Cocos (Keeling) IslandsThere are 27 coral islands in the group.Captain William Keeling discovered the islands in 1609, but theyremained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.The population on the two inhabited islands generally is splitbetween the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays onHome Island.
ColombiaColombia was one of the three countries that emerged fromthe collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Ecuador andVenezuela). A 40-year insurgent campaign to overthrow the ColombianGovernment escalated during the 1990s, undergirded in part by fundsfrom the drug trade. Although the violence is deadly and largeswaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence, themovement lacks the military strength or popular support necessary tooverthrow the government. An anti-insurgent army of paramilitarieshas grown to be several thousand strong in recent years, challengingthe insurgents for control of territory and illicit industries suchas the drug trade and the government's ability to exert its dominionover rural areas. While Bogota steps up efforts to reassertgovernment control throughout the country, neighboring countriesworry about the violence spilling over their borders.
ComorosUnstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coupssince gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islandsof Anjouan and Moheli declared their independence from Comoros. In1999, military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He pledged to resolvethe secessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the2000 Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a newconstitution and presidential elections took place in the spring of2002. Each island in the archipelago elected its own president and anew union president was sworn in on May 26, 2002.
Congo, Democratic Republic of theSince 1997, the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo (DROC; formerly called Zaire) has been rent byethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow in 1994of refugees from the fighting in Rwanda and Burundi. The governmentof former president MOBUTU Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion ledby Laurent KABILA in May 1997; his regime was subsequentlychallenged by a Rwanda- and Uganda-backed rebellion in August 1998.Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened tosupport the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999by the DROC, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, andCongolese armed rebel groups, but sporadic fighting continued.KABILA was assassinated on 16 January 2001 and his son Joseph KABILAwas named head of state ten days later. In October 2002, the newpresident was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces towithdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement wassigned by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and setup a government of national unity.
Congo, Republic of theUpon independence in 1960, the former Frenchregion of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quartercentury of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and ademocratically elected government installed in 1992. A brief civilwar in 1997 restored former Marxist President SASSOU-NGUESSO, butushered in a period of ethnically based unrest. Southern-based rebelgroups agreed to a final peace accord in March 2003. The Republic ofCongo is one of Africa's largest petroleum producers withsignificant potential for offshore development.
Cook IslandsNamed after Captain Cook, who sighted them in 1770, theislands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965residents chose self-government in free association with NewZealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand andgovernment deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea IslandsScattered over some 1 million square kilometers ofocean, the Coral Sea Islands were declared a territory of Australiain 1969. They are uninhabited except for a small meteorologicalstaff on the Willis Islets. Automated weather stations, beacons, anda lighthouse occupy many other islands and reefs.
Costa RicaCosta Rica is a Central American success story: since thelate 19th century, only two brief periods of violence have marredits democratic development. Although still a largely agriculturalcountry, it has expanded its economy to include strong technologyand tourism sectors. The standard of living is relatively high. Landownership is widespread.
Cote d'IvoireClose ties to France since independence in 1960, thedevelopment of cocoa production for export, and foreign investmentmade Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropicalAfrican states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. On 25December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire'shistory - overthrew the government led by President Henri KonanBEDIE. Junta leader Robert GUEI held elections in late 2000, butexcluded prominent opposition leader Alassane OUATTARA, blatantlyrigged the polling results, and declared himself winner. Popularprotest forced GUEI to step aside and brought runner-up LaurentGBAGBO into power. GBAGBO spent his first two years in office tryingto consolidate power to strengthen his weak mandate, but he wasunable to appease his opponents, who launched a failed coup attemptin September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of thecountry and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in aunity government. However, the central government has yet to exertcontrol over the northern regions and tension remains high betweenGBAGBO and rebel leaders. Several thousand French and West Africantroops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to maintain peace and help implementthe peace accords.
CroatiaIn 1918, the Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdomknown after 1929 as Yugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslaviabecame a federal independent Communist state under the strong handof Marshal TITO. Although Croatia declared its independence fromYugoslavia in 1991, it took four years of sporadic, but oftenbitter, fighting before occupying Serb armies were mostly clearedfrom Croatian lands. Under UN supervision, the last Serb-heldenclave in eastern Slavonia was returned to Croatia in 1998.
CubaFidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959; his iron rulehas held the country together since then. Cuba's Communistrevolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughout LatinAmerica and Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The countryis now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in 1990,following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties asthe result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migrationto the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, or falsifiedvisas - is a continuing problem. Some 2,500 Cubans attempted thecrossing of the Straits of Florida in 2002; the US Coast Guardapprehended about 60% of the individuals.
CyprusIndependence from the UK was approved in 1960, withconstitutional guarantees by the Greek Cypriot majority to theTurkish Cypriot minority. In 1974, a Greek-sponsored attempt toseize the government was met by military intervention from Turkey,which soon controlled almost 40% of the island. In 1983, theTurkish-held area declared itself the "Turkish Republic of NorthernCyprus," but it is recognized only by Turkey. UN-led direct talksbetween the two sides to reach a comprehensive settlement to thedivision of the island began in January 2002.
Czech RepublicFollowing the First World War, the closely relatedCzechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged toform Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country'sleaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands ofother ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably theSudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere ofinfluence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended theefforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party ruleand create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrationsthe following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With thecollapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained itsfreedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two nationalcomponents, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Now a member of NATO,the Czech Republic has moved toward integration in world markets, adevelopment that poses both opportunities and risks. In December2002, the Czech Republic was invited to join the European Union(EU). It is expected that the Czech Republic will accede to the EUin 2004.
DenmarkOnce the seat of Viking raiders and later a major northEuropean power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nationthat is participating in the general political and economicintegration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now theEU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elementsof the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the EuropeanEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU) and issues concerning certainjustice and home affairs.
DjiboutiThe French Territory of the Afars and the Issas becameDjibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarianone-party state and proceeded to serve three consecutive six-yearterms as president. Unrest among the Afars minority during the1990's led to multi-party elections resulting in President IsmailOmar GUELLEH attaining office in May 1999. A peace accord in 2001ended the final phases of a ten-year uprising by Afar rebels.Djibouti occupies a very strategic geographic location at the mouthof the Red Sea and serves as an important transshipment location forgoods entering and leaving the east African highlands. GUELLEHfavors close ties to France, which maintains a significant militarypresence in the country.
DominicaDominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to becolonized by Europeans, due chiefly to the fierce resistance of thenative Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years afterindependence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt andtyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary EugeniaCHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, whoremained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians stillliving on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remainingin the eastern Caribbean.
Dominican RepublicExplored and claimed by Columbus on his firstvoyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became a springboard forSpanish conquest of the Caribbean and the American mainland. In1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of theisland, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder of the island, bythen known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its own independence in1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitians for 22 years; itfinally attained independence as the Dominican Republic in 1844. Alegacy of unsettled, mostly non-representative, rule for much of itssubsequent history was brought to an end in 1966 when JoaquinBALAGUER became president. He maintained a tight grip on power formost of the next 30 years when international reaction to flawedelections forced him to curtail his term in 1996. Since then,regular competitive elections have been held in which oppositioncandidates have won the presidency. The Dominican economy has hadone of the fastest growth rates in the hemisphere over the pastdecade.
East TimorThe Portuguese colony of Timor declared itselfindependent from Portugal on 28 November 1975 and was invaded andoccupied by Indonesian forces nine days later. It was incorporatedinto Indonesia in July 1976 as the province of East Timor. Acampaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, duringwhich an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, the peopleof East Timor voted for independence from Indonesia. During1999-2001, pro-integrationist militias - supported by Indonesia -conducted indiscriminate violence. On 20 May 2002, East Timor wasinternationally recognized as an independent state and the world'snewest democracy.
EcuadorThe "Republic of the Equator" was one of three countriesthat emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the othersbeing Colombia and Venezuela). Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lostterritories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A borderwar with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999.
EgyptThe regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east andwest, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatcivilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C. and a seriesof dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The lastnative dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn werereplaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs whointroduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and whoruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, theMamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after theconquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following thecompletion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an importantworld transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control ofEgypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the OttomanEmpire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. Thecompletion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant LakeNasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in theagriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (thelargest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence onthe Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. Thegovernment has struggled to ready the economy for the new millenniumthrough economic reform and massive investment in communications andphysical infrastructure.
El SalvadorEl Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 andfrom the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 whenthe government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided formilitary and political reforms.
Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968after 190 years of Spanish rule. President OBIANG NGUEM MBASOGO hasruled the tiny country, composed of a mainland portion plus fiveinhabited islands and one of the smallest countries on the Africancontinent, since he seized power in a coup in 1979. Althoughnominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996 and 2002presidential elections - as well as the 1999 legislative elections -were widely seen as being flawed.
EritreaEritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of afederation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 yearslater sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence wasoverwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-yearborder war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UNauspices on 12 December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UNpeacekeeping operation that is monitoring the border region. Aninternational commission, organized to resolve the border dispute,posted its findings in 2002 but final demarcation is on hold due toEthiopian objections.
EstoniaAfter centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russianrule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporatedinto the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991, with thecollapse of the Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political tieswith Western Europe. Estonia received invitations to join NATO andthe EU in 2002.
EthiopiaUnique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopianmonarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, one exceptionbeing the Italian occupation of 1936-41. In 1974 a military junta,the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who had ruled since 1930)and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings,wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime wasfinally toppled by a coalition of rebel forces, the EthiopianPeople's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), in 1991. Aconstitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multipartyelections were held in 1995. A two and a half year border war withEritrea ended with a peace treaty on 12 December 2000. Finaldemarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due to Ethiopianobjections to an international commission's finding requiring it tosurrender sensitive territory.
Europa IslandA French possession since 1897, the island is heavilywooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs aweather station.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)Although first sighted by anEnglish navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occuruntil almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned overto Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subjectof a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, thenbetween Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to theislands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentinainvaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with anexpeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fiercefighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe IslandsThe population of the Faroe Islands is largelydescended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. Theislands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14thcentury. A high degree of self-government was attained in 1948.
FijiFiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as aBritish colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived asdominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborersbrought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). A 1990constitution favored native Melanesian control of Fiji, but led toheavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economicdifficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority.Amendments enacted in 1997 made the constitution more equitable.Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a government led byan Indo-Fijian, but a coup in May 2000 ushered in a prolonged periodof political turmoil. Parliamentary elections held in August 2001provided Fiji with a democratically elected government and gave amandate to the government of Prime Minister Laisenia QARASE.
FinlandFinland was a province and then a grand duchy under Swedenfrom the 12th to the 19th centuries and an autonomous grand duchy ofRussia after 1809. It finally won its complete independence in 1917.During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedomand resist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss ofterritory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made aremarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to adiversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now onpar with Western Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finlandwas the only Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiationin January 1999.
FranceAlthough ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, Francesuffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rankas a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of themost modern countries in the world and is a leader among Europeannations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracyresistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentarydemocracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperationwith Germany have proved central to the economic integration ofEurope, including the introduction of the euro in January 2002. Atpresent, France is at the forefront of European states seeking toexploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of amore unified and capable European defense and security apparatus.
French GuianaFirst settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana wasthe site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The EuropeanSpace Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.
French PolynesiaThe French annexed various Polynesian island groupsduring the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred upwidespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atollafter a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January1996.
French Southern and Antarctic LandsThe Southern Lands consist oftwo archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanicislands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanentinhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the nativefauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin sliceof the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in1840.
GabonRuled by autocratic presidents since independence from Francein 1960, Gabon introduced a multiparty system and a new constitutionin the early 1990s that allowed for a more transparent electoralprocess and for reforms of governmental institutions. A smallpopulation, abundant natural resources, and considerable foreignsupport have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous blackAfrican countries.
Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965;it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegalbetween 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendshipand cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew thepresident and banned political activity, but a 1996 constitution andpresidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997,completed a nominal return to civilian rule. The country undertookanother round of presidential and legislative elections in late 2001and early 2002.
Gaza StripThe Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on InterimSelf-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceedingfive years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Stripand the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certainpowers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, whichincludes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the WestBank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities forthe Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area andin additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharmel-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retainresponsibility during the transitional period for external andinternal security and for public order of settlements and Israelicitizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status ofGaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after a three-yearhiatus, but have been derailed by a second intifadah that broke outin September 2000. The resulting widespread violence in the WestBank and Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, and instabilitywithin the Palestinian Authority continue to undermine progresstoward a permanent agreement.
GeorgiaGeorgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19thcentury. Independent for three years (1918-1921) following theRussian revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR untilthe Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Ethnic separation in Abkhaziaand South Ossetia, poor governance, and Russian military bases denythe government effective control over the entirety of the state'sinternationally recognized territory. Despite myriad problems, someprogress on market reforms and democratization has been made. Anattempt by the government to manipulate legislative elections inNovember 2003 touched off widespread protests that led to theresignation of President Eduard SHEVARDNADZE.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and most populous nation,Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed thecountry in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20thcentury and left the country occupied by the victorious Alliedpowers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With theadvent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: thewestern Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern GermanDemocratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in keyWestern economic and security organizations, the EC, which becamethe EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the front line ofthe Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end ofthe Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then,Germany has expended considerable funds to bring easternproductivity and wages up to western standards. In January 2002,Germany and 11 other EU countries introduced a common Europeancurrency, the euro.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstcountry in colonial Africa to gain its independence. A long seriesof coups resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 andthe banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoringmultiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS, headof state since 1981, won presidential elections in 1992 and 1996,but was constitutionally prevented from running for a third term in2000. He was succeeded by John KUFUOR, who defeated former VicePresident Atta MILLS in a free and fair election.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was ceded to GreatBritain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British garrisonwas formally declared a colony in 1830. In referendums held in 1967and 2002, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and votedoverwhelmingly to remain a British dependency.
Glorioso IslandsA French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
GreeceGreece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first halfof the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. Following thedefeat of Communist rebels in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. Amilitary dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many politicalliberties and forced the king to flee the country, lasted sevenyears. Democratic elections in 1974 and a referendum created aparliamentary republic and abolished the monarchy; Greece joined theEuropean Community or EC in 1981 (which became the EU in 1992).
GreenlandThe world's largest non-continental island, about 81%ice-capped, Greenland was granted self-government in 1978 by theDanish parliament. The law went into effect the following year.Denmark continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs.
GrenadaOne of the smallest independent countries in the westernhemisphere, Grenada was seized by a Marxist military council on 19October 1983. Six days later the island was invaded by US forces andthose of six other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured theringleaders and their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free electionswere reinstituted the following year.
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. Theisland of Saint Martin is shared with the Netherlands; its southernportion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the NetherlandsAntilles and its northern portion is named Saint-Martin and is partof Guadeloupe
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaGuatemala was freed of Spanish colonial rule in 1821.During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced a varietyof military and civilian governments as well as a 36-year guerrillawar. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement formallyending the conflict, which had led to the death of more than 100,000people and had created some 1 million refugees.
GuernseyThe island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islandsrepresent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,which held sway in both France and England. The islands were theonly British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
GuineaIndependent from France since 1958, Guinea did not holddemocratic elections until 1993 when Gen. Lansana CONTE (head of themilitary government) was elected president of the civiliangovernment. He was reelected in 1998. Unrest in Sierra Leone hasspilled over into Guinea, threatening stability and creating ahumanitarian emergency.
Guinea-BissauIn 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal,the country's first multiparty legislative and presidentialelections were held. An army uprising that triggered a bloody civilwar in 1998 created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. Amilitary junta ousted the president in May 1999. An interimgovernment turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leaderKumba YALA took office following two rounds of transparentpresidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracywill be complicated by its crippled economy, devastated in the civilwar.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, butuntil the early 1990s it was ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president, in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. Upon his death five years later, he was succeeded byhis wife Janet, who resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001.
HaitiThe native Arawak Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by Columbus in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of theisland - Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry andsugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in theCaribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African slavesand considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE and after a prolonged struggle, became the first blackrepublic to declare its independence in 1804. Haiti has been plaguedby political violence for most of its history since then, and it isnow one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere. Overthree decades of dictatorship followed by military rule ended in1990 when Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE was elected president. Most of histerm was usurped by a military takeover, but he was able to returnto office in 1994 and oversee the installation of a close associateto the presidency in 1996. ARISTIDE won a second term as presidentin 2000, and took office early in 2001. However, a political crisisstemming from fraudulent legislative elections in 2000 has not yetbeen resolved.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include the failing health of Pope John Paul II,interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and the application ofchurch doctrine in an era of rapid change and globalization. About 1billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.
HondurasPart of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and one-half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting against leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused almost $1 billion indamage.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In thisagreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, twosystems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not beimposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree ofautonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for thenext 50 years.
Howland IslandDiscovered by the US early in the 19th century, theisland was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and Britishcompanies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a daybeacon near the middle of the west coast that was partiallydestroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it isnamed in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island isadministered by the US Department of the Interior as a NationalWildlife Refuge.
HungaryHungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communistrule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announcedwithdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive militaryintervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called"goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 andis scheduled to accede to the EU along with nine other states on 1May 2004. In an April 2003 referendum, 84 percent voted in favor ofjoining the EU.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesionare first-rate by world standards.
IndiaThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,goes back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwestinvaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier inhabitantscreated the classical Indian culture. Arab incursions starting inthe 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed by Europeantraders, beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th century,Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands.Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas GANDHIand Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947. The subcontinentwas divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslimstate of Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation ofBangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoingdispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic andreligious strife, all this despite impressive gains in economicinvestment and output.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south.
IndonesiaIndonesia is the world's largest archipelago; it achievedindependence from the Netherlands in 1949. Current issues include:alleviating widespread poverty, implementing IMF-mandated reforms ofthe banking sector, effecting a transition to a popularly-electedgovernment after four decades of authoritarianism, addressingcharges of cronyism and corruption, holding the military and policeaccountable for human rights violations, and resolving growingseparatist pressures in Aceh and Papua.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling shah was forced into exile. Conservativeclerical forces established a theocratic system of government withultimate political authority vested in a learned religious scholar.A group of Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88,Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq over disputedterritory. Over the past decade, popular dissatisfaction with thegovernment, driven by demographic changes, restrictive socialpolicies, and poor economic conditions, has created a powerful andenduring pressure for political reform.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof military strongmen have ruled the country since then, the latestbeing SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to aninconclusive and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990,Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forcesduring the Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait'sliberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrapall weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allowUN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSCresolutions over a period of 12 years resulted in the US-ledinvasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husaynregime. Coalition forces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degradedinfrastructure and facilitating the establishment of a freelyelected government.
IrelandCeltic tribes settled on the island in the 4th century B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the United Kingdom. In 1948Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined theEuropean Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought thepeaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britainagainst terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland,known as the Good Friday Agreement and approved in 1998, iscurrently being implemented.
IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied byIsrael since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.Outstanding territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolvedin the 26 October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition,on 25 May 2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon,which it had occupied since 1982. In keeping with the frameworkestablished at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateralnegotiations were conducted between Israel and Palestinianrepresentatives (from the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip)and Syria to achieve a permanent settlement. But progress toward apermanent status agreement has been undermined by the outbreak ofPalestinian-Israeli violence since September 2000.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the city-states ofthe peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL. An era of parliamentary government came to aclose in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a Fascistdictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany led toItaly's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced themonarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a chartermember of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It hasbeen at the forefront of European economic and politicalunification, joining the European Monetary Union in 1999. Persistentproblems include illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption,high unemployment, and the low incomes and technical standards ofsouthern Italy compared with the prosperous north.
JamaicaJamaica gained full independence within the BritishCommonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the1970s led to recurrent violence and a dropoff in tourism. Electionsin 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office.Subsequent governments have been open market oriented. Politicalviolence marred elections during the 1990s.
Jan MayenThis desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutchwhaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlierclaims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal huntersand trappers over the following centuries, the island came underNorwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VIIToppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is thenorthernmost active volcano on earth.
JapanWhile retaining its time-honored culture, Japan rapidlyabsorbed Western technology during the late 19th and early 20thcenturies. After its defeat in World War II, Japan recovered tobecome an economic power and a staunch ally of the US. While theemperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity, actualpower rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, andbusiness executives. The economy experienced a major slowdownstarting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedentedgrowth.
Jarvis IslandFirst discovered by the British in 1821, theuninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the islandin 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. TheUS occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after WorldWar II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refugeadministered by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon issituated near the middle of the west coast.
JerseyThe island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands representthe last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held swayin both France and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II.
Johnston AtollBoth the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexedJohnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guanodeposits until the late 1880s. The US Navy took over the atoll in1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. Thesite was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storageand disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is nowcomplete. Cleanup and closure of the facility is progressing, withcompletion anticipated in 2004.
JordanFor most of its history since independence from Britishadministration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN (1953-99).A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressuresfrom the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states,Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, through severalwars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentary electionsand gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994 a formalpeace treaty was signed with Israel. King ABDALLAH II - the eldestson of King HUSSEIN and Princess MUNA - assumed the throne followinghis father's death in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidatedhis power and established his domestic priorities, including anaggressive economic reform program. Jordan acceded to the WorldTrade Organization in January 2000, and signed free trade agreementswith the United States in 2000, and with the European Free TradeAssociation in 2001.
Juan de Nova IslandNamed after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.
KazakhstanNative Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence has caused many ofthese newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing acohesive national identity; expanding the development of thecountry's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, andmining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring statesand other foreign powers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence until his death in 1978, when PresidentDaniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional succession.The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969 until 1982 whenthe ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made itself the solelegal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and external pressurefor political liberalization in late 1991. The ethnically fracturedopposition failed to dislodge KANU from power in elections in 1992and 1997, which were marred by violence and fraud, but are viewed ashaving generally reflected the will of the Kenyan people. PresidentMOI stepped down in December of 2002 following fair and peacefulelections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate of the multiethnic,united opposition group, the National Rainbow Coalition, defeatedKANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed the presidency following acampaign centered on an anticorruption platform.
Kingman ReefThe US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoonserved as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoaflights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants onthe reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundantand diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surroundingthe reef out to 12 NM around the reef were designated a US NationalWildlife Refuge.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, NorthFollowing World War II, Korea was split, with thenorthern half coming under Communist domination and the southernportion becoming Western-oriented. KIM Chong-il has ruled NorthKorea since his father and the country's founder, president KIMIl-song, died in 1994. After decades of mismanagement, the Northrelies heavily on international food aid to feed its populationwhile continuing to expend resources to maintain an army of about 1million. North Korea's long-range missile development and researchinto nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and massiveconventional armed forces are of major concern to the internationalcommunity. In December 2002, North Korea repudiated a 1994 agreementthat shut down its nuclear reactors and expelled UN monitors,further raising fears it would produce nuclear weapons.
Korea, SouthAfter World War II, a republic was set up in thesouthern half of the Korean Peninsula while a Communist-stylegovernment was installed in the north. During the Korean War(1950-1953), US and other UN forces intervened to defend South Koreafrom North Korean attacks supported by the Chinese. An armistice wassigned in 1953, splitting the Peninsula along a demilitarized zoneat about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South Korea achieved rapideconomic growth with per capita income rising to roughly 20 timesthe level of North Korea. South Korea has maintained its commitmentto democratize its political processes. In June 2000, a historicfirst North-South summit took place between the South's PresidentKIM Dae-jung and the North's leader KIM Chong-il.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Currentconcerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,expansion of democracy and political freedoms, interethnicrelations, and combating terrorism.
LaosIn 1975, the Communist Pathet Lao took control of thegovernment, ending a six-century-old monarchy. Initial closer tiesto Vietnam and socialization were replaced with a gradual return toprivate enterprise, a liberalization of foreign investment laws, andthe admission into ASEAN in 1997.
LatviaAfter a brief period of independence between the two WorldWars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia continues to revamp its economy for eventualintegration into various Western European political and economicinstitutions and was invited to join NATO and the EU in 2002.
LebanonLebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its politicalinstitutions since 1991 and the end of the devastating 16-year civilwar. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for nationalreconciliation - the Lebanese have established a more equitablepolitical system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say inthe political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisionsin the government. Since the end of the war, the Lebanese haveconducted several successful elections, most of the militias havebeen weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) haveextended central government authority over about two-thirds of thecountry. Hizballah, the radical Shi'a party, retains its weapons.Syria maintains about 16,000 troops in Lebanon, based mainly east ofBeirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Syria's troop deployment waslegitimized by the Arab League during Lebanon's civil war and in theTa'if Accord. Damascus justifies its continued military presence inLebanon by citing Beirut's requests and the failure of the LebaneseGovernment to implement all of the constitutional reforms in theTa'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal from its security zone in southernLebanon in May 2000, however, has emboldened some LebaneseChristians and Druze to demand that Syria withdraw its forces aswell.
LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in1990. Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after 23 yearsof military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutinyfollowing a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody SouthAfrican military intervention. Constitutional reforms have sincerestored political stability; peaceful parliamentary elections wereheld in 2002.
LiberiaEight years of civil strife were brought to a close in 1997when free and open presidential and legislative elections were held.President TAYLOR now holds strong executive power with no realpolitical opposition. Years of fighting, coupled with the flight ofmost businesses, have disrupted formal economic activity. A stillunsettled domestic security situation has slowed the process ofrebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torncountry. In 2001, the UN imposed sanctions on Liberian diamonds,along with an arms embargo and a travel ban on government officials,for Liberia's support of the rebel insurgency in Sierra Leone.Renewed rebel activity has further eroded stability and economicactivity. A regional peace initiative commenced in the spring of2003 but was disrupted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)indictment of President TAYLOR on war crimes charges.
LibyaSince he took power in a 1969 military coup, Col. Muammar AbuMinyar al-QADHAFI has espoused his own political system - acombination of socialism and Islam - which he calls the ThirdInternational Theory. Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, heused oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideologyoutside Libya, even supporting subversives and terrorists abroad tohasten the end of Marxism and capitalism. Libyan military adventuresfailed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the AozouStrip in northern Chad was finally repulsed in 1987. Libyan supportfor terrorism decreased after UN sanctions were imposed in 1992.Those sanctions were suspended in April 1999.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forcedLiechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union withSwitzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remainedneutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economicgrowth. However, shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight haveresulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions formoney laundering.
LithuaniaIndependent between the two World Wars, Lithuania wasannexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became thefirst of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but thisproclamation was not generally recognized until September of 1991(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troopswithdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently has restructured itseconomy for eventual integration into Western European institutionsand was invited to join NATO and the EU in 2002.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union) and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced inMacau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in allmatters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic ofInternational recognitionof The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's (F.Y.R.O.M.)independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece'sobjection to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenicname and symbols. Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995,and the two countries agreed to normalize relations, despitecontinued disagreement over F.Y.R.O.M.'s use of "Macedonia."F.Y.R.O.M.'s large Albanian minority, an ethnic Albanian armedinsurgency in F.Y.R.O.M. in 2001, and the status of neighboringKosovo continue to be sources of ethnic tension.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1886, but regained its independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections wereheld, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule, the country held multiparty elections in 1994under a provisional constitution, which took full effect thefollowing year. National multiparty elections were held again in1999.
MalaysiaMalaysia was formed in 1963 through a federation of theformer British colonies of Malaya and Singapore, including the EastMalaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo. The first several years of the country's history were marredby Indonesian efforts to control Malaysia, Philippine claims toSabah, and Singapore's secession from the federation in 1965.
MaldivesThe Maldives were long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. They became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. Tourism and fishing are being developed onthe archipelago.
MaliThe Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamedMali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 with atransitional government and in 1992 when Mali's first democraticpresidential election was held. After his reelection in 1997,President Alpha KONARE continued to push through political andeconomic reforms and to fight corruption. In keeping with Mali'stwo-term constitutional limit, he stepped down in 2002 and wassucceeded by Amadou TOURE.
MaltaGreat Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, theisland has become a freight transshipment point, financial center,and tourist destination. It is an official candidate for EUmembership.
Man, Isle ofPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Celtic language.
Marshall IslandsAfter almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and1962. The Marshall Islands have been home to the US Army BaseKwajalein (USAKA) since 1964.
MartiniqueColonized by France in 1635, the island has subsequentlyremained a French possession except for three brief periods offoreign occupation.
MauritaniaIndependent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by thePolisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widelyseen as flawed, but October 2001 legislative and municipal electionswere generally free and open. Mauritania remains, in reality, aone-party state. The country continues to experience ethnic tensionsbetween its black minority population and the dominant Maur(Arab-Berber) populace.
MauritiusDiscovered by the Portuguese in 1505, Mauritius wassubsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British beforeindependence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with regularfree elections and a positive human rights record, the country hasattracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one ofAfrica's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather anddeclining sugar prices have slowed economic growth, leading to someprotests over standards of living in the Creole community.
MayotteMayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands ofthe Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelagothat voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and foregoindependence.
MexicoThe site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressiverecovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low realwages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunitiesfor the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southernstates. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the party ingovernment, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Vicente FOXof the National Action Party (PAN) was sworn in on 1 December 2000as the first chief executive elected in free and fair elections.