Mauritaniamales age 18-49: 370,513females age 18-49: 384,269 (2005 est.)
Mexicomales age 18-49: 19,058,337females age 18-49: 21,966,796 (2005 est.)
Micronesia, Federated States ofmales age 18-49: 18,914 (2005 est.)
Moldovamales age 18-49: 693,913females age 18-49: 911,568 (2005 est.)
Monacomales age 18-49: 4,971 (2005 est.)
Mongoliamales age 18-49: 570,435females age 18-49: 607,918 (2005 est.)
Montserratmales age 18-49: 1,899 (2005 est.)
Moroccomales age 18-49: 6,484,787females age 18-49: 6,675,729 (2005 est.)
Mozambiquemales age 18-49: 1,751,223 (2005 est.)
Namibiamales age 18-49: 217,118 (2005 est.)
Nepalmales age 18-49: 4.193 millionfemales age 18-49: 3,853,102 (2005 est.)
Netherlandsmales age 20-49: 2,856,691females age 20-49: 2,786,495 (2005 est.)
Netherlands Antillesmales age 16-49: 45,273females age 16-49: 47,166 (2005 est.)
New Caledoniamales age 18-49: 40,822 (2005 est.)
New Zealandmales age 17-49: 809,519females age 17-49: 802,069 (2005 est.)
Nicaraguamales age 17-49: 1,051,425females age 17-49: 1,129,649 (2005 est.)
Nigermales age 18-49: 1,349,863females age 18-49: 1,256,569 (2005 est.)
Nigeriamales age 18-49: 15,052,914females age 18-49: 13,860,806 (2005 est.)
Norwaymales age 18-49: 827,016females age 18-49: 801,358 (2005 est.)
Omanmales age 18-49: 581,444females age 18-49: 435,107 (2005 est.)
Pakistanmales age 16-49: 29,428,747females age 16-49: 28,391,887 (2005 est.)
Palaumales age 18-49: 4,087 (2005 est.)
Panamamales age 18-49: 591,604 (2005 est.)
Papua New Guineamales age 18-49: 902,432females age 18-49: 894,759 (2005 est.)
Paraguaymales age 18-49: 1,109,166females age 18-49: 1,135,046 (2005 est.)
Perumales age 18-49: 4,938,417females age 18-49: 5,278,511 (2005 est.)
Philippinesmales age 18-49: 15,170,096females age 18-49: 16,931,191 (2005 est.)
Polandmales age 17-49: 7,739,472females age 17-49: 7,859,165 (2005 est.)
Portugalmales age 18-49: 1,952,819females age 18-49: 1,977,264 (2005 est.)
Qatarmales age 18-49: 238,566females age 18-49: 116,595 (2005 est.)
Reunionmales age 18-49: 142,578females age 18-49: 154,273 (2005 est.)
Romaniamales age 20-49: 3,932,579females age 20-49: 4,076,288 (2005 est.)
Russiamales age 18-49: 21,049,651females age 18-49: 29,056,021 (2005 est.)
Rwandamales age 16-49: 1,103,823females age 16-49: 1,096,644 (2005 est.)
Saint Kitts and Nevismales age 18-49: 7,119females age 18-49: 7,645 (2005 est.)
Saint Luciamales age 18-49: 33,539 (2005 est.)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadinesmales age 18-49: 25,787 (2005 est.)
Samoamales age 18-49: 45,294 (2005 est.)
San Marinomales age 18-49: 5,107 (2005 est.)
Sao Tome and Principemales age 18-49: 25,950females age 18-49: 28,660 (2005 est.)
Saudi Arabiamales age 18-49: 6,592,709females age 18-49: 4,659,347 (2005 est.)
Senegalmales age 18-49: 1,558,175females age 18-49: 1,642,533 (2005 est.)
Seychellesmales age 18-49: 16,122females age 18-49: 18,777 (2005 est.)
Sierra Leonemales age 18-49: 539,697 (2005 est.)
Singaporemales age 18-49: 982,368 (2005 est.)
Slovakiamales age 18-49: 1,089,645females age 18-49: 1,093,077 (2005 est.)
Sloveniamales age 17-49: 405,593females age 17-49: 397,167 (2005 est.)
Solomon Islandsmales age 18-49: 92,796 (2005 est.)
Somaliamales age 18-49: 1,022,360females age 18-49: 1,038,697 (2005 est.)
South Africamales age 18-49: 4,927,757females age 18-49: 4,609,071 (2005 est.)
Spainmales age 20-49: 7,623,356females age 20-49: 7,434,465 (2005 est.)
Sri Lankamales age 18-49: 3,789,627females age 18-49: 4,281,043 (2005 est.)
Sudanmales age 18-49: 5,427,474females age 18-49: 5,649,566 (2005 est.)
Surinamemales age 18-49: 77,793females age 18-49: 72,943 (2005 est.)
Swazilandmales age 18-49: 89,609 (2005 est.)
Swedenmales age 19-49: 1,493,668females age 19-49: 1,441,257 (2005 est.)
Switzerlandmales age 19-49: 1,375,889females age 19-49: 1,342,945 (2005 est.)
Syriamales age 18-49: 3,453,888females age 18-49: 3,421,558 (2005 est.)
Taiwanmales age 19-49: 4,749,537females age 19-49: 4,644,607 (2005 est.)
Tajikistanmales age 18-49: 1,244,941females age 18-49: 1,297,891 (2005 est.)
Tanzaniamales age 18-49: 3,879,630 (2005 est.)
Thailandmales age 21-49: 10,396,032females age 21-49: 11,487,690 (2005 est.)
Togomales age 18-49: 696,933females age 18-49: 707,821 (2005 est.)
Tongamales age 18-49: 19,840females age 18-49: 21,342 (2005 est.)
Trinidad and Tobagomales age 18-49: 202,958females age 18-49: 173,797 (2005 est.)
Tunisiamales age 20-49: 2,035,431females age 20-49: 2,000,757 (2005 est.)
Turkeymales age 20-49: 13,905,901females age 20-49: 13,335,812 (2005 est.)
Turkmenistanmales age 18-49: 759,978females age 18-49: 940,179 (2005 est.)
Ugandamales age 18-49: 2,889,808females age 18-49: 2,780,135 (2005 est.)
Ukrainemales age 18-49: 7,376,050females age 18-49: 9,313,385 (2005 est.)
United Arab Emiratesmales age 18-49: 526,671females age 18-49: 419,975 (2005 est.)
United Kingdommales age 16-49: 12,046,268females age 16-49: 11,555,893 (2005 est.)
United Statesmales age 18-49: 54,609,050females age 18-49: 54,696,706 (2005 est.)
Uruguaymales age 18-49: 637,445females age 18-49: 631,046 (2005 est.)
Uzbekistanmales age 18-49: 4,609,621females age 18-49: 5,383,233 (2005 est.)
Vanuatumales age 18-49: 33,837 (2005 est.)
Venezuelamales age 18-49: 4,907,947females age 18-49: 5,151,843 (2005 est.)
Vietnammales age 18-49: 16,032,358females age 18-49: 17,921,241 (2005 est.)
Yemenmales age 18-49: 2,790,705females age 18-49: 2,792,406 (2005 est.)
Zambiamales age 18-49: 1,043,702females age 18-49: 953,328 (2005 est.)
Zimbabwemales age 18-49: 1,304,424females age 18-49: 1,115,096 (2005 est.)
This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006
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@2026 Manpower reaching military service age annually
Afghanistanmales age 18-49: 275,362females age 22-49: 259,935 (2005 est.)
Albaniamales age 18-49: 37,407females age 19-49: 34,587 (2005 est.)
Algeriamales age 18-49: 374,639females age 19-49: 369,021 (2005 est.)
Andorramales age 18-49: 369 (2005 est.)
Angolamales age 18-49: 126,694females age 17-49: 123,586 (2005 est.)
Anguillamales age 18-49: 120 (2005 est.)
Antigua and Barbudamales age 18-49: 507females age 18-49: 494 (2005 est.)
Argentinamales age 18-49: 344,575females age 18-49: 334,649 (2005 est.)
Armeniamales age 18-49: 31,774females age 18-49: 31,182 (2005 est.)
Arubamales age 18-49: 520 (2005 est.)
Australiamales age 18-49: 142,158females age 16-49: 135,675 (2005 est.)
Austriamales age 18-49: 48,967females age 18-49: 46,633 (2005 est.)
Azerbaijanmales age 18-49: 82,358females age 18-49: 78,067 (2005 est.)
Bahamas, Themales age 18-49: 2,804 (2005 est.)
Bahrainmales age 18-49: 6,013females age 18-49: 5,852 (2005 est.)
Belarusmales age 18-49: 85,202females age 18-49: 82,037 (2005 est.)
Belgiummales age 18-49: 64,263females age 16-49: 61,402 (2005 est.)
Belizemales age 18-49: 3,213females age 18-49: 3,100 (2005 est.)
Beninmales age 18-49: 76,661females: 75,068 (2005 est.)
Bermudamales age 18-49: 408 (2005 est.)
Bhutanmales age 18-49: 23,939females age 18-49: 21,979 (2005 est.)
Boliviamales age 18-49: 101,101females age 18-49: 98,671 (2005 est.)
Bosnia and Herzegovinamales age 18-49: 32,942females age 18-49: 31,466 (2005 est.)
Botswanamales age 18-49: 21,103females age 18-49: 21,379 (2005 est.)
Brazilmales age 18-49: 1,785,930females age 19-49: 1,731,648 (2005 est.)
British Virgin Islandsmales age 18-49: 201 (2005 est.)
Bruneimales age 18-49: 3,478females age 18-49: 3,342 (2005 est.)
Bulgariamales age 18-49: 51,023females age 18-49: 48,651 (2005 est.)
Burmamales age 18-49: 469,841females: 455,689 (2005 est.)
Burundimales age 18-49: 91,331females age 16-49: 90,685 (2005 est.)
Cambodiamales age 18-49: 175,497females age 18-49: 172,788 (2005 est.)
Cameroonmales age 18-49: 191,619females age 18-49: 187,082 (2005 est.)
Canadamales age 18-49: 223,821females age 16-49: 212,900 (2005 est.)
Cayman Islandsmales age 18-49: 257 (2005 est.)
Chadmales age 18-49: 94,536females age 20-49: 93,521 (2005 est.)
Chilemales age 18-49: 140,084females age 18-49: 134,518 (2005 est.)
Chinamales age 18-49: 13,186,433females age 18-49: 12,298,149 (2005 est.)
Colombiamales age 18-49: 389,735females age 18-49: 383,146 (2005 est.)
Congo, Republic of themales age 18-49: 38,464females age 18-49: 38,082 (2005 est.)
Costa Ricamales age 18-49: 41,097females age 18-49: 39,243
Cote d'Ivoiremales age 18-49: 189,354females age 18-49: 192,600 (2005 est.)
Croatiamales age 18-49: 29,020females age 18-49: 27,897 (2005 est.)
Cubamales age 18-49: 91,901females: 87,500 (2005 est.)
CyprusGreek Cyriot National Guard (GCNG):males age 18-49: 6,578females age 18-49: 6,200 (2005 est.)
Czech Republicmales age 18-49: 66,583females age 18-49: 63,363 (2005 est.)
Denmarkmales age 18-49: 31,317females age 18-49: 29,558 (2005 est.)
Dominicamales age 18-49: 602 (2005 est.)
Dominican Republicmales age 18-49: 91,699females age 18-49: 87,550 (2005 est.)
East Timormales age 18-49: 12,740females age 18-49: 12,438 (2005 est.)
Ecuadormales age 18-49: 133,922females age 20-49: 129,758 (2005 est.)
Egyptmales age 18-49: 802,920females age 18-49: 764,176 (2005 est.)
El Salvadormales age 18-49: 70,286females age 18-49: 69,526 (2005 est.)
Eritreamales age 18-49: 50,156females age 18-49: 49,746 (2005 est.)
Estoniamales: 11,146females age 18-49: 10,605 (2005 est.)
Ethiopiamales age 18-49: 803,777females age 18-49: 801,789 (2005 est.)
Faroe Islandsmales age 18-49: 366 (2005 est.)
Fijimales age 18-49: 9,266females age 18-49: 8,916 (2005 est.)
Finlandmales age 18-49: 32,040females age 18-49: 30,519 (2005 est.)
Francemales age 18-49: 389,204females age 17-49: 372,719 (2005 est.)
French Polynesiamales age 18-49: 2,747 (2005 est.)
Gabonmales age 18-49: 15,325females age 18-49: 15,367 (2005 est.)
Gaza Stripmales age 18-49: 15,196 (2005 est.)
Georgiamales age 18-49: 38,857females age 18-49: 38,238 (2005 est.)
Germanymales age 18-49: 497,048females age 18-49: 470,537 (2005 est.)
Ghanamales age 18-49: 251,056females age 18-49: 247,777 (2005 est.)
Gibraltarmales age 18-49: 187 (2005 est.)
Greecemales age 18-49: 58,399females age 18-49: 55,571 (2005 est.)
Greenlandmales age 18-49: 440 (2005 est.)
Grenadamales age 18-49: 1,274 (2005 est.)
Guadeloupemales age 18-49: 3,364 (2005 est.)
Guatemalamales age 18-49: 134,032females age 18-49: 130,641 (2005 est.)
Haitimales age 18-49: 98,554females age 18-49: 97,690 (2005 est.)
Hondurasmales age 18-49: 82,105females age 18-49: 78,971 (2005 est.)
Hong Kongmales age 18-49: 40,343females age 18-49: 38,234 (2005 est.)
Hungarymales age 18-49: 63,847females age 18-49: 61,037 (2005 est.)
Indiamales age 18-49: 11,446,452females age 16-49: 10,665,877 (2005 est.)
Indonesiamales age 18-49: 2,201,047females age 18-49: 2,139,573 (2005 est.)
Iranmales age 18-49: 862,056females age 18-49: 808,044 (2005 est.)
Iraqmales age 18-49: 198,518females age 18-49: 289,879 (2005 est.)
Irelandmales age 18-49: 29,327females age 17-49: 28,139 (2005 est.)
Israelmales age 18-49: 53,760females: 51,293 (2005 est.)
Italymales age 18-49: 286,344females age 18-49: 270,099 (2005 est.)
Jamaicamales age 18-49: 27,923females age 18-49: 27,889 (2005 est.)
Japanmales age 18-49: 683,147females age 18-49: 650,157 (2005 est.)
Jordanmales age 18-49: 60,625females age 17-49: 58,218 (2005 est.)
Kazakhstanmales age 18-49: 173,129females age 18-49: 168,697 (2005 est.)
Kiribatimales age 18-49: 1,128 (2005 est.)
Korea, Northmales age 18-49: 194,605females age 17-49: 187,846 (2005 est.)
Korea, Southmales age 18-49: 344,943females age 20-49: 312,720 (2005 est.)
Kuwaitmales age 18-49: 18,743females age 18-49: 20,065 (2005 est.)
Kyrgyzstanmales age 18-49: 61,091females age 18-49: 59,784 (2005 est.)
Laosmales age 18-49: 73,167females age 15-49: 71,432 (2005 est.)
Latviamales age 18-49: 19,137females age 19-49: 18,505 (2005 est.)
Libyamales age 18-49: 62,034females age 17-49: 59,533 (2005 est.)
Liechtensteinmales age 18-49: 208 (2005 est.)
Lithuaniamales age 18-49: 29,689females age 19-49: 28,543 (2005 est.)
Luxembourgmales age 18-49: 2,775females age 17-49: 2,703 (2005 est.)
Macedoniamales age 18-49: 16,686females age 18-49: 15,664 (2005 est.)
Madagascarmales age 18-49: 187,000females age 18-49: 184,833 (2005 est.)
Malaysiamales age 18-49: 244,418females age 18-49: 231,896 (2005 est.)
Marshall Islandsmales age 18-49: 726 (2005 est.)
Martiniquemales age 18-49: 3,105 (2005 est.)
Mexicomales age 18-49: 1,063,233females age 18-49: 1,043,816 (2005 est.)
Micronesia, Federated States ofmales age 18-49: 1,305 (2005 est.)
Moldovamales age 18-49: 43,729females age 18-49: 42,354 (2005 est.)
Monacomales age 18-49: 148 (2005 est.)
Mongoliamales age 18-49: 34,674females age 18-49: 34,251 (2005 est.)
Montserratmales age 18-49: 84 (2005 est.)
Moroccomales age 18-49: 353,377females age 18-49: 341,677 (2005 est.)
Mozambiquemales age 18-49: 185,314 (2005 est.)
Nepalmales age 18-49: 308,031females age 18-49: 286,604 (2005 est.)
Netherlandsmales age 18-49: 99,934females age 20-49: 95,818 (2005 est.)
Netherlands Antillesmales age 18-49: 1,720females age 16-49: 1,657 (2005 est.)
New Caledoniamales age 18-49: 1,907 (2005 est.)
New Zealandmales age 18-49: 29,738females age 17-49: 28,523 (2005 est.)
Nicaraguamales age 18-49: 65,170females age 17-49: 63,133 (2005 est.)
Nigermales age 18-49: 129,045females age 18-49: 121,230 (2005 est.)
Nigeriamales age 18-49: 1,353,180females age 18-49: 1,329,267 (2005 est.)
Norwaymales age 18-49: 29,179females age 18-49: 28,023 (2005 est.)
Omanmales age 18-49: 26,391females age 18-49: 25,466 (2005 est.)
Pakistanmales age 18-49: 1,969,055females age 16-49: 1,849,254 (2005 est.)
Palaumales age 18-49: 142 (2005 est.)
Panamamales age 18-49: 29,724
Paraguaymales age 18-49: 63,058females age 18-49: 62,217 (2005 est.)
Perumales age 18-49: 277,105females age 18-49: 269,799 (2005 est.)
Philippinesmales age 18-49: 907,542females age 18-49: 878,712 (2005 est.)
Polandmales age 18-49: 275,446females age 17-49: 265,164 (2005 est.)
Portugalmales age 18-49: 67,189females age 18-49: 60,626 (2005 est.)
Qatarmales age 18-49: 7,851females age 18-49: 7,040 (2005 est.)
Reunionmales age 18-49: 7,339females age 18-49: 7,007 (2005 est.)
Romaniamales age 18-49: 172,093females age 20-49: 165,547 (2005 est.)
Russiamales age 18-49: 1,286,069females age 18-49: 1,244,264 (2005 est.)
Saint Kitts and Nevismales age 18-49: 357females age 18-49: 347 (2005 est.)
Saint Luciamales age 18-49: 1,651 (2005 est.)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadinesmales age 18-49: 1,204 (2005 est.)
Samoamales age 18-49: 2,306 (2005 est.)
San Marinomales age 18-49: 135 (2005 est.)
Saudi Arabiamales age 18-49: 247,334females age 18-49: 234,500 (2005 est.)
Senegalmales age 18-49: 129,331females age 18-49: 129,398 (2005 est.)
Slovakiamales age 18-49: 41,544females age 18-49: 40,183 (2005 est.)
Sloveniamales age 18-49: 12,816females age 17-49: 12,178 (2005 est.)
Solomon Islandsmales age 18-49: 6,033 (2005 est.)
South Africamales age 18-49: 512,407females age 18-49: 506,078 (2005 est.)
Spainmales age 18-49: 233,384females age 20-49: 221,805 (2005 est.)
Sri Lankamales age 18-49: 174,049females age 18-49: 167,201 (2005 est.)
Sudanmales age 18-49: 442,915females age 18-49: 426,320 (2005 est.)
Swedenmales age 18-49: 58,724females age 19-49: 55,954 (2005 est.)
Switzerlandmales age 18-49: 46,319females age 19-49: 43,829 (2005 est.)
Syriamales age 18-49: 225,113females age 18-49: 211,829 (2005 est.)
Taiwanmales age 18-49: 174,173females age 19-49: 163,683 (2005 est.)
Tajikistanmales age 18-49: 87,846females age 18-49: 85,869 (2005 est.)
Thailandmales age 18-49: 526,276females age 21-49: 514,396 (2005 est.)
Tongamales ag3 18-49: 1,586females age 18-49: 1,538 (2005 est.)
Tunisiamales age 18-49: 108,817females age 20-49: 103,087 (2005 est.)
Turkeymales age 18-49: 679,734females age 20-49: 659,090 (2005 est.)
Turkmenistanmales age 18-49: 56,532females age 18-49: 55,413 (2005 est.)
Ukrainemales age 18-49: 382,751females age 18-49: 365,599 (2005 est.)
United Arab Emiratesmales: 30,706females age 18-49: 29,617 (2005 est.)
United Statesmales age 18-49: 2,143,873females age 18-49: 2,036,201 (2005 est.)
Uzbekistanmales age 18-49: 324,722females age 18-49: 317,062 (2005 est.)
Venezuelamales age 18-49: 252,396females age 18-49: 237,300 (2005 est.)
Vietnammales age 18-49: 915,572females age 18-49: 864,161 (2005 est.)
Yemenmales age 18-49: 236,517females age 18-49: 230,641 (2005 est.)
This page was last updated on 19 December, 2006
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@2028 Background
AfghanistanAhmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes andfounded Afghanistan in 1747. The country served as a buffer betweenthe British and Russian empires until it won independence fromnotional British control in 1919. A brief experiment in democracyended in a 1973 coup and a 1978 Communist counter-coup. The SovietUnion invaded in 1979 to support the tottering Afghan Communistregime, but withdrew 10 years later under relentless pressure byinternationally supported anti-Communist mujahedin rebels. A civilwar between mujahedin factions erupted following the 1992 fall ofthe Communist regime. The Taliban, a hardline Pakistani-sponsoredmovement that emerged in 1994 to end the country's civil war andanarchy, seized Kabul in 1996 and most of the country outside ofopposition Northern Alliance strongholds by 1998. Following the 11September 2001 terrorist attacks, a US, Allied, and NorthernAlliance military action toppled the Taliban for sheltering OsamaBIN LADIN. In late 2001, a conference in Bonn, Germany, establisheda process for political reconstruction that included the adoption ofa new constitution and a presidential election in 2004, and NationalAssembly elections in 2005. On 7 December 2004, Hamid KARZAI becamethe first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. TheNational Assembly was inaugurated on 19 December 2005.
AkrotiriBy terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that createdthe independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereigntyand jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The southernmost and smallest of these is theAkrotiri Sovereign Base Area, which is also referred to as theWestern Sovereign Base Area.
AlbaniaBetween 1990 and 1992 Albania ended 46 years of xenophobicCommunist rule and established a multiparty democracy. Thetransition has proven challenging as successive governments havetried to deal with high unemployment, widespread corruption, adilapidated physical infrastructure, powerful organized crimenetworks, and combative political opponents. Albania has madeprogress in its democratic development since first holdingmultiparty elections in 1991, but deficiencies remain. Internationalobservers judged elections to be largely free and fair since therestoration of political stability following the collapse of pyramidschemes in 1997. In the 2005 general elections, the Democratic Partyand its allies won a decisive victory on pledges of reducing crimeand corruption, promoting economic growth, and decreasing the sizeof government. The election, and particularly the orderly transitionof power, was considered an important step forward. AlthoughAlbania's economy continues to grow, the country is still one of thepoorest in Europe, hampered by a large informal economy and aninadequate energy and transportation infrastructure. Albania hasplayed a largely helpful role in managing inter-ethnic tensions insoutheastern Europe, and is continuing to work toward joining NATOand the EU. Albania, with troops in Iraq and Afghanistan, has been astrong supporter of the global war on terrorism.
AlgeriaAfter more than a century of rule by France, Algeriansfought through much of the 1950s to achieve independence in 1962.Algeria's primary political party, the National Liberation Front(FLN), has dominated politics ever since. Many Algerians in thesubsequent generation were not satisfied, however, and moved tocounter the FLN's centrality in Algerian politics. The surprisingfirst round success of the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) in theDecember 1991 balloting spurred the Algerian army to intervene andpostpone the second round of elections to prevent what the secularelite feared would be an extremist-led government from assumingpower. The army began a crack down on the FIS that spurred FISsupporters to begin attacking government targets. The governmentlater allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderatereligious-based parties, but did not appease the activists whoprogressively widened their attacks. The fighting escalated into aninsurgency, which saw intense fighting between 1992-98 and whichresulted in over 100,000 deaths - many attributed to indiscriminatemassacres of villagers by extremists. The government gained theupper hand by the late-1990s and FIS's armed wing, the IslamicSalvation Army, disbanded in January 2000. However, small numbers ofarmed militants persist in confronting government forces andconducting ambushes and occasional attacks on villages. The armyplaced Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA in the presidency in 1999 in afraudulent election but claimed neutrality in his 2004 landslidereelection victory. Longstanding problems continue to faceBOUTEFLIKA in his second term, including the ethnic minorityBerbers' ongoing autonomy campaign, large-scale unemployment, ashortage of housing, unreliable electrical and water supplies,government inefficiencies and corruption, and the continuing -although significantly degraded - activities of extremist militants.Algeria must also diversify its petroleum-based economy, which hasyielded a large cash reserve but which has not been used to redressAlgeria's many social and infrastructure problems.
American SamoaSettled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was "discovered"by European explorers in the 18th century. International rivalriesin the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of easternislands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the following year.
AndorraFor 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, Andorrans lived under aunique co-principality, ruled by French and Spanish leaders (from1607 onward, the French chief of state and the Spanish bishop ofUrgel). In 1993, this feudal system was modified with the titularheads of state retained, but the government transformed into aparliamentary democracy. Long isolated and impoverished, mountainousAndorra achieved considerable prosperity since World War II throughits tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) areattracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income taxes.
AngolaAngola is slowly rebuilding its country after the end of a27-year civil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement forthe Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, andthe National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), ledby Jonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peaceseemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, butUNITA renewed fighting after being beaten by the MPLA at the polls.Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million peopledisplaced - in the quarter century of fighting. SAVIMBI's death in2002 ended UNITA's insurgency and strengthened the MPLA's hold onpower. DOS SANTOS has pledged to hold legislative elections in 2006.
AnguillaColonized by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650,Anguilla was administered by Great Britain until the early 19thcentury, when the island - against the wishes of the inhabitants -was incorporated into a single British dependency, along with SaintKitts and Nevis. Several attempts at separation failed. In 1971, twoyears after a revolt, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede; thisarrangement was formally recognized in 1980, with Anguilla becominga separate British dependency.
AntarcticaSpeculation over the existence of a "southern land" wasnot confirmed until the early 1820s when British and Americancommercial operators and British and Russian national expeditionsbegan exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas southof the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established thatAntarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands.Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20thcentury. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientificresearch on the continent. A number of countries have set upyear-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have madeterritorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. Inorder to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on thecontinent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither deniesnor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antigua and BarbudaThe Siboney were the first to inhabit theislands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indianspopulated the islands when Columbus landed on his second voyage in1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded bythe English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to runthe sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islandsbecame an independent state within the British Commonwealth ofNations in 1981.
Arctic OceanThe Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's fiveoceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, andthe recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (USand Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are twoimportant seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
ArgentinaIn 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declaredtheir independence from Spain. Eventually, Bolivia, Paraguay, andUruguay went their own way, but the area that remained becameArgentina. The country's population and culture were subsequentlyheavily shaped by immigrants from throughout Europe, but mostparticularly Italy and Spain, which provided the largest percentageof newcomers from 1860 to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century,much of Argentina's history was dominated by periods of internalpolitical conflict between conservatives and liberals and betweencivilian and military factions. After World War II, an era ofPeronist authoritarian rule and interference in subsequentgovernments was followed by a military junta that took power in1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and has persisted despite numerouschallenges, the most formidable of which was a severe economiccrisis in 2001-02 that led to violent public protests and theresignation of several interim presidents. Successful negotiationswith the IMF allowed Argentina to sidestep some fiscal disciplinemeasures normally imposed in such circumstances. Since 2003, thegovernment's efforts to stem the crisis have led to rapid economicrecovery.
ArmeniaArmenia prides itself on being the first nation to formallyadopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empiresincluding the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. DuringWorld War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkeyinstituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harshpractices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but wasconquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remainpreoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim Azerbaijan overNagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned toSoviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijanbegan fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated afterboth countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held notonly Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijanproper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by theirinability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution.Turkey imposed an economic blockade on Armenia and closed the commonborder because of the Armenian occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh andsurrounding areas.
ArubaDiscovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquiredby the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated bythree main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed byprosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. Thelast decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became aseparate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in1990.
Ashmore and Cartier IslandsThese uninhabited islands came underAustralian authority in 1931; formal administration began two yearslater. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marinehabitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. CartierIsland, a former bombing range, is now a marine reserve.
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of theworld's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than theIndian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait ofGibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)are important strategic access waterways. The decision by theInternational Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 todelimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portionof the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
AustraliaAboriginal settlers arrived on the continent fromSoutheast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans beganexploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims weremade until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the nameof Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth ofAustralia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its naturalresources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturingindustries and to make a major contribution to the British effort inWorld Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformeditself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adoptedin the 1980s. Long-term concerns include pollution, particularlydepletion of the ozone layer, and management and conservation ofcoastal areas, especially the Great Barrier Reef.
AustriaOnce the center of power for the large Austro-HungarianEmpire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat inWorld War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 andsubsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria'sstatus remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbadeunification with Germany. A constitutional law that same yeardeclared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition forSoviet military withdrawal. Following the Soviet Union's collapse in1991 and Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995, someAustrians have called into question this neutrality. A prosperous,democratic country, Austria entered the Economic and Monetary Unionin 1999.
AzerbaijanAzerbaijan - a nation with a Turkic and majority-Muslimpopulation - was briefly independent from 1918 to 1920; it regainedits independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve itsconflict with Armenia over the Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh enclave(largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijan has lost 16% of itsterritory and must support some 528,000 internally displaced personsas a result of the conflict. Corruption is ubiquitous, and thepromise of widespread wealth from Azerbaijan's undeveloped petroleumresources remains largely unfulfilled.
Bahamas, TheLucayan Indians inhabited the islands when ChristopherColumbus first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands becamea colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international bankingand investment management. Because of its geography, the country isa major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularlyshipments to the US, and its territory is used for smuggling illegalmigrants into the US.
BahrainIn 1782, the Al Khalifa family captured Bahrain from thePersians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into aseries of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that madeBahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained itsindependence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central locationamong Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancingact in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing decliningoil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing andrefining and has transformed itself into an international bankingcenter. Sheikh HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa, who came to power in 1999,has pushed economic and political reforms and has worked to improverelations with the Shia community. In February 2001, Bahraini votersapproved a referendum on the National Action Charter - thecenterpiece of Sheikh HAMAD's political liberalization program. InFebruary 2002, Sheikh HAMAD pronounced Bahrain a constitutionalmonarchy and changed his status from amir to king. In October 2002,Bahrainis elected members of the lower house of Bahrain'sreconstituted bicameral legislature, the National Assembly.
Baker IslandThe US took possession of the island in 1857, and itsguano deposits were mined by US and British companies during thesecond half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt atcolonization was begun on this island - as well as on nearby HowlandIsland - but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned.Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the USDepartment of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middleof the west coast.
BangladeshEuropeans began to set up trading posts in the area ofBangladesh in the 16th century; eventually the British came todominate the region and it became part of British India. In 1947,West Pakistan and East Bengal (both primarily Muslim) separated fromIndia (largely Hindu) and jointly became the new country ofPakistan. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1955, but the awkwardarrangement of a two-part country with its territorial unitsseparated by 1,600 km left the Bengalis marginalized anddissatisfied. East Pakistan seceded from its union with WestPakistan in 1971 and was renamed Bangladesh. About a third of thisextremely poor country floods annually during the monsoon rainyseason, hampering economic development.
BarbadosThe island was uninhabited when first settled by theBritish in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established onthe island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economyremained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses productionthrough most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of socialand political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to completeindependence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism andmanufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
Bassas da IndiaThis atoll is a volcanic rock surrounded by reefsand is awash at high tide. A French possession since 1897, it wasplaced under the administration of an Administrateur Superieur ofthe French Southern and Antarctic Lands.
BelarusAfter seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closerpolitical and economic ties to Russia than any of the other formerSoviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-stateunion on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economicintegration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out theaccord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since hiselection in July 1994 as the country's first president, AlexanderLUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarianmeans. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press,peaceful assembly, and religion continue.
BelgiumBelgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; itwas occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The countryprospered in the past half century as a modern, technologicallyadvanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensionsbetween the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and theFrench-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years toconstitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognitionand autonomy.
BelizeBelize was the site of several Mayan city states until theirdecline at the end of the first millennium A.D. The British andSpanish disputed the region in the 17th and 18th centuries; itformally became the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Territorialdisputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence ofBelize until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nationuntil 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. Currentconcerns include high unemployment, growing involvement in the SouthAmerican drug trade, and increasing urban crime.
BeninPresent day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent WestAfrican kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory becamea French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments endedin 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and theestablishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO aspresident, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africafrom a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power byelections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities werealleged.
BermudaBermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked Englishcolonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape NorthAmerican winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourismcontinues to be important to the island's economy, althoughinternational business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda hasdeveloped into a highly successful offshore financial center.Although a referendum on independence from the UK was soundlydefeated in 1995, the present government has reopened debate on theissue.
BhutanIn 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange forceding some border land to British India. Under British influence, amonarchy was set up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signedwhereby the British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internalaffairs and Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs.This role was assumed by independent India after 1947. Two yearslater, a formal Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutanannexed by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the countryreceived, and defined India's responsibilities in defense andforeign relations. A refugee issue of some 100,000 Bhutanese inNepal remains unresolved; 90% of the refugees are housed in sevenUnited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)camps. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK unveiled thegovernment's draft constitution - which would introduce majordemocratic reforms - and pledged to hold a national referendum forits approval. A referendum date has yet to be named.
BoliviaBolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent historyhas consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups.Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders havefaced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, andillegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians electedMovement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by thewidest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rulein 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country'straditional political class and empower the nation's poor majority.However, since taking office, his controversial strategies haveexacerbated racial and economic tensions between the Amerindianpopulations of the Andean west and the non-indigenous communities ofthe eastern lowlands.
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina's declaration ofsovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration ofindependence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after areferendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supportedby neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armedresistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines andjoining Serb-held areas to form a "Greater Serbia." In March 1994,Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions fromthree to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/CroatFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, inDayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement thatbrought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the finalagreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton PeaceAccords retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundariesand created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government chargedwith conducting foreign, diplomatic, and fiscal policy. Alsorecognized was a second tier of government comprised of two entitiesroughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). TheFederation and RS governments were charged with overseeing mostgovernment functions. The Office of the High Representative (OHR)was established to oversee the implementation of the civilianaspects of the agreement. In 1995-96, a NATO-led internationalpeacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia toimplement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFORwas succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR)whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. European Unionpeacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December 2004; theirmission is to maintain peace and stability throughout the country.
BotswanaFormerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswanaadopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades ofuninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, andsignificant capital investment have created one of the most dynamiceconomies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector dueto the country's conservation practices and extensive naturepreserves. Botswana has one of the world's highest known rates ofHIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive andcomprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.
Bouvet IslandThis uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirelycovered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discoveredin 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupiedthe island the previous year. In 1971, Bouvet Island and theadjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. Since1977, Norway has run an automated meteorological station on theisland.
BrazilFollowing three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazilbecame an independent nation in 1822 and a republic in 1889. By farthe largest and most populous country in South America, Brazilovercame more than half a century of military intervention in thegovernance of the country when in 1985 the military regimepeacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues topursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of itsinterior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool,it is today South America's leading economic power and a regionalleader. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressingproblem.
British Indian Ocean TerritoryEstablished as a territory of the UKin 1965, a number of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT)islands were transferred to the Seychelles when it attainedindependence in 1976. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of thesix main island groups comprising the Chagos Archipelago. Thelargest and most southerly of the islands, Diego Garcia, contains ajoint UK-US naval support facility. All of the remaining islands areuninhabited. Former agricultural workers, earlier residents in theislands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius but also to theSeychelles, between 1967 and 1973. In 2000, a British High Courtruling invalidated the local immigration order that had excludedthem from the archipelago, but upheld the special military status ofDiego Garcia.
British Virgin IslandsFirst inhabited by Arawak and later by CaribIndians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 andthen annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of theBritish colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they weregranted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the largerand more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar isthe legal currency.
BruneiThe Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15thand 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas ofnorthwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequentlyentered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royalsuccession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence wasachieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over sixcenturies. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gasfields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in thedeveloping world.
BulgariaThe Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with thelocal Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the firstBulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled withthe Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by theend of the 14th century the country was overrun by the OttomanTurks. Northern Bulgaria attained autonomy in 1878 and all ofBulgaria became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Havingfought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell withinthe Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held itsfirst multiparty election since World War II and began thecontentious process of moving toward political democracy and amarket economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,and crime. The country joined NATO in 2004 and is slated to join theEU in 2007.
Burkina FasoBurkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achievedindependence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early1990s. Burkina Faso's high population density and limited naturalresources result in poor economic prospects for the majority of itscitizens. Recent unrest in Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana hashindered the ability of several hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabefarm workers to find employment in neighboring countries.
BurmaBritain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administeredas a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth wasattained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, andlater as political kingpin. Despite multiparty legislative electionsin 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party - the NationalLeague for Democracy (NLD) - winning a landslide victory, the rulingjunta refused to hand over power. NLD leader and Nobel Peace Prizerecipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was under house arrest from 1989 to1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned in May 2003 and subsequentlytransferred to house arrest, where she remains virtuallyincommunicado. In November 2005, the junta extended her detentionfor at least another six months. Her supporters, as well as allthose who promote democracy and improved human rights, are routinelyharassed or jailed.
BurundiBurundi's first democratically elected president wasassassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsifactions. Over 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflict thatspanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands of Burundianswere internally displaced or became refugees in neighboringcountries. An internationally brokered power-sharing agreementbetween the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebels in 2003paved the way for a transition process that led to an integrateddefense force, established a new constitution in 2005, and elected amajority Hutu government in 2005. The new government, led byPresident Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokeredceasefire with the country's last rebel group in the summer of 2006but still faces many challenges.
CambodiaMost Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much ofSoutheast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13thcenturies. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)weakened the empire ushering in a long period of decline. The kingplaced the country under French protection in 1863. Cambodia becamepart of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation inWorld War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rougeforces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. Atleast 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. ADecember 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into thecountryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched offalmost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandateddemocratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respectedby the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restoresome semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factionalfighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a secondround of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of anothercoalition government and renewed political stability. The remainingelements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of theremaining leaders are awaiting trial by a UN-sponsored tribunal forcrimes against humanity. Elections in July 2003 were relativelypeaceful, but it took one year of negotiations between contendingpolitical parties before a coalition government was formed.
CameroonThe former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroonmerged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generallyenjoyed stability, which has permitted the development ofagriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.Despite a slow movement toward democratic reform, political powerremains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy headed byPresident Paul BIYA.
CanadaA land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canadabecame a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to theBritish crown. Economically and technologically the nation hasdeveloped in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south acrossan unfortified border. Canada's paramount political problem ismeeting public demands for quality improvements in health care andeducation services after a decade of budget cuts. Canada also facesquestions about integrity in government following revelationsregarding a corruption scandal in the federal government that hashelped revive the fortunes of separatists in predominantlyfrancophone Quebec.