Germany:As Western Europe's richest and most populous nation,Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed thecountry in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20thcentury and left the country occupied by the victorious Alliedpowers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With theadvent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: thewestern Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern GermanDemocratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in keyWestern economic and security organizations, the EC and NATO, whilethe communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led WarsawPact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowedfor German unification in 1990. Since then Germany has expendedconsiderable funds to bring eastern productivity and wages up towestern standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EUcountries formed a common European currency, the euro.
Ghana:Formed from the merger of the British colony of the GoldCoast and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became thefirst country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. A longseries of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitution in1981 and the banning of political parties. A new constitution,restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. JerryRAWLINGS, head of state since 1981, won presidential elections in1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from running for athird term in 2000. He was succeeded by John KUFUOR.
Gibraltar:Strategically important, Gibraltar was ceded to GreatBritain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British garrisonwas formally declared a colony in 1830. In a 1967 referendum,Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly toremain a British dependency.
Glorioso Islands:A French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated islands (Ile Glorieuseand Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrison operatesa weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
Greece:Greece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first halfof the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories with Greek-speaking populations. Following the defeat ofcommunist rebels in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A militarydictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties andforced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. Democraticelections in 1974 and a referendum created a parliamentary republicand abolished the monarchy; Greece joined the European Community orEC in 1981 (which became the EU in 1992).
Greenland:The world's largest island, about 84% ice-capped,Greenland was granted self-government in 1978 by the Danishparliament. The law went into effect the following year. Denmarkcontinues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs.
Grenada:One of the smallest independent countries in the westernhemisphere, Grenada was seized by a Marxist military council on 19October 1983. Six days later the island was invaded by US forces andthose of six other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured theringleaders and their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free electionswere reinstituted the following year.
Guadeloupe:Guadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. Theisland of Saint-Martin is divided with the Netherlands (whosesouthern portion is named Sint Maarten and is part of theNetherlands Antilles).
Guam:Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
Guatemala:Guatemala was freed of Spanish colonial rule in 1821.During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced a varietyof military and civilian governments as well as a 36-year guerrillawar. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement formallyending the conflict, which had led to the death of more than 100,000people and had created some 1 million refugees.
Guernsey:The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islandsrepresent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,which held sway in both France and England. The islands were theonly British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
Guinea:Independent from France since 1958, Guinea did not holddemocratic elections until 1993 when Gen. Lansana CONTE (head of themilitary government) was elected president of the civiliangovernment. He was reelected in 1998. Unrest in Sierra Leone hasspilled over into Guinea, threatening stability and creating ahumanitarian emergency.
Guinea-Bissau:In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal,the country's first multiparty legislative and presidentialelections were held. An army uprising that triggered a bloody civilwar in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. Thepresident was ousted by a military junta in May 1999. An interimgovernment turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leaderKoumba YALLA took office following two rounds of transparentpresidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracywill be complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil warand the military's predilection for governmental meddling.
Guyana:Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966 and becamea republic in 1970. In 1989 Guyana launched an Economic RecoveryProgram, which marked a dramatic reversal from a state-controlled,socialist economy towards a more open, free market system. Resultsthrough the first decade have proven encouraging.
Haiti:One of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, Haitihas been plagued by political violence for most of its history. Overthree decades of dictatorship followed by military rule ended in1990 when Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE was elected president. Most of histerm was usurped by a military takeover, but he was able to returnto office in 1994 and oversee the installation of a close associateto the presidency in 1996. ARISTIDE won a second term as presidentin 2000, and took office early the following year.
Heard Island and McDonald Islands:These uninhabited, barren islandswere transferred from the UK to Australia in 1947. Populated bylarge numbers of seal and bird species, the islands have beendesignated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City):Popes in their secular role ruled much ofthe Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the mid19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the newlyunited Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were furthercircumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between aseries of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by threeLateran Treaties, which established the independent state of VaticanCity and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy. In 1984,a concordat between the Vatican and Italy modified certain of theearlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include the failing health of Pope John Paul II,interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and the adjustment ofchurch doctrine in an era of rapid change and globalization. About 1billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.
Honduras:Part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and one-half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting against leftistguerrillas.
Hong Kong:Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In thisagreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, twosystems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not bepracticed in Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degreeof autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs forthe next 50 years.
Howland Island:Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, theisland was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and Britishcompanies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a daybeacon near the middle of the west coast that was partiallydestroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it isnamed in memory of famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island isadministered by the US Department of the Interior as a NationalWildlife Refuge.
Hungary:Hungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under communistrule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announcedwithdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive militaryintervention by Moscow. In the more open GORBACHEV years, Hungaryled the movement to dissolve the Warsaw Pact and steadily shiftedtoward multiparty democracy and a market-oriented economy. Followingthe collapse of the USSR in 1991, Hungary developed close politicaland economic ties to Western Europe. It joined NATO in 1999 and is afrontrunner in a future expansion of the EU.
Iceland:Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesionare first-rate by world standards.
India:The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in theworld, goes back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from thenorthwest invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlierinhabitants created classical Indian culture. Arab incursionsstarting in the 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed byEuropean traders beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19thcentury, Britain had assumed political control of virtually allIndian lands. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism underMohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947.The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and thesmaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war between the twocountries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separatenation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include theongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic strife, allthis despite impressive gains in economic investment and output.
Indian Ocean:The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south.
Indonesia:The world's largest archipelago, Indonesia achievedindependence from the Netherlands in 1949. Current issues include:implementing IMF-mandated reforms of the banking sector, effecting atransition to a popularly elected government after four decades ofauthoritarianism, addressing charges of cronyism and corruption,holding the military accountable for human rights violations, andresolving growing separatist pressures in Aceh and Irian Jaya. On 30August 1999 a provincial referendum for independence wasoverwhelmingly approved by the people of Timor Timur. Concurrencefollowed by Indonesia's national legislature, and the name EastTimor was provisionally adopted. The independent status of EastTimor - now under UN administration - has yet to be formallyestablished.
Iran:Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling shah was forced into exile. Conservativeclerical forces subsequently crushed westernizing liberal elements.Militant Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88,Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq over disputedterritory. The key current issue is how rapidly the country shouldopen up to the modernizing influences of the outside world.
Iraq:Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq became anindependent kingdom in 1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958,but in actuality a series of military strongmen have ruled thecountry since then, the latest being SADDAM Husayn. Territorialdisputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war(1980-1988). In August 1990 Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled byUS-led, UN coalition forces during January-February 1991. Thevictors did not occupy Iraq, however, thus allowing the regime tostay in control. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN SecurityCouncil (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of massdestruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verificationinspections. UN trade sanctions remain in effect due to incompleteIraqi compliance with relevant UNSC resolutions.
Ireland:A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off severalyears of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independencefrom the UK for the 26 southern counties; the six northern counties(Ulster) remained part of Great Britain. In 1948 Ireland withdrewfrom the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification ofIreland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. Apeace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, wasimplemented the following year.
Israel:Following World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied byIsrael since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. In keeping with the frameworkestablished at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateralnegotiations are being conducted between Israel and Palestinianrepresentatives (from the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip)and Israel and Syria, to achieve a permanent settlement. On 25 April1982, Israel withdrew from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Outstanding territorial and otherdisputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. On 25 May 2000, Israel withdrewunilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied since 1982.
Italy:Italy became a nation-state belatedly - in 1861 when thecity-states of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, wereunited under King Victor EMMANUEL. An era of parliamentarygovernment came to a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINIestablished a Fascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance withNazi Germany led to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democraticrepublic replaced the monarchy in 1946 and economic revivalfollowed. Italy was a charter member of NATO and the EuropeanEconomic Community (EEC). It has been at the forefront of Europeaneconomic and political unification, joining the European MonetaryUnion in 1999. Persistent problems include illegal immigration, theravages of organized crime, corruption, high unemployment, and thelow incomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared withthe more prosperous north.
Jamaica:Jamaica gained full independence within the BritishCommonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the1970s led to recurrent violence and a dropoff in tourism. Electionsin 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office.Subsequent governments have been open market oriented. Politicalviolence marred elections during the 1990s.
Jan Mayen:This desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutchwhaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlierclaims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal huntersand trappers over the following centuries, the island came underNorwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Beerenberg volcanoresumed activity in 1970; it is the northernmost active volcano onearth.
Japan:While retaining its time-honored culture, Japan rapidlyabsorbed Western technology during the late 19th and early 20thcenturies. After its devastating defeat in World War II, Japanrecovered to become the second most powerful economy in the worldand a staunch ally of the US. While the emperor retains his throneas a symbol of national unity, actual power rests in networks ofpowerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. Theeconomy experienced a major slowdown in the 1990s following threedecades of unprecedented growth.
Jarvis Island:First discovered by the British in 1821, theuninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the islandin 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. TheUS occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after WorldWar II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refugeadministered by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon issituated near the middle of the west coast.
Jersey:The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands representthe last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held swayin both France and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II.
Johnston Atoll:Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexedJohnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guanodeposits until the late 1880s. The US Navy took over the atoll in1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. Thesite was used for high altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storageand disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is nowcomplete, and cleanup and closure of the facility is progressing.
Jordan:For most of its history since independence from Britishadministration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN(1953-1999). A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competingpressures from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arabstates, Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, throughseveral wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentaryelections and gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994a formal peace treaty was signed with Israel. King ABDALLAH II - theeldest son of King HUSSEIN and Princess MUNA - assumed the thronefollowing his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he hasconsolidated his power and established his domestic priorities.
Juan de Nova Island:Named after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.
Kazakhstan:Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadictribes who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarelyunited as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the18th century and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. Duringthe 1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Sovietcitizens were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northernpastures. This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also someother deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence has caused many ofthese newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing acohesive national identity; expanding the development of thecountry's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;and continuing to strengthen relations with neighboring states andother foreign powers.
Kenya:Revered president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence until his death in 1978, when currentPresident Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutionalsuccession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) madeitself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal andexternal pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. Theethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from powerin elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence andfraud, but are viewed as having generally reflected the will of theKenyan people. The country faces a period of political uncertaintybecause MOI is constitutionally required to step down at the nextelections that have to be held by early 2003.
Kingman Reef:The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoonserved as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoaflights during the late 1930s. There is no flora on the reef, whichis frequently awash, but it does support an abundant and diversemarine fauna. In 2001, the waters surrounding the reef weredesignated a National Wildlife Refuge.
Kiribati:The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, North:Following World War II, Korea was split into anorthern, communist half and a southern, Western-oriented half. KIMChong-il has ruled North Korea since his father and the country'sfounder, president KIM Il-song, died in 1994. After decades ofmismanagement, the North relies heavily on international food aid tofeed its population, while continuing to expend resources tomaintain an army of about 1 million. North Korea's long-rangemissile development and research into nuclear and chemical weaponsare of major concern to the international community.
Korea, South:After World War II, a republic was set up in thesouthern half of the Korean Peninsula while a communist-stylegovernment was installed in the north. The Korean War (1950-53) hadUS and other UN forces intervene to defend South Korea from NorthKorean attacks supported by the Chinese. An armistice was signed in1953 splitting the peninsula at the 38th parallel known as the DMZ.Thereafter, South Korea achieved rapid economic growth, with percapita income rising to 13 times the level of North Korea. In 1997,the nation suffered a severe financial crisis from which itcontinues to make a solid recovery. South Korea has also maintainedits commitment to democratize its political processes. In June 2000,a historic first south-north summit took place between the south'sPresident KIM Dae-jung and the north's leader KIM Chong-il. InDecember 2000, President KIM Dae-jung won the Noble Peace Prize forhis lifeling committment to democracy and human rights in Asia. Heis the first Korean to win a Nobel Prize.
Kuwait:Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990.Following several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led UN coalitionbegan a ground assault on 23 February 1991 that completely liberatedKuwait in four days. Kuwait has spent more than $5 billion to repairoil infrastructure damaged during 1990-91.
Kyrgyzstan:A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Currentconcerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,expansion of democracy and political freedoms, inter-ethnicrelations, and terrorism.
Laos:In 1975 the communist Pathet Lao took control of thegovernment, ending a six-century-old monarchy. Initial closer tiesto Vietnam and socialization were replaced with a gradual return toprivate enterprise, an easing of foreign investment laws, and theadmission into ASEAN in 1997.
Latvia:After a brief period of independence between the two WorldWars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia continues to revamp its economy for eventualintegration into various Western European political and economicinstitutions.
Lebanon:Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its politicalinstitutions and regaining its national sovereignty since 1991 andthe end of the devastating 16-year civil war. Under the Ta'if Accord- the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese haveestablished a more equitable political system, particularly bygiving Muslims a greater say in the political process whileinstitutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since theend of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several successfulelections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, andthe Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central governmentauthority over about two-thirds of the country. Hizballah, theradical Shi'a party, retains its weapons. Syria maintains about25,000 troops in Lebanon based mainly in Beirut, North Lebanon, andthe Bekaa Valley. Syria's troop deployment was legitimized by theArab League during Lebanon's civil war and in the Ta'if Accord.Damascus justifies its continued military presence in Lebanon byciting the continued weakness of the LAF, Beirut's requests, and thefailure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of theconstitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal fromits security zone in southern Lebanon in May of 2000, however, hasemboldened some Lebanese Christians and Druze to demand that Syriawithdraw its forces as well.
Lesotho:Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. Constitutional government wasrestored in 1993 after 23 years of military rule.
Liberia:Seven years of civil strife were brought to a close in 1996when free and open presidential and legislative elections were held.President TAYLOR now holds strong executive power with no realpolitical opposition. The years of fighting coupled with the flightof most businesses have disrupted formal economic activity. A stillunsettled domestic security situation has slowed the process ofrebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torncountry.
Libya:Since he took power in a 1969 military coup, Col. Muammar AbuMinyar al-QADHAFI has espoused his own political system - acombination of socialism and Islam - which he calls the ThirdInternational Theory. Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, heused oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideologyoutside Libya, even supporting subversives and terrorists abroad tohasten the end of Marxism and capitalism. Libyan military adventuresfailed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the AozouStrip in northern Chad was finally repulsed in 1987. Libyan supportfor terrorism decreased after UN sanctions were imposed in 1992.Those sanctions were suspended in April 1999.
Liechtenstein:The Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forcedLiechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union withSwitzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remainedneutral) the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economicgrowth. However, shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight haveresulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions formoney laundering.
Lithuania:Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania wasannexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became thefirst of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but thisproclamation was not generally recognized until September of 1991(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troopswithdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently has restructured itseconomy for eventual integration into Western European institutions.
Luxembourg:Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union) and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
Macau:Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau wasthe first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to anagreement signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macaubecame the Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20December 1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, twosystems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not bepracticed in Macau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree ofautonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs.
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of:Internationalrecognition of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's (FYROM)independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece'sobjection to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenicname and symbols. Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995,and the two countries agreed to normalize relations, despitecontinued disagreement over FYROM's use of "Macedonia." FYROM'slarge Albanian minority and the de facto independence of neighboringKosovo continue to be sources of ethnic tension.
Madagascar:Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1886, but regained its independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections wereheld, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997 in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency.
Malawi:Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule, the country held multiparty elections in 1994under a provisional constitution, which took full effect thefollowing year. National multiparty elections were held again in1999.
Malaysia:Malaysia was created in 1963 through the merging of Malaya(independent in 1957) and the former British Singapore, both ofwhich formed West Malaysia, and Sabah and Sarawak in north Borneo,which composed East Malaysia. The first three years of independencewere marred by hostilities with Indonesia. Singapore separated fromthe union in 1965.
Maldives:The Maldives were long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. They became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. Tourism and fishing are being developed onthe archipelago.
Mali:The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, the Sudanese Republic was renamed Mali. Rule bydictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 with a transitionalgovernment, and in 1992 when Mali's first democratic presidentialelection was held. Since his reelection in 1997, President KONAREhas continued to push through political and economic reforms and tofight corruption. In 1999 he indicated he would not run for a thirdterm.
Malta:Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Over the last 15 years, theisland has become a major freight transshipment point, financialcenter, and tourist destination. It is an official candidate for EUmembership.
Man, Isle of:Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides untilthe 13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came underthe British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving thealmost extinct Manx Celtic language.
Marshall Islands:After almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the islands between 1947 and1962.
Martinique:Colonized by France in 1635, the island has subsequentlyremained a French possession except for three brief periods offoreign occupation.
Mauritania:Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by thePolisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widelyseen as being flawed; Mauritania remains, in reality, a one-partystate. The country continues to experience ethnic tensions betweenits black minority population and the dominant Maur (Arab-Berber)populace.
Mauritius:Discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, Mauritius wassubsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British beforeindependence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with regularfree elections and a positive human rights record, the country hasattracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one ofAfrica's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather anddeclining sugar prices have slowed economic growth leading to someprotests over standards of living in the Creole community.
Mayotte:Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other Comoros in1843. It was the only island in the archipelago that voted in 1974to retain its link with France and forgo independence.
Mexico:The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressiverecovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low realwages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunitiesfor the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southernstates.
Micronesia, Federated States of:In 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the United States. Present concerns includelarge-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on US aid.
Midway Islands:The US took formal possession of the islands in1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed throughthe islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights.The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 wasone of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued toserve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands area wildlife refuge open to the public.
Moldova:Formerly ruled by Romania, Moldova became part of theSoviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent fromthe USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovanterritory east of the Nistru (Dnister) River supporting the Slavicmajority population, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who haveproclaimed a "Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest nations inEurope and plagued by a moribund economy, in 2001 Moldova became thefirst former Soviet state to elect a communist as its president.
Monaco:Economic development was spurred in the late 19th centurywith a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Sincethen, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, andgambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist andrecreation center.
Mongolia:Long a province of China, Mongolia won its independence in1921 with Soviet backing. A communist regime was installed in 1924.During the early 1990s, the ex-communist Mongolian People'sRevolutionary Party (MPRP) gradually yielded its monopoly on power.In 1996, the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) defeated the MPRP in anational election. Over the next four years the Coalitionimplemented a number of key reforms to modernize the economy andinstitutionalize democratic reforms. However, the former communistswere a strong opposition that stalled additional reforms and madeimplementation difficult. In 2000, the MPRP won 72 of the 76 seatsin Parliament and completely reshuffled the government. While itcontinues many of the reform policies, the MPRP is focusing onsocial welfare and public order priorities.
Montserrat:Much of this island has been devastated and two-thirdsof the population has fled abroad due to the eruption of theSoufriere Hills volcano that began on 18 July 1995.
Morocco:Morocco's long struggle for independence from France endedin 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier was turned over tothe new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed WesternSahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status ofthe territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in1997.
Mozambique:Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and aprolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The rulingparty formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution thefollowing year provided for multiparty elections and a free marketeconomy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement with rebel forces ended thefighting in 1992.
Namibia:South Africa occupied the German colony of Sud-West Afrikaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that was soon namedNamibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to endits administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Independence came in 1990.
Nauru:Nauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the20th century by a German-British consortium; the island was occupiedby Australian forces in World War I. Upon achieving independence in1968, Nauru became the smallest independent republic in the world;it joined the UN in 1999.
Navassa Island:This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in1857 for its guano, and mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge.
Nepal:In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. The refugee issueof some 100,000 Bhutanese in Nepal remains unresolved; 90% of thesedisplaced persons are housed in seven United Nations Offices of theHigh Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps.
Netherlands:The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815. In1830 Belgium seceded and formed a separate kingdom. The Netherlandsremained neutral in World War I but suffered a brutal invasion andoccupation by Germany in World War II. A modern, industrializednation, the Netherlands is also a large exporter of agriculturalproducts. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EC, andparticipated in the introduction of the euro in 1999.
Netherlands Antilles:Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade,the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored inthe early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries toservice the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island ofSint Maarten is shared with France; its northern portion is namedSaint Martin and is part of Guadeloupe.
New Caledonia:Settled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s seems tohave dissipated.
New Zealand:The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand withdrew from a number of defense alliances during the1970s and 1980s. In recent years the government has sought toaddress longstanding native Maori grievances.
Nicaragua:Settled as a colony of Spain in the 1520s, Nicaraguagained its independence in 1821. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990and again in 1996 saw the Sandinistas defeated. The country hasslowly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hard hit byHurricane Mitch in 1998.
Niger:Not until 1993, 33 years after independence from France, didNiger hold its first free and open elections. A 1995 peace accordended a five-year Tuareg insurgency in the north. Coups in 1996 and1999 were followed by the creation of a National ReconciliationCouncil that effected a transition to civilian rule in December 1999.
Nigeria:Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a newconstitution was adopted in 1999 and a peaceful transition tocivilian government completed. The new president faces the dauntingtask of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues havebeen squandered through corruption and mismanagement, andinstitutionalizing democracy. In addition, the OBASANJOadministration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religioustensions, if it is to build a sound foundation for economic growthand political stability.
Niue:Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to 2,100 in 2000) with substantial emigration to New Zealand.
Norfolk Island:Two British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana Islands:Under US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975. A new government andconstitution went into effect in 1978.
Norway:Despite its neutrality, Norway was not able to avoidoccupation by Germany in World War II. In 1949, neutrality wasabandoned and Norway became a member of NATO. Discovery of oil andgas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norway's economicfortunes. The current focus is on containing spending on theextensive welfare system and planning for the time when petroleumreserves are depleted. In referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norwayrejected joining the EU.
Oman:In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al Said ousted his father and hasruled as sultan ever since. His extensive modernization program hasopened the country to the outside world and has preserved along-standing political and military relationship with the UK.Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintaingood relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific Ocean:The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
Pakistan:The separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslimstate of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largelyHindu India was never satisfactorily resolved. A third war betweenthese countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan seceding andbecoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. A dispute over the stateof Kashmir is ongoing. In response to Indian nuclear weaponstesting, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998.
Palau:After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independent status in 1978 rather thanjoin the Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of FreeAssociation with the US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until1993. It entered into force the following year when the islandsgained their independence.
Palmyra Atoll:The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, andthe US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed thearchipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did notinclude Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the NatureConservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a naturepreserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nauticalmile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish andWildlife service and designated a National Wildlife Refuge inJanuary 2001.
Panama:With US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 andpromptly signed a treaty with the US allowing for the constructionof a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land on either side ofthe structure (the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built bythe US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. On 7 September1977, an agreement was signed for the complete transfer of the Canalfrom the US to Panama by the end of 1999. Certain portions of theZone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned overin the intervening years. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama byor on 31 December 1999.
Papua New Guinea:The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel Islands:This archipelago is surrounded by productivefishing grounds and potentially large oil reserves. In 1932, FrenchIndochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPrattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopscaptured a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.However, the islands are still claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan.
Paraguay:In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of itsterritory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. Inthe Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas werewon from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of AlfredoSTROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase inpolitical infighting in recent years, relatively free and regularpresidential elections have been held since then.
Peru:After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned todemocratic leadership in 1980. In recent years, bold reform programsand significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity and drugtrafficking have resulted in solid economic growth.
Philippines:The Philippines were ceded by Spain to the US in 1898following the Spanish-American War. They attained their independencein 1946 after being occupied by the Japanese in World War II. The21-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986 when a widespreadpopular rebellion forced him into exile. In 1992, the US closed downits last military bases on the islands. The Philippines has had twoelectoral presidential transitions since Marcos' removal by "peoplepower." In January 2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph ESTRADAunable to rule in view of mass resignations from his government andadministered the oath of office to Vice President GloriaMACAPAGAL-ARROYO as his constitutional successor. The governmentcontinues to struggle with ongoing Muslim insurgencies in the south.
Pitcairn Islands:Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toabout 50 today.
Poland:Poland gained its independence in 1918 only to be overrun byGermany and the Soviet Union in World War II. It became a Sovietsatellite country following the war, but one that was comparativelytolerant and progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formationof the independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became apolitical force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections andthe presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990senabled the country to transform its economy into one of the mostrobust in Central Europe, boosting hopes for acceptance to the EU.Poland joined the NATO alliance in 1999.
Portugal:Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with thedestruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during theNapoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next sixdecades repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a left-wingmilitary coup installed broad democratic reforms. The following yearPortugal granted independence to all of its African colonies.Portugal entered the EC in 1985.
Puerto Rico:Discovered by Columbus in 1493, the island was ceded bySpain to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. Apopularly elected governor has served since 1948. In plebiscitesheld in 1967 and 1993, voters chose to retain commonwealth status.
Qatar:Ruled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the amir who had ruled the country since 1972. He wasoverthrown by his son, the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani,in a bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved itslongstanding border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oiland natural gas revenues enable Qatar to have a per capita incomenot far below the leading industrial countries of Western Europe.
Reunion:The Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration supplementedby influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and Malabar Indians gavethe island its ethnic mix. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869cost the island its importance as a stopover on the East Indiestrade route.
Romania:Soviet occupation following World War II led to theformation of a communist "peoples republic" in 1947 and theabdication of the king. The decades-long rule of President NicolaeCEAUSESCU became increasingly draconian through the 1980s. He wasoverthrown and executed in late 1989. Former communists dominatedthe government until 1996 when they were swept from power. Mucheconomic restructuring remains to be carried out before Romania canachieve its hope of joining the EU.
Russia:The defeat of the Russian Empire in World War I led to theseizure of power by the communists and the formation of the USSR.The brutal rule of Josef STALIN (1924-53) strengthened Russiandominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions oflives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the followingdecades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91)introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in anattempt to modernize communism, but his initiatives inadvertentlyreleased forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into 15independent republics. Since then, Russia has struggled in itsefforts to build a democratic political system and market economy toreplace the strict social, political, and economic controls of thecommunist period.
Rwanda:In 1959, three years before independence, the majorityethnic group, the Hutus overthrew the ruling Tutsi king. Over thenext several years thousands of Tutsis were killed, and some 150,000driven into exile in neighboring countries. The children of theseexiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along with several politicaland economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic tensions culminating inApril 1994 in the genocide of roughly 800,000 Tutsis and moderateHutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the Hutu regime and ended thekilling in July 1994, but approximately 2 million Hutu refugees -many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to neighboring Burundi,Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire, now called the Democratic Republic ofthe Congo (DROC). Since then most of the refugees have returned toRwanda. Despite substantial international assistance and politicalreforms - including Rwanda's first local elections in March 1999 -the country continues to struggle to boost investment andagricultural output and to foster reconciliation. A series ofmassive population displacements, a nagging Hutu extremistinsurgency, and Rwandan involvement in two wars over the past fouryears in the neighboring DROC continue to hinder Rwanda's efforts.
Saint Helena:Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, St. Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE'sexile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as aport of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.Ascension Island is the site of a US Air Force auxiliary airfield;Gough Island has a meteorological station.
Saint Kitts and Nevis:First settled by the British in 1623, theislands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fellshort of the two-thirds majority needed.
Saint Lucia:The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Self-government was granted in 1967 andindependence in 1979.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon:First settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines:Disputed between France and GreatBritain in the 18th century, Saint Vincent was ceded to the latterin 1783. Autonomy was granted in 1969, and independence in 1979.
Samoa:New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San Marino:The third smallest state in Europe (after The Holy Seeand Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. Accordingto tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marinusin 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that ofItaly. Social and political trends in the republic also trackclosely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and Principe:Discovered and claimed by Portugal in thelate 15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way tocoffee and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantationslave labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century.Although independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms werenot instituted until the late 1980s. The first free elections wereheld in 1991.
Saudi Arabia:In 1902 Abdul al-Aziz Ibn SAUD captured Riyadh and setout on a 30-year campaign to unify the Arabian peninsula. In the1930s, the discovery of oil transformed the country. FollowingIraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia accepted the Kuwaitiroyal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Western and Arabtroops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwait thefollowing year. A burgeoning population, aquifer depletion, and aneconomy largely dependent on petroleum output and prices are allmajor governmental concerns.
Senegal:Independent from France in 1960, Senegal joined with TheGambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982.However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was nevercarried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peacetalks, a southern separatist group sporadically has clashed withgovernment forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history ofparticipating in international peacekeeping.
Seychelles:A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain forthe islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a closewith a new constitution and free elections in 1993.
Sierra Leone:Since 1991, civil war between the government and theRevolutionary United Front (RUF) has resulted in tens of thousandsof deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (wellover one-third of the population) many of whom are now refugees inneighboring countries. A peace agreement, signed in July 1999,collapsed in May 2000 after the RUF took over 500 UN peacekeepershostage. The RUF stepped up attacks on Guinea in December 2000,despite a cease-fire that it signed with the Freetown government onemonth earlier. As of late 2000, up to 13,000 UN peacekeepers wereprotecting the capital and key towns in the south. A UK force of 750was helping to reinforce security and train the Sierra Leone army.
Singapore:Founded as a British trading colony in 1819, Singaporejoined Malaysia in 1963, but withdrew two years later and becameindependent. It subsequently became one of the world's mostprosperous countries, with strong international trading links (itsport is one of the world's busiest) and with per capita GDP abovethat of the leading nations of Western Europe.
Slovakia:In 1918 the Slovaks joined the closely related Czechs toform Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,Czechoslovakia became a communist nation within Soviet-ruled EasternEurope. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia oncemore became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separatepeacefully on 1 January 1993. Historic, political, and geographicfactors have caused Slovakia to experience more difficulty indeveloping a modern market economy than some of its Central Europeanneighbors.
Slovenia:In 1918 the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats informing a new nation, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. After World WarII, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, whichthough communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfiedwith the exercise of power of the majority Serbs, the Slovenessucceeded in establishing their independence in 1991. Historicalties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and a stable democracymake Slovenia a leading candidate for future membership in the EUand NATO.
Solomon Islands:The UK established a protectorate over the SolomonIslands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War IIoccurred on these islands. Self-government was achieved in 1976 andindependence two years later. Current issues include governmentdeficits, deforestation, and malaria control.
Somalia:A SIAD BARRE regime was ousted in January 1991; turmoil,factional fighting, and anarchy followed for nine years. In May of1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somalilandwhich now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, WoqooyiGalbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by anygovernment, this entity has maintained a stable existence, aided bythe overwhelming dominance of the ruling clan and economicinfrastructure left behind by British, Russian, and Americanmilitary assistance programs. The regions of Bari and Nugaalcomprise a neighboring self-declared Republic of Puntland, which hasalso made strides towards reconstructing legitimate, representativegovernment. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort(primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions,but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significantcasualties, order still had not been restored. A TransitionalNational Government (TNG) was created in October 2000 in Arta,Djibouti which was attended by a broad representation of Somaliclans. The TNG has a three-year mandate to create a permanentnational Somali government. The TNG does not recognize Somaliland orPuntland as independent republics but so far has been unable toreunite them with the unstable regions in the south; numerouswarlords and factions are still fighting for control of Mogadishuand the other southern regions.