ChadChad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, enduredthree decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya beforea semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The governmenteventually suppressed or came to terms with most political-militarygroups, settled a territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorableto Chad, drafted a democratic constitution, and held multipartypresidential elections in 1996 and 1997. In 1998, a new rebellionbroke out in northern Chad, which sporadically flares up despite twopeace agreements signed in 2002 and 2003 between the government andthe rebels. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remainsin the hands of an ethnic minority.
ChilePrior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indiansinhabited central and southern Chile; the latter were not completelysubjugated until the early 1880s. Although Chile declared itsindependence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was notachieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-84), Chiledefeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern lands. Athree-year-old Marxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrownin 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET,who ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990.Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s,have contributed to steady growth and have helped secure thecountry's commitment to democratic and representative government.Chile has increasingly assumed regional and international leadershiproles befitting its status as a stable, democratic nation.
ChinaFor centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacingthe rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th andearly 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, majorfamines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World WarII, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocraticsocialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposedstrict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens ofmillions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping andother leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, livingstandards have improved dramatically and the room for personalchoice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.
Christmas IslandNamed in 1643 for the day of its discovery, theisland was annexed and settlement was begun by the UK in 1888.Phosphate mining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereigntyto Australia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has beendeclared a national park.
Clipperton IslandThis isolated island was named for JohnCLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18thcentury. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which tookpossession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) IslandsThere are 27 coral islands in the group.Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but theyremained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.The population on the two inhabited islands generally is splitbetween the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays onHome Island.
ColombiaColombia was one of the three countries that emerged fromthe collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador andVenezuela). A 40-year insurgent campaign to overthrow the ColombianGovernment escalated during the 1990s, undergirded in part by fundsfrom the drug trade. Although the violence is deadly and largeswaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence, themovement lacks the military strength or popular support necessary tooverthrow the government. An anti-insurgent army of paramilitarieshas grown to several thousand strong in recent years, challengingthe insurgents for control of territory and the drug trade, and alsothe government's ability to exert its dominion over rural areas.While Bogota steps up efforts to reassert government controlthroughout the country, neighboring countries worry about theviolence spilling over their borders.
ComorosUnstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coupssince gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islandsof Anjouan and Moheli declared their independence from Comoros. In1999, military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He pledged to resolvethe secessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the2000 Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a newconstitution and presidential elections took place in the spring of2002. Each island in the archipelago elected its own president and anew union president took office in May of 2002.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but its early years were marred by political and social instability. Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU retained his position for 32 years through several subsequent sham elections as well as through the use of brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion led by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged by an insurrection backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the DROC, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, and Congolese armed rebel groups, but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son Joseph KABILA was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity. A transitional government was set up in July 2003; Joseph KABILA remains as president and is joined by four vice presidents representing the former government, former rebel groups, and the political opposition.
Congo, Republic of theUpon independence in 1960, the former Frenchregion of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quartercentury of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and ademocratically elected government installed in 1992. A brief civilwar in 1997 restored former Marxist President SASSOU-NGUESSO, butushered in a period of ethnic unrest. Southern-based rebel groupsagreed to a final peace accord in March 2003, but the calm istenuous and refugees continue to present a humanitarian crisis. TheRepublic of Congo is one of Africa's largest petroleum producerswith significant potential for offshore development.
Cook IslandsNamed after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, theislands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965residents chose self-government in free association with NewZealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand andgovernment deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea IslandsScattered over some 1 million square kilometers ofocean, the Coral Sea Islands were declared a territory of Australiain 1969. They are uninhabited except for a small meteorologicalstaff on the Willis Islets. Automated weather stations, beacons, anda lighthouse occupy many other islands and reefs.
Costa RicaCosta Rica is a Central American success story: since thelate 19th century, only two brief periods of violence have marredits democratic development. Although still a largely agriculturalcountry, it has expanded its economy to include strong technologyand tourism sectors. The standard of living is relatively high. Landownership is widespread.
Cote d'IvoireClose ties to France since independence in 1960, thedevelopment of cocoa production for export, and foreign investmentmade Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropicalAfrican states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. On 25December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire'shistory - overthrew the government led by President Henri KonanBEDIE. Junta leader Robert GUEI held elections in late 2000, butexcluded prominent opposition leader Alassane OUATTARA, blatantlyrigged the polling results, and declared himself winner. Popularprotest forced GUEI to step aside and brought runner-up LaurentGBAGBO into power. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of themilitary launched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebelforces claimed the northern half of the country and in January 2003were granted ministerial positions in a unity government under theauspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President GBAGBO andrebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked thecivil war, such as land reform and grounds for nationality remainunresolved. The central government has yet to exert control over thenorthern regions and tensions remain high between GBAGBO and rebelleaders. Several thousand French and West African troops remain inCote d'Ivoire to maintain peace and facilitate the disarmament,demobilization, and rehabilitation process.
CroatiaThe lands that today comprise Croatia were part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, theCroats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 asYugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federalindependent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting beforeoccupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. UnderUN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia wasreturned to Croatia in 1998.
CubaThe native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline afterthe European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492and following its development as a Spanish colony during the nextseveral centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported towork the coffee and sugar plantations and Havana became thelaunching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain fromMexico and Peru. Spanish rule was severe and exploitative andoccasional rebellions were harshly suppressed. It was USintervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 that finallyoverthrew Spanish rule. The subsequent Treaty of Paris establishedCuban independence, which was granted in 1902 after a three-yeartransition period. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959;his iron rule has held the regime together since then. Cuba'sCommunist revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughoutLatin America and Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Thecountry is now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in1990, following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties asthe result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migrationto the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, air flights, orvia the southwest border - is a continuing problem. The US CoastGuard intercepted 1,498 individuals attempting to cross the Straitsof Florida in 2004.
CyprusA former British colony, Cyprus received independence in 1960following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between theGreek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a headin December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadicintercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a Greek-sponsored attemptto seize the government was met by military intervention fromTurkey, which soon controlled more than a third of the island. In1983, the Turkish-held area declared itself the "Turkish Republic ofNorthern Cyprus," but it is recognized only by Turkey. The latesttwo-year round of UN-brokered direct talks - between the leaders ofthe Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities to reach anagreement to reunite the divided island - ended when the GreekCypriots rejected the UN settlement plan in an April 2004referendum. Although only the internationally recognized GreekCypriot-controlled Republic of Cyprus joined the EU on 1 May 2004,every Cypriot carrying a Cyprus passport will have the status of aEuropean citizen. EU laws, however, will not apply to north Cyprus.Nicosia continues to oppose EU efforts to establish direct trade andeconomic links to north Cyprus as a way of encouraging the TurkishCypriot community to continue to support reunification.
Czech RepublicFollowing the First World War, the closely relatedCzechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged toform Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country'sleaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands ofother ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably theSudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere ofinfluence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended theefforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party ruleand create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrationsthe following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With thecollapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained itsfreedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two nationalcomponents, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republicjoined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.
DenmarkOnce the seat of Viking raiders and later a major northEuropean power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nationthat is participating in the general political and economicintegration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now theEU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elementsof the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the EuropeanEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, andissues concerning certain justice and home affairs.
DhekeliaBy terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that createdthe independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereigntyand jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers intotal: Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the DhekeliaSovereign Base Area, which is also referred to as the EasternSovereign Base Area.
DjiboutiThe French Territory of the Afars and the Issas becameDjibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarianone-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil warthat ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accordbetween Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. Djibouti'sfirst multi-party presidential elections in 1999 resulted in theelection of Ismail Omar GUELLEH. Djibouti occupies a very strategicgeographic location at the mouth of the Red Sea and serves as animportant transshipment location for goods entering and leaving theeast African highlands. The present leadership favors close ties toFrance, which maintains a significant military presence in thecountry, but has also developed increasingly stronger ties with theUnited States in recent years. Djibouti currently hosts the onlyUnited States military base in sub-Saharan Africa and is afront-line state in the global war on terrorism.
DominicaDominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to becolonized by Europeans, due chiefly to the fierce resistance of thenative Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years afterindependence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt andtyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary EugeniaCHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, whoremained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians stillliving on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remainingin the eastern Caribbean.
Dominican RepublicExplored and claimed by Columbus on his firstvoyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became a springboard forSpanish conquest of the Caribbean and the American mainland. In1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of theisland, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder of the island, bythen known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its own independence in1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitians for 22 years; itfinally attained independence as the Dominican Republic in 1844. In1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish Empire, buttwo years later they launched a war that restored independence in1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostly non-representative, rule formuch of its subsequent history was brought to an end in 1966 whenJoaquin BALAGUER became president. He maintained a tight grip onpower for most of the next 30 years when international reaction toflawed elections forced him to curtail his term in 1996. Since then,regular competitive elections have been held in which oppositioncandidates have won the presidency. The Dominican economy has hadone of the fastest growth rates in the hemisphere over the pastdecade.
East TimorThe Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor inthe early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century. Skirmishingwith the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treatyin which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. ImperialJapan occupied East Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumedcolonial authority after the Japanese defeat in World War II. EastTimor declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later.It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province ofEast Timor. An unsuccessful campaign of pacification followed overthe next two decades, during which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000individuals lost their lives. On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervisedpopular referendum, an overwhelming majority of the people of EastTimor voted for independence from Indonesia. Between the referendumand the arrival of a multinational peacekeeping force in lateSeptember 1999, anti-independence Timorese militias - organized andsupported by the Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale,scorched-earth campaign of retribution. The militias killedapproximately 1,300 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people intoWest Timor as refugees. The majority of the country'sinfrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supplysystems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electricalgrid were destroyed. On 20 September 1999 the Australian-ledpeacekeeping troops of the International Force for East Timor(INTERFET) deployed to the country and brought the violence to anend. On 20 May 2002, East Timor was internationally recognized as anindependent state.
EcuadorThe "Republic of the Equator" was one of three countriesthat emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the othersare Colombia and Venezuela). Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lostterritories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A borderwar with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. AlthoughEcuador marked 25 years of civilian governance in 2004, the periodhas been marred by political instability. Seven presidents havegoverned Ecuador since 1996.
EgyptThe regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east andwest, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatcivilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C. and a seriesof dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The lastnative dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn werereplaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs whointroduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and whoruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, theMamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after theconquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following thecompletion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an importantworld transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control ofEgypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the OttomanEmpire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. Thecompletion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant LakeNasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in theagriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (thelargest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence onthe Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. Thegovernment has struggled to ready the economy for the new millenniumthrough economic reform and massive investment in communications andphysical infrastructure.
El SalvadorEl Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 andfrom the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 whenthe government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided formilitary and political reforms.
Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of amainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smalleston the African continent. President OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO has ruledthe country for over two decades since seizing power from his uncle,then President MACIAS, in a 1979 coup. Although nominally aconstitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996 and 2002 presidentialelections - as well as the 1999 legislative elections - were widelyseen as being flawed. The president controls most opposition partiesthrough the judicious use of patronage. Despite the country'seconomic windfall from oil production resulting in a massiveincrease in government revenue in recent years, there have been fewimprovements in the country's living standards.
EritreaEritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of afederation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 yearslater sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence wasoverwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-yearborder war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UNauspices on 12 December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UNpeacekeeping operation that is monitoring a 25 km-wide TemporarySecurity Zone on the border with Ethiopia. An internationalcommission, organized to resolve the border dispute, posted itsfindings in 2002 but final demarcation is on hold due to Ethiopianobjections.
EstoniaAfter centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russianrule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporatedinto the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991, with thecollapse of the Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political tieswith Western Europe. It joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of2004.
EthiopiaUnique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopianmonarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, with theexception of the 1936-41 Italian occupation during World War II. In1974 a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (whohad ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn bybloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugeeproblems, the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition ofrebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's firstmultiparty elections were held in 1995. A two and a half year borderwar with Eritrea ended with a peace treaty on 12 December 2000.Final demarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due toEthiopian objections to an international commission's findingrequiring it to surrender sensitive territory.
Europa IslandA French possession since 1897, the island is heavilywooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs aweather station.
European Union Following the two devastating World Wars of the first half of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late 1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lasting peace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France and Germany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of all Europe, the first step of which would be the integration of the coal and steel industries of Western Europe. The following year the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six members, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris. The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision was made to integrate other parts of the countries' economies. In 1957, the Treaties of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member states undertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first direct elections were undertaken and they have been held every five years since. In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s saw further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic and monetary union - including a common currency. This further integration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to 15. A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1 January 1999; it become the unit of exchange for all of the EU states except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002, citizens of the 12 euro-area countries began using the euro banknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - bringing the current membership to 25. In order to ensure that the EU can continue to function efficiently with an expanded membership, the 2003 Treaty of Nice set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EU institutions. An EU Constitutional Treaty, signed in Rome on 29 October 2004, gave member states two years to ratify the document before it was scheduled to take effect on 1 November 2006. Referenda held in France and the Netherlands in May-June 2005 that rejected the constitution suspended the ratification effort. Despite the expansion of membership and functions, "Eurosceptics" in various countries have raised questions about the erosion of national cultures and the imposition of a flood of regulations from the EU capital in Brussels. Failure by all member states to ratify the constitution or the inability of newcomer countries to meet euro currency standards might force a loosening of some EU agreements and perhaps lead to several levels of EU participation. These "tiers" might eventually range from an "inner" core of politically integrated countries to a looser "outer" economic association of members.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)Although first sighted by anEnglish navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occuruntil almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned overto Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subjectof a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, thenbetween Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to theislands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentinainvaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with anexpeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fiercefighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe IslandsThe population of the Faroe Islands is largelydescended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. Theislands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14thcentury. A high degree of self-government was attained in 1948.
FijiFiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as aBritish colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived asdominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborersbrought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). A 1990constitution favored native Melanesian control of Fiji, but led toheavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economicdifficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority.Amendments enacted in 1997 made the constitution more equitable.Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a government led byan Indo-Fijian, but a coup in May 2000 ushered in a prolonged periodof political turmoil. Parliamentary elections held in August 2001provided Fiji with a democratically elected government and gave amandate to the government of Prime Minister Laisenia QARASE.
FinlandFinland was a province and then a grand duchy under Swedenfrom the 12th to the 19th centuries and an autonomous grand duchy ofRussia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917. DuringWorld War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom andresist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss ofterritory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made aremarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to adiversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now onpar with Western Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finlandwas the only Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiationin January 1999.
FranceAlthough ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, Francesuffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rankas a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of themost modern countries in the world and is a leader among Europeannations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracyresistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentarydemocracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperationwith Germany have proved central to the economic integration ofEurope, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,the euro, in January 1999. At present, France is at the forefront ofefforts to develop the EU's military capabilities to supplementprogress toward an EU foreign policy.
French GuianaFirst settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana wasthe site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The EuropeanSpace Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.
French PolynesiaThe French annexed various Polynesian island groupsduring the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred upwidespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atollafter a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January1996.
French Southern and Antarctic Lands The Southern Lands consist of two archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanic islands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the native fauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in 1840.
GabonOnly two autocratic presidents have ruled Gabon sinceindependence from France in 1960. Gabon's current President, El HadjOmar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads of state inthe world - has dominated Gabon's political scene for almost fourdecades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty system anda new constitution in the early 1990s. However, the low turnout andallegations of electoral fraud during the most recent localelections in 2002-03 have exposed the weaknesses of formal politicalstructures in Gabon. Presidential elections scheduled for 2005 areunlikely to bring change since the opposition remains weak, divided,and financially dependent on the current regime. Despite politicalconditions, a small population, abundant natural resources, andconsiderable foreign support have helped make Gabon one of the moreprosperous and stable African countries.
Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965;it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegalbetween 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendshipand cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew thepresident and banned political activity, but a 1996 constitution andpresidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997,completed a nominal return to civilian rule. The country undertookanother round of presidential and legislative elections in late 2001and early 2002. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH, the leader of the coup, hasbeen elected president in all subsequent elections.
Gaza StripThe Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on InterimSelf-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceedingfive years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Stripand the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certainpowers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, whichincludes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the WestBank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities forthe Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area andin additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharmel-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retainresponsibility during the transitional period for external andinternal security and for public order of settlements and Israelicitizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status ofGaza and West Bank began in September 1999 after a three-yearhiatus, but were derailed by a second intifadah that broke out inSeptember 2000. The resulting widespread violence in the West Bankand Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, and instability withinthe Palestinian Authority continued to undermine progress toward apermanent agreement. Following the death of longtime Palestinianleader Yasir ARAFAT in November 2004, the election of his successorMahmud ABBAS in January 2005 brought about a turning point in theconflict. In February 2005 the Israeli Government voted to disengagefrom the Gaza Strip by dismantling all Israeli settlements andremoving all Israeli settlers. This process was completed inSeptember 2005. Nonetheless, Israel maintains offshore maritimecontrol as well as airspace control. The future political status ofthe Gaza Strip has yet to be determined.
GeorgiaThe region of present-day Georgia contained the ancientkingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Romaninfluence in the first centuries AD and Christianity became thestate religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turkswas followed by a Georgian golden age (11th to the 13th centuries)that was cut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, theOttoman and Persian empires competed for influence in the region.Georgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russianrevolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until theSoviet Union dissolved in 1991. Despite myriad problems, someprogress on market reforms and democratization has been made sincethen. An attempt by the government to manipulate legislativeelections in November 2003 touched off widespread protests that ledto the resignation of Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. Newelections in early 2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power alongwith his National Movement Party.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and most populous nation,Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germanyin two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th centuryand left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of theUS, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of theCold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western FederalRepublic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economicand security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold Warallowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany hasexpended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wagesup to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EUcountries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstsub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. Along series of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitutionin 1981 and a ban on political parties. A new constitution,restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. JerryRAWLINGS, head of state since 1981, won presidential elections in1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from running for athird term in 2000. John KUFUOR, who defeated former Vice PresidentAtta MILLS in a free and fair election, succeeded him.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was ceded to GreatBritain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British garrisonwas formally declared a colony in 1830. In referendums held in 1967and 2002, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and votedoverwhelmingly to remain a British dependency.
Glorioso IslandsA French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
GreeceGreece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first halfof the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupiedby Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil warbetween royalist supporters of the king and communist rebels.Following the latter's defeat in 1949, Greece was able to join NATOin 1952. A military dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended manypolitical liberties and forced the king to flee the country, lastedseven years. The 1974 democratic elections and a referendum createda parliamentary republic and abolished the monarchy. Greece joinedthe European Community or EC in 1981 (which became the EU in 1992);it became the 12th member of the euro zone in 2001.
GreenlandThe world's largest island, Greenland is about 81%ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century fromIceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century and Greenlandwas made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joined the EuropeanCommunity (now the European Union) with Denmark in 1973 but withdrewin 1985 over a dispute over stringent fishing quotas. Greenland wasgranted self-government in 1979 by the Danish parliament. The lawwent into effect the following year. Denmark continues to exercisecontrol of Greenland's foreign affairs.
GrenadaOne of the smallest independent countries in the westernhemisphere, Grenada was seized by a Marxist military council on 19October 1983. Six days later the island was invaded by US forces andthose of six other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured theringleaders and their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free electionswere reinstituted the following year.
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. Theisland of Saint Martin is shared with the Netherlands; its southernportion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the NetherlandsAntilles and its northern portion is named Saint-Martin and is partof Guadeloupe
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaThe Maya civilization flourished in Guatemala andsurrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almostthree centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independencein 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienceda variety of military and civilian governments as well as a 36-yearguerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreementformally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000people dead and had created some 1 million refugees.
GuernseyThe island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islandsrepresent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,which held sway in both France and England. The islands were theonly British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
GuineaGuinea has had only two presidents since gaining itsindependence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in1984, when the military seized the government after the death of thefirst president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democraticelections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the militarygovernment) was elected president of the civilian government. He wasreelected in 1998 and again in 2003. Unrest in Sierra Leone andLiberia has spilled over into Guinea on several occasions over thepast decade, threatening stability and creating humanitarianemergencies.
Guinea-BissauSince independence from Portugal in 1974,Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable upheaval. The foundinggovernment consisted of a single party system and command economy.In 1980, a military coup established Joao VIEIRA as president and apath to a market economy and multiparty system was implemented. Anumber of coup attempts through the 1980s and early 1990s failed tounseat him and in 1994 he was elected president in the country'sfirst free elections. A military coup attempt and civil war in 1998eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster in 1999. In February 2000, aninterim government turned over power when opposition leader KumbaYALA took office following two rounds of transparent presidentialelections. YALA was ousted in a bloodless coup in September 2003,and Henrique ROSA was sworn in as President. Guinea-Bissau'stransition back to democracy will be complicated by its crippledeconomy, devastated in the civil war.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, butuntil the early 1990s it was ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president, in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. Upon his death five years later, he was succeeded byhis wife Janet, who resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001.
HaitiThe native Arawak Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by Columbus in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of theisland - Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry andsugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in theCaribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African slavesand considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE and after a prolonged struggle, became the first blackrepublic to declare its independence in 1804. Haiti has been plaguedby political violence for most of its history. It is the poorestcountry in the Western Hemisphere.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include religious freedom, international development, theMiddle East, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation,and the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change andglobalization. About 1 billion people worldwide profess the Catholicfaith.
HondurasOnce part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billionin damage.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In thisagreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, twosystems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not beimposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree ofautonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for thenext 50 years.
Howland IslandDiscovered by the US early in the 19th century, theisland was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and Britishcompanies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a daybeacon near the middle of the west coast that was partiallydestroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it isnamed in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island isadministered by the US Department of the Interior as a NationalWildlife Refuge.
HungaryHungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communistrule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announcedwithdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive militaryintervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called"Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 andthe EU in 2004.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesionare first-rate by world standards.
IndiaThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,dates back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwestinvaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier Dravidianinhabitants created the classical Indian culture. Arab incursionsstarting in the 8th century and Turkish in the 12th were followed bythose of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. Bythe 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtuallyall Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played avital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to Britishcolonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU broughtindependence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secularstate of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third warbetween the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becomingthe separate nation of Bangladesh. Despite impressive gains ineconomic investment and output, India faces pressing problems suchas the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massiveoverpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, andethnic and religious strife.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south.
IndonesiaThe Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17thcentury; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but itrequired four years of intermittent negotiations, recurringhostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed torelinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagicstate. Current issues include: alleviating widespread poverty,preventing terrorism, continuing the transition to popularly-electedgovernments after four decades of authoritarianism, implementingreforms of the banking sector, addressing charges of cronyism andcorruption, and holding the military and police accountable forhuman rights violations. Indonesia has been dealing with armedseparatist movements in Aceh and in Papua.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah wasforced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established atheocratic system of government with ultimate political authoritynominally vested in a learned religious scholar. Iranian-USrelations have been strained since a group of Iranian studentsseized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisivewar with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and ledto clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces between1987-1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism forits activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remainssubject to US economic sanctions and export controls because of itscontinued involvement. Following the elections of a reformistpresident and Majlis in the late 1990s, attempts to foster politicalreform in response to popular dissatisfaction have floundered asconservative politicians have prevented reform measures from beingenacted, increased repressive measures, and consolidated theircontrol over the government.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof military strongmen ruled the country, the latest was SADDAMHusayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive andcostly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait,but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf Warof January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UNSecurity Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of massdestruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verificationinspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutionsover a period of 12 years resulted in the US-led invasion of Iraq inMarch 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. Coalitionforces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded infrastructureand facilitating the establishment of a freely elected government,while simultaneously dealing with a robust insurgency. The CoalitionProvisional Authority transferred sovereignty to the Iraqi InterimGovernment (IG) in June 2004. Iraqis voted on 30 January 2005 toelect a 275-member Transitional National Assembly that will draft apermanent constitution and pave the way for new national electionsat the end of 2005.
IrelandCeltic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the United Kingdom. In 1948Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined theEuropean Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought thepeaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britainagainst terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland,known as the Good Friday Agreement and approved in 1998, is beingimplemented with some difficulties.
IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied byIsrael since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 aDeclaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo accords") guidingan interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorialand other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israelwithdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupiedsince 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the MadridConference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conductedbetween Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achievea permanent settlement. On 24 June 2002, US President BUSH laid outa "road map" for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, whichenvisions a two-state solution. However, progress toward a permanentstatus agreement has been undermined by Palestinian-Israeli violenceongoing since September 2000. The conflict may have reached aturning point with the election in January 2005 of Mahmud ABBAS asthe new Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death ofYasir ARAFAT.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the city-states ofthe peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came toa close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established aFascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany ledto Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replacedthe monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was acharter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). Ithas been at the forefront of European economic and politicalunification, joining the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.Persistent problems include illegal immigration, organized crime,corruption, high unemployment, sluggish economic growth, and the lowincomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with theprosperous north.
JamaicaJamaica gained full independence within the BritishCommonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the1970s led to recurrent violence and a drop off in tourism. Electionsin 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office. Politicalviolence marred elections during the 1990s.
Jan MayenThis desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutchwhaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlierclaims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal huntersand trappers over the following centuries, the island came underNorwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VIIToppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is thenorthernmost active volcano on earth.
JapanIn 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) usheredin a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order tosecure its power. For 250 years this policy enabled Japan to enjoystability and a flowering of its indigenous culture. Following theTreaty of Kanagawa with the United States in 1854, Japan opened itsports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize. Duringthe late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a regionalpower that was able to defeat the forces of both China and Russia.It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island.In 1933 Japan occupied Manchuria and in 1937 it launched afull-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupiedmuch of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally ofthe US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of nationalunity, actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians,bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced amajor slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades ofunprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major economicpower, both in Asia and globally. In 2005, Japan began a two-yearterm as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.
Jarvis IslandFirst discovered by the British in 1821, theuninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the islandin 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. TheUS occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after WorldWar II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refugeadministered by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon issituated near the middle of the west coast.
JerseyThe island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands representthe last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held swayin both France and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II.
Johnston AtollBoth the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexedJohnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guanodeposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands weredesignated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atollin 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948.The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storageand disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is nowcomplete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed in 2004.
JordanFor most of its history since independence from Britishadministration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN (1953-99).A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressuresfrom the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states,Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, despite severalwars and coup attempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentaryelections and gradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed aformal peace treaty with Israel. King ABDALLAH II - the eldest sonof King HUSSEIN and Princess MUNA - assumed the throne following hisfather's death in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated hispower and undertaken an aggressive economic reform program. Jordanacceded to the World Trade Organization in 2000, and began toparticipate in the European Free Trade Association in 2001. After atwo-year delay, parliamentary and municipal elections took place inthe summer of 2003. The Prime Minister and government appointed inApril 2005 declared they would build upon the previous government'sachievements to respect political and human rights and improveliving standards.
Juan de Nova IslandNamed after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.
KazakhstanNative Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused manyof these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing acohesive national identity; expanding the development of thecountry's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, andmining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring statesand other foreign powers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence until his death in 1978, when PresidentDaniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional succession.The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969 until 1982 whenthe ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made itself the solelegal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and external pressurefor political liberalization in late 1991. The ethnically fracturedopposition failed to dislodge KANU from power in elections in 1992and 1997, which were marred by violence and fraud, but are viewed ashaving generally reflected the will of the Kenyan people. PresidentMOI stepped down in December of 2002 following fair and peacefulelections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate of the multiethnic,united opposition group, the National Rainbow Coalition, defeatedKANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed the presidency following acampaign centered on an anticorruption platform.
Kingman ReefThe US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoonserved as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoaflights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants onthe reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundantand diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surroundingthe reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.