Cape VerdeThe uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized bythe Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became atrading center for African slaves and later an important coaling andresupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Followingindependence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification withGuinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintaineduntil multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continuesto exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century causedsignificant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.
Cayman IslandsThe Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by theBritish during the 18th and 19th centuries, and were administered byJamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory withinthe Federation of the West Indies, but when the Federation dissolvedin 1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.
Central African RepublicThe former French colony of Ubangi-Sharibecame the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. Afterthree tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued byunrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led byGeneral Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groupsand the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested themunicipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March andMay of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. Thegovernment still does not fully control the countryside, wherepockets of lawlessness persist.
ChadChad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, enduredthree decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya beforea semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The governmenteventually drafted a democratic constitution, and held flawedpresidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion brokeout in northern Chad, which sporadically flares up despite severalpeace agreements between the government and the rebels. In 2005 newrebel groups emerged in western Sudan and have made probing attacksinto eastern Chad. Power remains in the hands of an ethnic minority.In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held a referendum successfullyremoving constitutional term limits.
ChilePrior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indiansinhabited central and southern Chile; the latter were not completelysubjugated by Spain until the early 1880s. Although Chile declaredits independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was notachieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-84), Chiledefeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern lands. Athree-year-old Marxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrownin 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET,who ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990.Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s,have contributed to steady growth and have helped secure thecountry's commitment to democratic and representative government.Chile has increasingly assumed regional and international leadershiproles befitting its status as a stable, democratic nation.
ChinaFor centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacingthe rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th andearly 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, majorfamines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World WarII, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocraticsocialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposedstrict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens ofmillions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping andother leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, livingstandards have improved dramatically and the room for personalchoice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.
Christmas IslandNamed in 1643 for the day of its discovery, theisland was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphatemining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty toAustralia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declareda national park.
Clipperton IslandThis isolated island was named for JohnCLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18thcentury. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which tookpossession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) IslandsThere are 27 coral islands in the group.Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but theyremained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.The population on the two inhabited islands generally is splitbetween the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays onHome Island.
ColombiaColombia was one of the three countries that emerged fromthe collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador andVenezuela). A 40-year conflict between government forces andanti-government insurgent groups and illegal paramilitary groups -both heavily funded by the drug trade - escalated during the 1990s.The insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary tooverthrow the government, and violence has been decreasing sinceabout 2002, but insurgents continue attacks against civilians andlarge swaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence.Paramilitary groups challenge the insurgents for control ofterritory and the drug trade. Most paramilitary members havedemobilized since 2002 in an ongoing peace process, although theircommitment to ceasing illicit activity is unclear. The ColombianGovernment has stepped up efforts to reassert government controlthroughout the country, and now has a presence in every one of itsmunicipalities. However, neighboring countries worry about theviolence spilling over their borders.
ComorosComoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups sincegaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands ofAnjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He pledged to resolve thesecessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the 2000Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a new constitutionand presidential elections took place in the spring of 2002. Eachisland in the archipelago elected its own president and a new unionpresident took office in May 2002.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but its early years were marred by political and social instability. Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU retained his position for 32 years through several subsequent sham elections, as well as through the use of brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion led by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged by an insurrection backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph KABILA, was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity. A transitional government was set up in July 2003; Joseph KABILA remains as president and is joined by four vice presidents representing the former government, former rebel groups, and the political opposition. The transitional government held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005, and plans to hold a series of elections in 2006 to determine the presidency and National Assembly seats.
Congo, Republic of theUpon independence in 1960, the former Frenchregion of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quartercentury of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and ademocratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civilwar in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present ahumanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa'slargest petroleum producers, but with declining production it willneed to hope for new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earningsover the long term.
Cook IslandsNamed after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, theislands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965residents chose self-government in free association with NewZealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand andgovernment deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea IslandsScattered over more than three-quarters of amillion square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands weredeclared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabitedexcept for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy manyother islands and reefs.
Costa RicaAlthough explored by the Spanish early in the 16thcentury, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica provedunsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: diseasefrom mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlementof Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provincesthat jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years laterit joined the United Provinces of Central America, but thisfederation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Ricaproclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19thcentury, only two brief periods of violence have marred thecountry's democratic development. Although it still maintains alarge agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy toinclude strong technology and tourism industries. The standard ofliving is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread.
Cote d'IvoireClose ties to France since independence in 1960, thedevelopment of cocoa production for export, and foreign investmentmade Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropicalAfrican states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. InDecember 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire'shistory - overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEIblatantly rigged elections held in late 2000 and declared himselfthe winner. Popular protest forced him to step aside and broughtrunner-up Laurent GBAGBO into power. Ivorian dissidents anddisaffected members of the military launched a failed coup attemptin September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of thecountry, and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in aunity government under the auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis PeaceAccord. President GBAGBO and rebel forces resumed implementation ofthe peace accord in December 2003 after a three-month stalemate, butissues that sparked the civil war, such as land reform and groundsfor citizenship, remain unresolved. The central government has yetto exert control over the northern regions and tensions remain highbetween GBAGBO and opposition leaders. Several thousand French andWest African troops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to maintain peace andfacilitate the disarmament, demobilization, and rehabilitationprocess.
CroatiaThe lands that today comprise Croatia were part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, theCroats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 asYugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federalindependent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting beforeoccupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. UnderUN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia wasreturned to Croatia in 1998.
CubaThe native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline afterthe European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492and following its development as a Spanish colony during the nextseveral centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported towork the coffee and sugar plantations, and Havana became thelaunching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain fromMexico and Peru. Spanish rule, marked initially by neglect, becameincreasingly repressive, provoking an independence movement andoccasional rebellions that were harshly suppressed. It was USintervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 that finallyoverthrew Spanish rule. The subsequent Treaty of Paris establishedCuban independence, which was granted in 1902 after a three-yeartransition period. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959;his iron rule has held the regime together since then. Cuba'sCommunist revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughoutLatin America and Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Thecountry is now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in1990, following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties asthe result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migrationto the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, air flights, orvia the southwest border - is a continuing problem. The US CoastGuard intercepted 2,712 individuals attempting to cross the Straitsof Florida in fiscal year 2005.
CyprusA former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between theGreek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a headin December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadicintercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a GreekGovernment-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met bymilitary intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than athird of the island. In 1983, the Turkish-held area declared itselfthe "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," but it is recognized onlyby Turkey. The latest two-year round of UN-brokered talks - betweenthe leaders of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities toreach an agreement to reunite the divided island - ended when theGreek Cypriots rejected the UN settlement plan in an April 2004referendum. The entire island entered the EU on 1 May 2004, althoughthe EU acquis - the body of common rights and obligations - appliesonly to the areas under direct Republic of Cyprus control, and issuspended in the areas administered by Turkish Cypriots. At present,every Cypriot carrying a Cyprus passport has the status of aEuropean citizen; however, EU laws do not apply to north Cyprus.Nicosia continues to oppose EU efforts to establish direct trade andeconomic links to north Cyprus as a way of encouraging the TurkishCypriot community to continue to support reunification.
Czech RepublicFollowing the First World War, the closely relatedCzechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged toform Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country'sleaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands ofother ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably theSudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere ofinfluence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended theefforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party ruleand create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrationsthe following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With thecollapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained itsfreedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two nationalcomponents, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republicjoined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.
DenmarkOnce the seat of Viking raiders and later a major northEuropean power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nationthat is participating in the general political and economicintegration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now theEU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elementsof the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the EuropeanEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, andissues concerning certain justice and home affairs.
DhekeliaBy terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that createdthe independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereigntyand jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the Dhekelia SovereignBase Area, which is also referred to as the Eastern Sovereign BaseArea.
DjiboutiThe French Territory of the Afars and the Issas becameDjibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarianone-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil warthat ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accordbetween Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. In 1999,Djibouti's first multi-party presidential elections resulted in theelection of Ismail Omar GUELLEH; he was re-elected to a second andfinal term in 2005. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographiclocation at the mouth of the Red Sea and serves as an importanttransshipment location for goods entering and leaving the eastAfrican highlands. The present leadership favors close ties toFrance, which maintains a significant military presence in thecountry, but is also developing stronger ties with the US. Djiboutihosts the only US military base in sub-Saharan Africa and is afront-line state in the global war on terrorism.
DominicaDominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to becolonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of thenative Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years afterindependence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt andtyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary EugeniaCHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, whoremained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians stillliving on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remainingin the eastern Caribbean.
Dominican RepublicExplored and claimed by Christopher COLUMBUS onhis first voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became aspringboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the Americanmainland. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the westernthird of the island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder ofthe island, by then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its ownindependence in 1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitiansfor 22 years; it finally attained independence as the DominicanRepublic in 1844. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned tothe Spanish Empire, but two years later they launched a war thatrestored independence in 1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostlynon-representative rule followed, capped by the dictatorship ofRafael Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-1961. Juan BOSCH was electedpresident in 1962, but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. In1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civilwar sparked by an uprising to restore BOSCH. In 1966, JoaquinBALAGUER defeated BOSCH in an election to become president. BALAGUERmaintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years wheninternational reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail histerm in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have beenheld in which opposition candidates have won the presidency. FormerPresident (1996-2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna won election to asecond term in 2004 following a constitutional amendment allowingpresidents to serve more than one term.
East TimorThe Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor inthe early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century. Skirmishingwith the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treatyin which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. ImperialJapan occupied East Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumedcolonial authority after the Japanese defeat in World War II. EastTimor declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later.It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province ofEast Timor. An unsuccessful campaign of pacification followed overthe next two decades, during which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000individuals lost their lives. On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervisedpopular referendum, an overwhelming majority of the people of EastTimor voted for independence from Indonesia. Between the referendumand the arrival of a multinational peacekeeping force in lateSeptember 1999, anti-independence Timorese militias - organized andsupported by the Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale,scorched-earth campaign of retribution. The militias killedapproximately 1,400 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people intoWest Timor as refugees. The majority of the country'sinfrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supplysystems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electricalgrid were destroyed. On 20 September 1999 the Australian-ledpeacekeeping troops of the International Force for East Timor(INTERFET) deployed to the country and brought the violence to anend. On 20 May 2002, East Timor was internationally recognized as anindependent state.
EcuadorWhat is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empireuntil the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanishcolonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of NewGranada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence by 1819and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. When Quito withdrewin 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor of the "Republicof the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost territories ina series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border war with Peruthat flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. Although Ecuador marked 25years of civilian governance in 2004, the period has been marred bypolitical instability. Seven presidents have governed Ecuador since1996.
EgyptThe regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east andwest, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatcivilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a seriesof dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The lastnative dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn werereplaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs whointroduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and whoruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, theMamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after theconquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following thecompletion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an importantworld transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control ofEgypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the OttomanEmpire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. Thecompletion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant LakeNasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in theagriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (thelargest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence onthe Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. Thegovernment has struggled to ready the economy for the new millenniumthrough economic reform and massive investment in communications andphysical infrastructure.
El SalvadorEl Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 andfrom the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 whenthe government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided formilitary and political reforms.
Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of amainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smalleston the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGOhas ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996and 2002 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The presidentexerts almost total control over the political system and hasdiscouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experiencedrapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oilreserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa'sthird largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfallfrom oil production resulting in a massive increase in governmentrevenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in thepopulation's living standards.
EritreaEritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of afederation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 yearslater sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence wasoverwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-yearborder war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UNauspices in December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UN peacekeepingoperation that is monitoring a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone onthe border with Ethiopia. An international commission, organized toresolve the border dispute, posted its findings in 2002 but finaldemarcation is on hold due to Ethiopian objections.
EstoniaAfter centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russianrule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporatedinto the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991, with thecollapse of the Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political tieswith Western Europe. It joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of2004.
EthiopiaUnique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopianmonarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with theexception of the 1936-41 Italian occupation during World War II. In1974, a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE(who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Tornby bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugeeproblems, the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition ofrebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's firstmultiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrealate in the 1990's ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. Finaldemarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due to Ethiopianobjections to an international commission's finding requiring it tosurrender territory considered sensitive to Ethiopia.
Europa IslandA French possession since 1897, the island is heavilywooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs aweather station.
European UnionFollowing the two devastating World Wars of the firsthalf of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lastingpeace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France andGermany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the FrenchForeign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of allEurope, the first step of which would be the integration of the coaland steel industries of Western Europe. The following year theEuropean Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when sixmembers, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and theNetherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris. The ECSC was so successfulthat within a few years the decision was made to integrate otherparts of the countries' economies. In 1957, the Treaties of Romecreated the European Economic Community (EEC) and the EuropeanAtomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member statesundertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming acommon market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communitieswere formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating asingle Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the EuropeanParliament. Members of the European Parliament were initiallyselected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first directelections were undertaken and they have been held every five yearssince. In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with theaddition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s sawfurther membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spainand Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basisfor further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, injudicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economicand monetary union - including a common currency. This furtherintegration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria,Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to15. A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EUstates except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002,citizens of the 12 euro-area countries began using the eurobanknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 -Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - bringing the currentmembership to 25. In order to ensure that the EU can continue tofunction efficiently with an expanded membership, the 2003 Treaty ofNice set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EUinstitutions. An EU Constitutional Treaty, signed in Rome on 29October 2004, gave member states two years to ratify the documentbefore it was scheduled to take effect on 1 November 2006. Referendaheld in France and the Netherlands in May-June 2005 rejected theproposed constitution. This development suspended the ratificationeffort and left the longer-term political integration of the EU inlimbo.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)Although first sighted by anEnglish navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occuruntil almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned overto Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subjectof a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, thenbetween Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to theislands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentinainvaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with anexpeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fiercefighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe IslandsThe population of the Faroe Islands is largelydescended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. Theislands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14thcentury. A high degree of self government was attained in 1948.
FijiFiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as aBritish colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived asdominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborersbrought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). Thecoups and a 1990 constitution that cemented native Melanesiancontrol of Fiji, led to heavy Indian emigration; the population lossresulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesiansbecame the majority. A new constitution enacted in 1997 was moreequitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in agovernment led by an Indo-Fijian, but a civilian-led coup in May2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil.Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with ademocratically elected government led by Prime Minister LaiseniaQARASE.
FinlandFinland was a province and then a grand duchy under Swedenfrom the 12th to the 19th centuries and an autonomous grand duchy ofRussia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917. DuringWorld War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom andresist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss ofterritory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made aremarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to adiversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now onpar with Western Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finlandwas the only Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiationin January 1999.
FranceAlthough ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, Francesuffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rankas a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of themost modern countries in the world and is a leader among Europeannations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracyresistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentarydemocracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperationwith Germany have proved central to the economic integration ofEurope, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,the euro, in January 1999. At present, France is at the forefront ofefforts to develop the EU's military capabilities to supplementprogress toward an EU foreign policy.
French GuianaFirst settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana wasthe site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The EuropeanSpace Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.
French PolynesiaThe French annexed various Polynesian island groupsduring the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred upwidespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atollafter a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has beenconsiderably expanded.
French Southern and Antarctic Lands The Southern Lands consist of two archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanic islands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the native fauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in 1840.
GabonOnly two autocratic presidents have ruled Gabon sinceindependence from France in 1960. The current president of Gabon, ElHadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads of statein the world - has dominated the contry's political scene for almostfour decades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty systemand a new constitution in the early 1990s. However, allegations ofelectoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 and thepresidential elections in 2005 have exposed the weaknesses of formalpolitical structures in Gabon. Gabon's political opposition remainsweak, divided, and financially dependent on the current regime.Despite political conditions, a small population, abundant naturalresources, and considerable foreign support have helped make Gabonone of the more prosperous and stable African countries.
Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965;it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegalbetween 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendshipand cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew thepresident and banned political activity, but a 1996 constitution andpresidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997,completed a nominal return to civilian rule. The country undertookanother round of presidential and legislative elections in late 2001and early 2002. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH, the leader of the coup, hasbeen elected president in all subsequent elections.
Gaza StripThe Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on InterimSelf-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceedingfive years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Stripand the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certainpowers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority (PA) aspart of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank andGaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the GazaStrip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and inadditional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharmel-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retainresponsibility during the transitional period for external andinternal security and for public order of settlements and Israelicitizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status ofGaza and West Bank began in September 1999 after a three-yearhiatus, but were derailed by a second intifadah that broke out inSeptember 2000. In April 2003 the Quartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia)presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by 2005based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two states,Israel and a democratic Palestine. The proposed date for a permanentstatus agreement has been postponed indefinitely due to violence andaccusations that both sides have not followed through on theircommitments. Longtime Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT died inNovember 2004 and Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January2005, bringing hope of a turning point in the conflict. In February2005 Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments,focused on security issues, in an effort to move the peace processforward. Progress has been slow because of different interpretationsof the verbal agreement by the two sides. In September 2005, Israelwithdrew all its settlers and soldiers and dismantled its militaryfacilities in the Gaza Strip and four northern West Banksettlements. Nonetheless, Israel controls maritime, airspace, andmost access to the Gaza Strip. An agreement signed by the PA andIsrael in November 2005 authorized the reopening of the Rafah bordercrossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt under joint PA andEgyptian control, with monitoring provided by the EU.
GeorgiaThe region of present-day Georgia contained the ancientkingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Romaninfluence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became thestate religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turkswas followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that wascut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottomanand Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgiawas absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russianrevolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until theSoviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgiangovernment to manipulate national legislative elections in November2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation ofEduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his NationalMovement Party. Progress on market reforms and democratization hasbeen made in the years since independence, but this progress hasbeen complicated by two civil conflicts in the breakaway regions ofAbkhazia and South Ossetia. These two territories remain outside thecontrol of the central government and are ruled by de facto,unrecognized governments, supported by Russia. Russian-ledpeacekeeping operations continue in both regions. The GeorgianGovernment put forward a new peace initiative for the peacefulresolution of the status of South Ossetia in 2005.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation,Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germanyin two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th centuryand left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of theUS, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of theCold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western FederalRepublic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economicand security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold Warallowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany hasexpended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wagesup to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EUcountries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstsub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. Along series of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitutionin 1981 and a ban on political parties. A new constitution,restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. JerryRAWLINGS, head of state since 1981, won presidential elections in1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from running for athird term in 2000. John KUFUOR, who defeated former Vice PresidentAtta MILLS in a free and fair election, succeeded him.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly cededto Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the Britishgarrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendumheld in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a Britishdependency. Although the current 1969 Constitution for Gibraltarstates that the British government will never allow the people ofGibraltar to pass under the sovereignty of another state againsttheir freely and democratically expressed wishes, a series of talkswere held by the UK and Spain between 1997 and 2002 on establishingtemporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar. In response to thesetalks, the Gibraltarian Government set up a referendum in late 2002in which a majority of the citizens voted overwhelmingly against anysharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since the referendum, tripartitetalks have been held with Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and inSeptember 2006 a three-way agreement was signed. Spain agreed toallow airlines other than British to serve Gibraltar, to speed upcustoms procedures, and to add more telephone lines into Gibraltar.Britain agreed to pay pensions to Spaniards who had been employed inGibraltar before the border closed in 1969. Spain will be allowed toopen a cultural institute from which the Spanish flag will fly.
Glorioso IslandsA French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
GreeceGreece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupiedby Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil warbetween supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following thelatter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A militarydictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties andforced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentaryrepublic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981 Greece joined the EC(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the euro zone in 2001.
GreenlandGreenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century fromIceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, andGreenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joinedthe European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973 butwithdrew in 1985 over a dispute over stringent fishing quotas.Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danishparliament. The law went into effect the following year. Denmarkcontinues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs.
GrenadaCarib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered theisland in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugarestates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain tookthe island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main exportcrop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Fullindependence was attained in 1974 making Grenada one of the smallestindependent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada was seizedby a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later theisland was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbeannations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundredsof Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the followingyear and have continued since that time. Hurricane Ivan struckGrenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.
GuadeloupeGuadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. Theisland of Saint Martin is shared with the Netherlands; its southernportion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the NetherlandsAntilles and its northern portion is named Saint-Martin and is partof Guadeloupe
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaThe Maya civilization flourished in Guatemala andsurrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almostthree centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independencein 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienceda variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-yearguerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreementformally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000people dead and had created some 1 million refugees.
GuernseyThe island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islandsrepresent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,which held sway in both France and England. The islands were theonly British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.Guernsey is a British crown dependency, but is not part of the UK.
GuineaGuinea has had only two presidents since gaining itsindependence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in1984 when the military seized the government after the death of thefirst president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democraticelections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the militarygovernment) was elected president of the civilian government. He wasreelected in 1998 and again in 2003. Unrest in Sierra Leone andLiberia has spilled over into Guinea on several occasions over thepast decade, threatening stability and creating humanitarianemergencies.
Guinea-BissauSince independence from Portugal in 1974,Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and militaryupheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritariandictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting apath to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime wascharacterized by the suppression of political opposition and thepurging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980sand early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was electedpresident in the country's first free elections. A military mutinyand resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster inMay 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned overpower to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was electedpresident in transparent polling. In September 2003, after onlythree years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in abloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in asinterim president. In August 2005, former President VIEIRA wasre-elected president in the second round of presidential polling.Since formally assuming office in October 2005, Vieira has pledgedto pursue economic development and national reconciliation.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, andsince then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. After his death five years later, his wife, JaneJAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001.
HaitiThe native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of theisland, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based onforestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiestin the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of Africanslaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the firstblack republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorestcountry in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued bypolitical violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellionled to the departure of President Jean-Betrand ARISTIDE in February2004, an interim government took office to organize new electionsunder the auspices of the United Nations Stabilization Mission inHaiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delays haveprompted repeated postponements, and Haiti missed theconstitutionally-mandated presidential inauguration date of 7February 2006.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include religious freedom, international development, theMiddle East, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation,and the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change andglobalization. About 1 billion people worldwide profess the Catholicfaith.
HondurasOnce part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billionin damage.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In thisagreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, twosystems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not beimposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree ofautonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for thenext 50 years.
Howland IslandDiscovered by the US early in the 19th century, theisland was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and Britishcompanies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a daybeacon near the middle of the west coast that was partiallydestroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it isnamed in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island isadministered by the US Department of the Interior as a NationalWildlife Refuge.
HungaryHungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communistrule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announcedwithdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive militaryintervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called"Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 andthe EU in 2004.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesionare first-rate by world standards.
Iles EparsesThe Iles Eparses, or scattered islands, are a group offive French entities - Bassas da India, Europa Island, GloriosoIslands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island - which on 1 April1960 came under the authority of the Minister in charge of overseaspossessions. On 19 September 1960 by decree, the islands weretransferred to the charge of the Prefet of Reunion where theyremained until 3 January 2005 when they were transferred by anotherdecree to the Senior Administrator of the Territory of the FrenchSouthern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF).Bassas da India: A French possession since 1897, this atoll is avolcanic seamount surrounded by reefs and awash at high tide.Europa Island: A French possession since 1897, the island is heavilywooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs aweather station.Glorioso Islands: A French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.Juan de Nova Island: Named after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.Tromelin Island: First explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.
IndiaThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,dates back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwestinfiltrated onto Indian lands about 1500 B.C.; their merger with theearlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkish in the 12thwere followed by those of European traders, beginning in the late15th century. By the 19th century, Britain had assumed politicalcontrol of virtually all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in theBritish army played a vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolentresistance to British colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI andJawaharlal NEHRU brought independence in 1947. The subcontinent wasdivided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim stateof Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resultedin East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Despiteimpressive gains in economic investment and output, India facespressing problems such as the ongoing dispute with Pakistan overKashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation,extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious strife.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south latitude.
IndonesiaThe Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17thcentury; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but itrequired four years of intermittent negotiations, recurringhostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed torelinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagicstate and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Currentissues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism,consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism,implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, andholding the military and police accountable for human rightsviolations. Indonesia was the nation worst hit by the December 2004tsunami, which particularly affected Aceh province causing over100,000 deaths and over $4 billion in damage. An additionalearthquake in March 2005 created heavy destruction on the island ofNias. Reconstruction in these areas may take up to a decade. In2005, Indonesia reached a historic peace agreement with armedseparatists in Aceh, but it continues to face a low intensityseparatist guerilla movement in Papua.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah wasforced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established atheocratic system of government with ultimate political authoritynominally vested in a learned religious scholar. Iranian-USrelations have been strained since a group of Iranian studentsseized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisivewar with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and ledto clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces between1987-1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism forits activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remainssubject to US economic sanctions and export controls because of itscontinued involvement. Following the elections of a reformistpresident and Majlis in the late 1990s, attempts to foster politicalreform in response to popular dissatisfaction floundered asconservative politicians prevented reform measures from beingenacted, increased repressive measures, and made electoral gainsagainst reformers. Parliamentary elections in 2004 and the August2005 inauguration of a conservative stalwart as president, completedthe reconsolidation of conservative power in Iran's government.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof military strongmen ruled the country, the latest was SADDAMHusayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive andcostly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait,but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf Warof January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UNSecurity Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of massdestruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verificationinspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutionsover a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq inMarch 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. Coalitionforces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded infrastructureand facilitating the establishment of a freely elected government,while simultaneously dealing with a robust insurgency. The CoalitionProvisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraq after theinvasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28 June 2004,to the Iraqi Interim Government (IG), which governed under theTransitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL,elections for a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) wereheld in Iraq on 30 January 2005. Following these elections, theIraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA wascharged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which wasapproved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An electionunder the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives(CoR) was held in December 2005. The CoR approval in the selectionof most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked thetransition from the ITG to Iraq's full-term government.
IrelandCeltic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1948 Ireland withdrewfrom the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification ofIreland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. Apeace settlement for Northern Ireland, known as the Good FridayAgreement and approved in 1998, is being implemented with somedifficulties.
Isle of ManPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crowndependency, but is not part of the UK.