft. of breathing space; the cold air should be admitted near the floor line, with ample ridge ventilation, for the escape of the vitiated air; the building itself should be kept clean and free from fermenting or decaying animal odoursor vegetable matter (underground drainage, however skilfully executed, is an utter abomination in a cowshed); all the inside walls should be limewashed at least twice a year, and the beds, floors, and passages well washed and scrubbed once a week. Whatever tends to increase the health and comfort of the animal economises food, as well as increases its effective results; every source of irritation, whether in the field or the stall, entails an undue waste of food, whilst for the time it reduces the flow and deteriorates the quality of the milk. The quality of the drinking water has a great influence on the yield of milk. Soft water is preferable to hard; hence the water from running streams or ponds is preferable to well water, which is generally at a low temperature. The action of the atmosphere on ponds or reservoirs has a softening influence on the water, a favourable condition for milk cows; impure or tainted water should be excluded. Unlike the food, a portion of the water taken in by the cows passes direct to the third stomach, and enters at once into the circulation. The influence of the food on the yield of milk is well known. Chemical investigation proves that the milk solids are only slightly affected by the food, the casein and sugar being nearly stationary, whilst the quantity of butter fat varies considerably; the greatest variation is in that of the watery constituents.

Decorticated cotton cake exclusively used as an auxiliary in conjunction with large quantities of roots and hay is not an economical food for dairy cows, owing to the large percentage of flesh formers it contains, whilst practically cotton cake, though admirably adapted for rearing and fattening purposes, when given to milking cows in quantities of 4-6 lb. a day produces a leathery cream, and certainly not a superfine quality of butter. A mixture of pea and palm-nut meals will produce a rich milk, though not of the finest quality. A mixture of rice and linseed meals will produce a large yield of butter of a somewhat oily character. If quality is, as it should be, the chief desideratum, nothing can equal the home-grown cereals—beans, peas, wheat, barley, and oats; under ordinary circumstances these will produce a quality of milk, cream, and butter that cannot be surpassed.

The cowhouse must be kept as near as possible at a uniform temperature of 60° F.; the cows may be turned into the fold-yard daily for ½ hour, about noon. Large quantities of cold water taken into the system are positively injurious, lowering the temperature of the body, which is maintained in a normal state at the expense of the food. For cows in full milk, cooked food is much preferable to raw, entailing less labour on the organs of digestion and assimilation. The mixture of chop, meal, roots, and grain may either be boiled in the ordinary cast-iron boiler or steamed. To obtain the most effective results, the food should be given to the animals in a sloppy state, and at a temperature of 55° to 60° F. Regularity of feeding and milking must be strictly observed. The morning meal should be given before milking commences, and the dung removed from the beds and grip. As milkers, females are preferable, the hands being soft and pliable compared with the horny hand of man. The quantity of food necessary to supply the wants of individual animals is governed by its weight. A cow in full profit consumes daily 3 per cent. of her live weight. During April, a cow in full milk should have, in addition to boiled or steamed roots and hay or straw chaff, 2 lb. bean or pea meal, 2 lb. wheat meal, 2 lb. ground oats, and 2 lb. bran. If these cannot be grown on the farm or purchased at moderate cost, 2 lb. linseed, barley, or Indian corn meal may be substituted for the wheat meal. If the aim is quality, it is essential that bean, pea, or oat meals be used. Care must be exercised in regulating the quantity of food to meet the wants of the different animals, and not, as is too often the practice, of serving a uniform quantity to each. In every case the mangers should be cleanly swept out before feeding. By far the best kind of hay for milking cows is well-saved clover or mixed seeds cut just before coming into flower. Dusty or highly heated hay injures the health and deteriorates the quality of the produce. The chief part of the hay and straw should be cut and mixed with the meal and boiled roots. Only a small quantity of long hay should be given twice a day in order to excite rumination. Raw roots are only admissible when given as a mid-daymeal. As in the case of the steam boiler a quantity of fuel is wasted in raising the temperature of the water from the freezing to the boiling point, so it is in the animal system; the fat producers which, under favourable conditions, would increase the quality of the milk, are expended in bringing a large quantity of water to the heat of the body. Brewers’ grains are highly charged with water, and consequently open to a similar objection. Pastures, if saved during the spring months, will be ready for stocking from the first to the middle of May. With the first bite of spring grass the food must be changed; the boiled roots should be gradually discontinued; the same quantity of meals cooked and mixed with chopped hay as before, fed in a less soppy state, in order to counteract the opening tendency of the young succulent grasses. This régime may be continued to the middle of June, when the quantity of meal may be reduced one half, or, if the pastures are good, discontinued till the autumn. So long as the artificial feeding is continued, cows must be fed in the stalls twice a day. By the beginning or middle of September, the early cabbage should be ready for use; this will increase the flow of milk at the expense of the quality. To maintain the standard, the use of meals and chop must again be continued, commencing with 2 lb. a day, with a gradual increase, arriving at the standard allowance by the 1st of November, which will be maintained throughout the winter and following months.

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