The Project Gutenberg eBook ofTextiles and ClothingThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: Textiles and ClothingAuthor: Kate Heintz WatsonRelease date: May 19, 2007 [eBook #21534]Most recently updated: January 2, 2021Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Stan Goodman, Karen Dalrymple, and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES AND CLOTHING ***
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Textiles and ClothingAuthor: Kate Heintz WatsonRelease date: May 19, 2007 [eBook #21534]Most recently updated: January 2, 2021Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Stan Goodman, Karen Dalrymple, and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Title: Textiles and Clothing
Author: Kate Heintz Watson
Author: Kate Heintz Watson
Release date: May 19, 2007 [eBook #21534]Most recently updated: January 2, 2021
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Stan Goodman, Karen Dalrymple, and the OnlineDistributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXTILES AND CLOTHING ***
GRADUATE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYFORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC ARTLEWIS INSTITUTELECTURER UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS seal
CHICAGOAMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS1907
COPYRIGHT 1906, 1907, BYHOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION
ON THE NEW PROFESSION OF HOME-MAKING AND ART OF RIGHT LIVING;THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT ADVANCESIN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO HOME AND HEALTH
FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES, DIETITIANS,PROFESSIONAL HOUSE MANAGERS, AND ALL INTERESTEDIN HOME, HEALTH, ECONOMY AND CHILDREN
NEARLY THREE THOUSAND PAGES, ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONSTESTED BY USE IN CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTIONREVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED
American School of Home Economics seal
CHICAGOAMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS1907
Copyright, 1907byHome Economics AssociationEntered at Stationers' Hall, LondonAll Rights Reserved.
ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M.
Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois. Author U. S. Government Bulletins, "Development of The Home Economics Movement in America," etc.
ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A.
Assistant Professor of Home Economics, School of Eduction, University of Chicago; Director of the Chautauqua School of Domestic Science.
S. MARIA ELLIOTT
Instructor in Home Economics, Simmons College; Formerly Instructor School of Housekeeping, Boston.
ANNA BARROWS
Director Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer Teachers' College, Columbia University, and Simmons College; formerly Editor "American Kitchen Magazine;" Author "Home Science Cook Book."
ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M., M. D.
Professor Diseases of Children, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago; Visiting Physician Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago; Author of "Diseases of Children."
BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B.
Professor in Home Economics in Hartford School of Pedagogy; Author of U. S. Government Bulletins.
KATE HEINTZ WATSON
Formerly Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute; Lecturer University of Chicago.
MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE
Editor "The Mothers' Magazine;" Lecturer Chicago Froebel Association; Author "Everyday Essays," "Family Secrets," etc.
MARGARET E. DODD
Graduate Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Teacher of Science, Woodard Institute.
AMY ELIZABETH POPE
With the Panama Canal Commission; Formerly Instructor in Practical and Theoretical Nursing, Training School for Nurses, Presbyterian Hospital, New York City.
MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.
Director American School of Home Economics; Member American Public Health Association and American Chemical Society.
ELLEN H. RICHARDS
Author "Cost of Food," "Cost of Living," "Cost of Shelter," "Food Materials and Their Adulteration," etc., etc.; Chairman Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics.
MARY HINMAN ABEL
Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking," "Sale Food," etc.
THOMAS D. WOOD, M. D.
Professor of Physical Education, Columbia University.
H. M. LUFKIN, M. D.
Professor of Physical Diagnosis and Clinical Medicine, University of Minnesota.
OTTO FOLIN, Ph. D.
Special Investigator, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.
T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN, M. D., LL. D.
Author "Dust and Its Dangers," "The Story of the Bacteria," "Drinking Water and Ice Supplies," etc.
FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN
Architect, Boston, Mass.; Author of "The Five Orders of Architecture," "Letters and Lettering."
MRS. MELVIL DEWEY
Secretar Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics.
HELEN LOUISE JOHNSON
Professor of Home Economics, James Millikan University, Decatur.
FRANK W. ALLIN, M. D.
Instructor Rush Medical College, University of Chicago.
MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.
Director American School of Home Economics.
OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
MRS. ARTHUR COURTENAY NEVILLE
President of the Board.
MISS MARIA PARLOA
Founder of the first Cooking School in Boston; Author of "Home Economics," "Young Housekeeper," U. S. Government Bulletins, etc.
MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL
Co-worker in the "New England Kitchen," and the "Rumford Food Laboratory;" Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking," etc.
MISS ALICE RAVENHILL
Special Commissioner sent by the British Government to report on the Schools of Home Economics in the United States; Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, London.
MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN
Honorary President General Federation of Woman's Clubs.
MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF
President National Congress of Mothers.
MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED
Past President National Household Economics Association; Author of "Hostess of To-day."
MRS. WALTER McNAB MILLER
Chairman of the Pure Food Committee of the General Federation of Woman's Clubs.
MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY
Vice President of National Household Economics Association.
MRS. JOHN HOODLESS
Government Superintendent of Domestic Science for the province of Ontario; Founder Ontario Normal School of Domestic Science, now the MacDonald Institute.
DRESS MAKING IN MEXICODRESS MAKING IN MEXICO
"THE THREAD OF LIFE"THE THREAD OF LIFE"Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting.
Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting.
Origin of Textile Arts
Spinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. In the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. The need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. The wattle-work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day.
Primitive Methods
Nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is conjecture. They doubtless had their beginning long before mention is made of them in history, but these crafts—spinning and weaving—modified and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment.
The very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over.
ITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAXITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAXSpindle and Distaff.From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners and Weavers Are in Native Costume.)
Spindle and Distaff.From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners and Weavers Are in Native Costume.)
RUSSIAN SPINNINGRUSSIAN SPINNINGFlax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread and Spindle.From Hull House Museum.
Flax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread and Spindle.From Hull House Museum.
Spinning with the Spindle
The next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. At first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. The spindle is yet used by the North American Indians, the Italians, and in the Orient. The bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. A whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. Another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on.
Spindle Whorl
A spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of awhorlat the bottom of the spindle. These whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rotation. The process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spinning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation.
SPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFFSPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFFDistaff Thrust Into the Belt.
Distaff Thrust Into the Belt.
"GOSSIP" IN THE OLDEN TIMES"GOSSIP" IN THE OLDEN TIMES
COLONIAL WOOL WHEELCOLONIAL WOOL WHEELThe Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twisting the Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action.
The Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twisting the Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action.
COLONIAL FLAX WHEELCOLONIAL FLAX WHEELWorked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; "Fliers" on the Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of Hand Spindle.
Worked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; "Fliers" on the Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of Hand Spindle.
DUTCH WHEELDUTCH WHEELSpinner Sits in Front of the Wheel—Spinning Flax at Hull House.
Spinner Sits in Front of the Wheel—Spinning Flax at Hull House.
Distaff
Later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. It was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. The other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. When held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers.
Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which Different Methods of Spinning Has Been Used.Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which Different Methods of Spinning Has Been Used.
Wheel Spinning
On the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the "fillers"; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers.
SYRIAN SPINNINGSYRIAN SPINNINGSpinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held in Place by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication. At Hull House.
Spinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held in Place by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication. At Hull House.
The flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenthcentury and was a great improvement upon the distaff and spindle. This it will be seen was a comparatively modern invention. The rude wheel used by the natives of Japan and India may have been the progenitor of the European wheel, as about this time intercourse between the East and Europe increased. These wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until Hargreaves' invention superseded it.
PUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELTPUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELT
Someone has said that "weaving is the climax of textile industry." It is an art practiced by all savage tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. The art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spinning in place of coarser filaments.
A NAVAJO BELT WEAVERA NAVAJO BELT WEAVER
ZUNI WOMAN WEAVING CEREMONIAL BELTZUNI WOMAN WEAVING CEREMONIAL BELT
The Heddle
In the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports. At first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. An improvement was the device called the "heald" or "heddle," by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. One form of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. Another form was a slotted frame having openings or "eyes" in the slats. This was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. Alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. By raising or lowering the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. The next movement of the heddle frame crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. At first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primitive bobbin. Later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised.
PRIMITIVE HEDDLESPRIMITIVE HEDDLES
NAVAJO LOOMNAVAJO LOOMOne on the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House.
One on the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House.
SIMPLE COLONIAL LOOMSIMPLE COLONIAL LOOM
The Reed
Before the "reed" was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or "batten." The reed accomplished all this at one time.
A JAPANESE LOOM.A JAPANESE LOOM.
A FOUR HARNESS HAND LOOMA FOUR HARNESS HAND LOOMWeaving Linen in the Mountains of Virginia. (Photograph by C. R. Dodge).
Weaving Linen in the Mountains of Virginia. (Photograph by C. R. Dodge).
TYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOMTYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOMTwo Harnesses in Use; Weaving Wool at Hull House.
Two Harnesses in Use; Weaving Wool at Hull House.
Definition of a Loom
It is probable that the European looms were derived from those of India as they seem to be made on the same principle. From crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. A loom has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements:
1. The lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through.
DIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOMDIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOMA—Warp Beam;B—Cloth Beam;DD—Lees Rods;H—Harness;T—Treddle.
A—Warp Beam;B—Cloth Beam;DD—Lees Rods;H—Harness;T—Treddle.
2. The throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle.
3. The beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. This thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed.
4 & 5. The winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up.
SWEDISH HAND LOOMSWEDISH HAND LOOMNorwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House.
Norwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House.
DIAGRAM OF THE WORKING PARTS OF A LOOM.DIAGRAM OF THE WORKING PARTS OF A LOOM.S—Shuttle for carrying the woof;R—Reed for beating up the woof;H—Frame holding heddles, with pullies (P) making the harness;T—Treddles for moving the harness.
S—Shuttle for carrying the woof;R—Reed for beating up the woof;H—Frame holding heddles, with pullies (P) making the harness;T—Treddles for moving the harness.
Colonial Loom
No essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. The "harnesses" move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven home by the reeds to the woven cloth. Our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements of hands and feet. The modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fingers only to keep the threads in order. If she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, according to the designs. It is all worked out for her on the loom. Each thread with almost human intelligence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender.
FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM.FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM.The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and Forth and Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time.
The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and Forth and Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time.
Primitive Fabrics
No textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces" or "bolts" of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. The cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. The mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that prevailed among the tribes. The designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. The decoration never interfered with its use. "The first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product." The uniformity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. Their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar.
PICKING COTTON.PICKING COTTON.From Department of Agriculture Bulletin, "The Cotton Plant."
From Department of Agriculture Bulletin, "The Cotton Plant."
Both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. The fleece of sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the chief animal products. The principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp.
Chief Fibers
Cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. Ramie or China grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as adulterants in the manufacture of silk. When woven alone, they give soft silky textiles of great strength and beauty.
PRODUCTION OF COTTONPRODUCTION OF COTTON
Cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six billion pounds, of which the United States raises three-fourths. Texas is the largest producer, followed by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from India, Egypt, Russia, and Brazil. The Hindoos were the first ancient people to make extensive use of the cotton fiber. Not until the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1794 did the cotton begin to reach its present importance. Onlyfour or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. The modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily.
Native Home
Cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several special of cotton of cotton plant. It is a native of many parts of the world, being found by Columbus growing in the West Indies and on the main land, by Cortez in Mexico, and Pizarro in Peru.
COTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEEDCOTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEED
Sea Island Cotton
The value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. In ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. The sea island cotton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of Georgia, Carolina, and Florida is the most valuable variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. Some of the Egyptian cotton belongs to this species. Sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and muslins.
Upland Cotton
The short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. It is grown in Georgia, North and South Carolina and Alabama. Texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. Gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton.
UPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLESUPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLESFrom Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station.
From Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station.