IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied byIsrael since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 aDeclaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords") guidingan interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorialand other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israelwithdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupiedsince 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the MadridConference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conductedbetween Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achievea permanent settlement. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working inconjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took thelead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflictby 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to twostates, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However, progress towarda permanent status agreement was undermined by Palestinian-Israeliviolence between September 2000 and February 2005. An agreementreached at Sharm al-Sheikh in February 2005 significantly reducedthe violence. The election in January 2005 of Mahmud ABBAS as thenew Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death of YasirARAFAT, the formation of a Likud-Labor-United Torah Judaismcoalition government in January 2005, and the successful Israelidisengagement from the Gaza Strip (August-September 2005), presentedan opportunity for a renewed peace effort. However, internal Israelipolitical events between October and December 2005 have destabilizedthe political situation and forced early elections, scheduled forMarch 2006.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional statesof the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came toa close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established aFascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany ledto Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replacedthe monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was acharter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). Ithas been at the forefront of European economic and politicalunification, joining the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.Persistent problems include illegal immigration, organized crime,corruption, high unemployment, sluggish economic growth, and the lowincomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with theprosperous north.
JamaicaThe island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The nativeTaino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, weregradually exterminated, replaced by African slaves. England siezedthe island in 1655 and a plantation economy - based on sugar, cocoa,and coffee - was established. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freeda quarter million slaves, many of which became small farmers.Jamaica gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain, andin 1958 it joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming theFederation of the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence whenit withdrew from the federation in 1962. Deteriorating economicconditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangscreated by the major political parties evolved into powerfulorganized crime networks involved in international drug smugglingand money laundering. The cycle of violence, drugs, and poverty hasserved to impoverish large sectors of the populace. Nonetheless,many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contributesubstantially to the economy.
Jan MayenThis desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutchwhaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlierclaims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal huntersand trappers over the following centuries, the island came underNorwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VIIToppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is thenorthernmost active volcano on earth.
JapanIn 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) usheredin a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order tosecure its power. For 250 years this policy enabled Japan to enjoystability and a flowering of its indigenous culture. Following theTreaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened its ports andbegan to intensively modernize and industrialize. During the late19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a regional power thatwas able to defeat the forces of both China and Russia. It occupiedKorea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island. In 1931-32Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched a full-scaleinvasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 - triggeringAmerica's entry into World War II - and soon occupied much of Eastand Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II, Japanrecovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of the US.While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity,actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats,and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdownstarting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedentedgrowth, but Japan still remains a major economic power, both in Asiaand globally. In 2005, Japan began a two-year term as anon-permanent member of the UN Security Council.
Jarvis IslandFirst discovered by the British in 1821, theuninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the islandin 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. TheUS occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after WorldWar II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refugeadministered by the US Department of the Interior.
JerseyJersey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in bothFrance and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crowndependency, but is not part of the UK.
Johnston AtollBoth the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexedJohnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guanodeposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands weredesignated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atollin 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948.The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storageand disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is nowcomplete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed by May2005.
JordanFollowing World War I and the dissolution of the OttomanEmpire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan fromPalestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independencein 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country'slong-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, hesuccessfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a largeinternal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coupattempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary elections andgradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a peace treatywith Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the son of King HUSSEIN, assumed thethrone following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, hehas consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economicreform program. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in2000, and began to participate in the European Free TradeAssociation in 2001. After a two-year delay, parliamentary andmunicipal elections took place in the summer of 2003. The primeminister appointed in November 2005 stated the government wouldfocus on political reforms, improving conditions for the poor, andfighting corruption.
Juan de Nova IslandNamed after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.
KazakhstanNative Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused manyof these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing acohesive national identity; expanding the development of thecountry's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, andmining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring statesand other foreign powers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, whenPresident Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutionalsuccession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) madeitself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal andexternal pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. Theethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from powerin elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence andfraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of theKenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 followingfair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidateof the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National RainbowCoalition, defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed thepresidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruptionplatform.
Kingman ReefThe US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoonserved as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoaflights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants onthe reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundantand diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surroundingthe reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, North An independent kingdom for much of its long history, Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 following the Russo-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the entire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with the northern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist domination. After failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, North Korea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il-so'ng, adopted a policy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against excessive Soviet or Communist Chinese influence. The DPRK demonized the US as the ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in 1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied heavily on international aid to feed its population while continuing to expend resources to maintain an army of 1 million. North Korea's long-range missile development, as well as its nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons programs and massive conventional armed forces, are of major concern to the international community. In December 2002, following revelations that the DPRK was pursuing a nuclear weapons program based on enriched uranium in violation of a 1994 agreement with the US to freeze and ultimately dismantle its existing plutonium-based program, North Korea expelled monitors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2003, it declared its withdrawal from the international Non-Proliferation Treaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it had completed the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extract weapons-grade plutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent." Since August 2003, North Korea has participated in the Six-Party Talks with China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the US designed to resolve the stalemate over its nuclear programs. The fourth round of Six-Party Talks were held in Beijing during July-September 2005. All parties agreed to a Joint Statement of Principles in which, among other things, the six parties unanimously reaffirmed the goal of verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner. In the Joint Statement, the DPRK committed to "abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards." The Joint Statement also commits the US and other parties to certain actions as the DPRK denuclearizes. The US offered a security assurance, specifying that it had no nuclear weapons on ROK territory and no intention to attack or invade the DPRK with nuclear or other weapons. The US and DPRK will take steps to normalize relations, subject to the DPRK's implementing its denuclearization pledge and resolving other longstanding concerns. While the Joint Statement provides a vision of the end-point of the Six-Party process, much work lies ahead to implement the elements of the agreement.
Korea, SouthKorea was an independent kingdom for much of itsmillennia-long history. Following its victory in the Russo-JapaneseWar in 1905, Japan occupied Korea; five years later it formallyannexed the entire peninsula. After World War II, a Republic ofKorea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the Korean Peninsulawhile a Communist-style government was installed in the north (theDPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and UN forcesfought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South Korea fromDPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An armisticewas signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a demilitarizedzone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South Korea achievedrapid economic growth with per capita income rising to roughly 14times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Yo'ng-sam became SouthKorea's first civilian president following 32 years of militaryrule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern democracy. InJune 2000, a historic first North-South summit took place betweenthe South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North's leader KIM JongIl.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Nationwidedemonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster ofPresident Askar AKAYEV, who had run the country since 1990.Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were wonoverwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIYEV. Currentconcerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,expansion of democracy and political freedoms, reduction ofcorruption, improving interethnic relations, and combating terrorism.
LaosModern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of LanXang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For threehundred years Lan Xang included large parts of present-day Cambodiaand Thailand, as well as all of what is now Laos. After centuries ofgradual decline, Laos came under the control of Siam (Thailand) fromthe late 18th century until the late 19th century when it becamepart of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1907 definedthe current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the Communist PathetLao took control of the government ending a six-century-old monarchyand instituting a strict socialist regime closely aligned toVietnam. A gradual return to private enterprise and theliberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986. Laos becamea member of ASEAN in 1997.
LatviaAfter a brief period of independence between the two WorldWars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LebanonFollowing the capture of Syria from the Ottoman Empire byAnglo-French forces in 1918, France received a mandate over thisterritory and separated out a region of Lebanon in 1920. Francegranted this area independence in 1943. A 15-year civil war(1976-1991) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since madeprogress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under theTa'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - theLebanese established a more equitable political system, particularlyby giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process whileinstitutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since theend of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections,most militias have been disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces(LAF) have extended authority over about two-thirds of the country.Hizballah, a radical Shi'a organization listed by the US StateDepartment as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, retains its weapons.During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'ifAccord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainlyeast of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Damascus justified itscontinued military presence in Lebanon by citing Beirut's requestsand the failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of theconstitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal fromsouthern Lebanon in May 2000, however, encouraged some Lebanesegroups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The passageof UNSCR 1559 in early October 2004 - a resolution calling for Syriato withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebaneseaffairs - further emboldened Lebanese groups opposed to Syria'spresence in Lebanon. The assassination of former Prime MinisterRafiq HARIRI and 20 others in February 2005 led to massivedemonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the CedarRevolution"). Syria finally withdrew the remainder of its militaryforces from Lebanon in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon heldits first legislative elections since the end of the civil war freeof foreign interference, handing a two-thirds majority to the blocled by Saad HARIRI, the slain prime minister's son.
LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruledfor the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, butreturned to Lesotho in 1992 and reinstated in 1995. Constitutionalgovernment was restored in 1993 after 7 years of military rule. In1998, violent protests and a military mutiny following a contentiouselection prompted a brief but bloody intervention by South Africanand Botswanan military forces under the aegis of the SouthernAfrican Development Community. Constitutional reforms have sincerestored political stability; peaceful parliamentary elections wereheld in 2002.
LiberiaSettlement of freed slaves from the US in what is todayLiberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able toestablish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, didmuch to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,social, and political gaps between the descendents of the originalsettlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a militarycoup led by Samuel DOE assassinated President William TOLBERT(1971-80) and ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule followed bya prolonged civil war, in which DOE himself was killed. In August2003, a comprehensive peace agreement ended 14 years of intermittentfighting and prompted the resignation of former president CharlesTAYLOR, who was exiled to Nigeria. After two years of rule by atransitional government, democratic elections in late 2005 broughtPresident Ellen JOHNSON-SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia(UNMIL), which maintains a strong presence throughout the country,completed a disarmament program for former combatants in late 2004,but the security situation is still volatile and the process ofrebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torncountry remains sluggish.
LibyaThe Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks from the area aroundTripoli in 1911 and did not reliquish their hold until 1943 whendefeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration andachieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own politicalsystem, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination ofsocialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and issupposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in aunique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himselfas a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds duringthe 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end ofMarxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engagedin military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gainaccess to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadianpolitics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Libyan support for terrorism appearedto have decreased after the imposition of sanctions. During the1990s, QADHAFI also began to rebuild his relationships with Europe.UN sanctions were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted inSeptember 2003 after Libya resolved the Lockerbie case. In December2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end itsprograms to develop weapons of mass destruction, and QADHAFI hasmade significant strides in normalizing relations with westernnations since then. He has received various Western European leadersas well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and madehis first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled toBrussels in April 2004. QADHAFI also finally resolved in 2004several outstanding cases against his government for terroristactivities in the 1980s by compensating the families of victims ofthe UTA and La Belle disco bombings.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forcedLiechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union withSwitzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remainedneutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economicgrowth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resultedin concerns about the use of the financial institutions for moneylaundering. Liechtenstein has, however, implemented newanti-money-laundering legislation and recently concluded a MutualLegal Assistance Treaty with the US.
LithuaniaIndependent between the two World Wars, Lithuania wasannexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became thefirst of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, butMoscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troopswithdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economyfor integration into Western European institutions; it joined bothNATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced inMacau, and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in allmatters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
MacedoniaMacedonia gained its independence peacefully fromYugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use ofwhat it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed internationalrecognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of the"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted a20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalizerelations, although differences over Macedonia's name remain. Theundetermined status of neighboring Kosovo, implementation of theFramework Agreement - which ended the 2001 ethnic Albanian armedinsurgency - and a weak economy continue to be challenges forMacedonia.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1896, but regained its independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections wereheld, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the countryheld multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitutionwhich came into full effect the following year. Current PresidentBingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt bythe previous president to amend the constitution to permit anotherterm, has struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor,who still leads their shared political party. MUTHARIKA'santi-corruption efforts have led to several high-level arrests andone prominent conviction. Increasing corruption, population growth,increasing pressure on agricultural lands, and the spread ofHIV/AIDS pose major problems for the country.
MalaysiaDuring the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britainestablished colonies and protectorates in the area of currentMalaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed theFederation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia wasformed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and theEast Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo joined the Federation. The first several years of thecountry's history were marred by Indonesian efforts to controlMalaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and Singapore's secession fromthe Federation in 1965. During the 22-year term of Prime MinisterMAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003), Malaysia was successful indiversifying its economy from dependence on exports of rawmaterials, to expansion in manufacturing, services, and tourism.
MaldivesThe Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. Since 1978, President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM- currently in his sixth term in office - has dominated the islands'political scene. Following riots in the capital Male in August 2004,the president and his government have pledged to embark upondemocratic reforms, including a more representative political systemand expanded political freedoms. Tourism and fishing are beingdeveloped on the archipelago.
MaliThe Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamedMali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a coupthat ushered in democratic government. President Alpha KONARE wonMali's first democratic presidential election in 1992 and wasreelected in 1997. In keeping with Mali's two-term constitutionallimit, KONARE stepped down in 2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE.
MaltaGreat Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, theisland has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, afinancial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EUmember in May 2004.
Marshall IslandsAfter almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missiledefense network.
MartiniqueThe French began to settle this island in 1635,overcoming resistance from the local Carib inhabitants. In 1660, thesuviving natives were rounded up and permanently expelled. Theisland has subsequently remained a French possession except forthree brief periods of foreign occupation.
MauritaniaIndependent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by thePolisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984.Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widelyseen as flawed, but October 2001 legislative and municipal electionswere generally free and open. A bloodless coup in August 2005deposed President TAYA and ushered in a military council headed byCol. Ely Ould Mohamed VALL, which declared it would remain in powerfor up to two years while it created conditions for genuinedemocratic institutions and organized elections. For now, however,Mauritania remains an autocratic state, and the country continues toexperience ethnic tensions among its black population and differentMoor (Arab-Berber) communities.
MauritiusAlthough known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in1505; it was subsequently held by the Dutch, French, and Britishbefore independence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy withregular free elections and a positive human rights record, thecountry has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earnedone of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather anddeclining sugar prices have slowed economic growth, leading to someprotests over standards of living in the Creole community.
MayotteMayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands ofthe Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelagothat voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and foregoindependence.
MexicoThe site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressiverecovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low realwages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunitiesfor the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southernstates. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the party ingovernment, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Vicente FOXof the National Action Party (PAN) was sworn in on 1 December 2000as the first chief executive elected in free and fair elections.
Micronesia, Federated States ofIn 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, andoverdependence on US aid.
Midway IslandsThe US took formal possession of the islands in 1867.The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through theislands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947,Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. TheUS naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one ofthe turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serveas a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are anational wildlife refuge. From 1996 to 2001 the refuge was open tothe public; it is now temporarily closed.
MoldovaFormerly part of Romania, Moldova was incorporated into theSoviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent fromthe USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovanterritory east of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majoritypopulation, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a"Transnistria" republic. The poorest nation in Europe, Moldovabecame the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist as itspresident in 2001.
MonacoThe Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-dayMonaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured controlin the late 13th century, and a principality was established in1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century witha railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gamblingfacilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreationcenter.
MongoliaThe Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when underChinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his deaththe empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, butthese broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventuallyretired to their original steppe homelands and later came underChinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Sovietbacking. A Communist regime was installed in 1924. The ex-CommunistMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990and 1992, but was defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC)in the 1996 parliamentary election. Since then, parliamentaryelections returned the MPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000 andproduced a coalition government in 2004.
MontenegroThe use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th centurywhen the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality ofZeta; over subsequent centuries it was able to maintain itsindependence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19thcenturies, Montenegro became a theocratic state ruled by a series ofbishop princes; in 1852, it was transformed into a secularprincipality. After World War I, Montenegro was part of the Kingdomof Yugoslavia, and, at the conclusion of World War II, it became aconstituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic ofYugoslavia. When the latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federatedwith Serbia, first as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after2003, in a looser union of Serbia and Montenegro. Following athree-year postponement, Montenegro held an independence referendumin the spring of 2006 under rules set by the EU. The vote forsevering ties with Serbia exceeded the 55% threshold, allowingMontenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June 2006.
MontserratEnglish and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settledon Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived threedecades later. The British and French fought for possesion of theisland for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed asa British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economywas converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the populationfled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcanothat began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activitysince, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.
MoroccoIn 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of NorthAfrica, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. Inthe 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under AhmadAL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated agolden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered ina half century of trade rivalry among European powers that sawMorocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed aprotectorate over the country. A protracted independence strugglewith France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized cityof Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the newcountry that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Saharaduring the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of theterritory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990sresulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, whichfirst met in 1997. Parliamentary elections were held for the secondtime in September 2002 and municipal elections were held inSeptember 2003.
MozambiqueAlmost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and aprolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The rulingFront for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party formallyabandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following yearprovided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. AUN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel MozambiqueNational Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in 1992. InDecember 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition as JoaquimCHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His newly electedsuccessor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, has promised to continue thesound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
NamibiaSouth Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that was soon namedNamibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to endits administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Namibia won its independence in 1990 and has been governedby SWAPO since. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president inNovember 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who ledthe country during its first 14 years of self rule.
NauruThe exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear, since theirlanguage does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island wasannexed by Germany in 1888 and its phosphate deposits began to bemined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium.Nauru was occupied by Australian forces in World War I andsubsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After the SecondWorld War - and a brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UNtrust territory. It achieved its independence in 1968 and joined theUN in 1999 as the world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa IslandThis uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annualscientific expeditions have continued.
NepalIn 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoistinsurgency, launched in 1996, has gained traction and is threateningto bring down the regime, especially after a negotiated cease-firebetween the Maoists and government forces broke down in August 2003.In 2001, the crown prince massacred ten members of the royal family,including the king and queen, and then took his own life. In October2002, the new king dismissed the prime minister and his cabinet for"incompetence" after they dissolved the parliament and weresubsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoinginsurgency. While stopping short of reestablishing parliament, theking in June 2004 reinstated the most recently elected primeminister who formed a four-party coalition government. Citingdissatisfaction with the government's lack of progress in addressingthe Maoist insurgency and corruption, the king in February 2005dissolved the government, declared a state of emergency, imprisonedparty leaders, and assumed power. The king's government subsequentlyreleased party leaders and officially ended the state of emergencyin May 2005, but the monarch retained absolute power until April2006. After nearly three weeks of mass protests organized by theseven-party opposition and the Maoists, the king allowed parliamentto reconvene on 28 April 2006.
NetherlandsThe Dutch United Provinces declared their independencefrom Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leadingseafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies aroundthe world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of theNetherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed aseparate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. Amodern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a largeexporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding memberof NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in theintroduction of the euro in 1999.
Netherlands AntillesOnce the center of the Caribbean slave trade,the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored inthe early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries toservice the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island ofSaint Martin is shared with France; its southern portion is namedSint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles; its northernportion is called Saint-Martin and is part of Guadeloupe (France).
New CaledoniaSettled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended inthe 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years willtransfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility fromFrance to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France toconduct as many as three referenda between 2013 and 2018, to decidewhether New Caledonia should assume full sovereignty andindependence.
New ZealandThe Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to QueenVictoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, theBritish began the first organized colonial settlement. A series ofland wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the nativepeoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense allianceslapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought toaddress longstanding Maori grievances.
NicaraguaThe Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanishcolony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence fromSpain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independentrepublic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the firsthalf of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the regionin subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGASaavedra. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy - hard hit by theearlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 - are slowly beingrebuilt.
NigerNiger became independent from France in 1960 and experiencedsingle-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU wasforced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, whichresulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infightingbrought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup byCol. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999 BARE was killed in a coup by militaryofficers who promptly restored democratic rule and held electionsthat brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.TANDJA was reelected in 2004. Niger is one of the poorest countriesin the world with minimal government services and insufficient fundsto develop its resource base. The largely agrarian andsubsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted by extendeddroughts common to the Sahel region of Africa.
NigeriaBritish influence and control over what would become Nigeriagrew through the 19th century. A series of constitutions after WorldWar II granted Nigeria greater autonomy; independence came in 1960.Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new constitution wasadopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition to civilian governmentwas completed. The president faces the daunting task of reforming apetroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered throughcorruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. Inaddition, the OBASANJO administration must defuse longstandingethnic and religious tensions, if it is to build a sound foundationfor economic growth and political stability. Although the April 2003elections were marred by some irregularities, Nigeria is currentlyexperiencing its longest period of civilian rule since independence.
NiueNiue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to about 2,166 in 2006), with substantial emigration to NewZealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk IslandTwo British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana IslandsUnder US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975, and came into force on 24March 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in1978.
NorwayTwo centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered offfollowing the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the nextseveral decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union withDenmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegiansresisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a newconstitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to let Norwaykeep its constitution in return for accepting the union under aSwedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led toa 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norwayremained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to itsshipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of WorldWar II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by Nazi Germany(1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became amember of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in thelate 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus ison containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planningfor the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda heldin 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
OmanThe inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered onIndian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, a newly establishedsultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendshiptreaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on Britishpolitical and military advisors increased, but it never became aBritish colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said al-Said overthrew therestrictive rule of his father; he has ruled as sultan ever since.His extensive modernization program has opened the country to theoutside world while preserving the longstanding close ties with theUK. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought tomaintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific OceanThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
PakistanThe separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslimstate of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largelyHindu India was never satisfactorily resolved, and India andPakistan fought two wars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over the disputedKashmir territory. A third war between these countries in 1971 - inwhich India capitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalisin Pakistani politics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming theseparate nation of Bangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weaponstesting, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998. The dispute overthe state of Kashmir is ongoing, but discussions andconfidence-building measures have led to decreased tensions since2002.
PalauAfter three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join theFederated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association withthe US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It enteredinto force the following year, when the islands gained independence.
Palmyra AtollThe Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, andthe US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed thearchipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did notinclude Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the NatureConservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a naturepreserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nauticalmile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish andWildlife Service and were designated a National Wildlife Refuge inJanuary 2001.
PanamaExplored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,Venezuela, and Ecuador - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. Whenthe latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. WithUS backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signeda treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and USsovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US ArmyCorps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement wassigned for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panamaby the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone andincreasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in thesubsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were transfered to Panama bythe end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitiousplan to expand the Canal. The project, which is to begin in 2007 andcould double the Canal's capacity, is expected to be completed in2014-15.
Papua New GuineaThe eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel IslandsThe Paracel Islands are surrounded by productivefishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopsseized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
ParaguayIn the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of itsterritory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. Inthe Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas werewon from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of AlfredoSTROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase inpolitical infighting in recent years, relatively free and regularpresidential elections have been held since then.
PeruAncient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andeancivilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire wascaptured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independencewas declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democraticleadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growthof a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in theeconomy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarianmeasures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mountingdissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. Acaretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of government -the first democratically elected president of Quechua ethnicity. Thepresidential election of 2006 saw the return of Alan GARCIA who,after a disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, returnedto the presidency with promises to improve social conditions.
PhilippinesThe Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony duringthe 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following theSpanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became aself-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected President andwas tasked with preparing the country for independence after a10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japaneseoccupation during WWII, and US forces and Filipinos fought togetherduring 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Philippinesattained their independence. The 20-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOSended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellion forced him intoexile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency washampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to fullpolitical stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS waselected president in 1992 and his administration was marked bygreater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the USclosed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA waselected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president,Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormyimpeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and widespreaddemonstrations led to his ouster. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to asix-year term in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threatsfrom armed communist insurgencies and from Muslim separatists in thesouth.
Pitcairn IslandsPitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toless than 50 today.
PolandPoland is an ancient nation that was conceived near themiddle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16thcentury. During the following century, the strengthening of thegentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series ofagreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austriapartitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained itsindependence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the SovietUnion in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state followingthe war, but its government was comparatively tolerant andprogressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of theindependent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became apolitical force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections andthe presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990senabled the country to transform its economy into one of the mostrobust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingeringchallenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidatedinfrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered amajor defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed toelect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the newleaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reducethe Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and theEuropean Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasinglyactive member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
PortugalFollowing its heyday as a world power during the 15th and16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with thedestruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during theNapoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next sixdecades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, aleft-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. Thefollowing year, Portugal granted independence to all of its Africancolonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC(now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto RicoPopulated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, theisland was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonialrule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated andAfrican slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as aresult of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internalself government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voterschose not to alter the existing political status.
QatarRuled by the al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa al-Thani, overthrew him in abloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstandingborder disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil and naturalgas revenues enable Qatar to have one of the highest per capitaincomes in the world.
ReunionThe Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration,supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and MalabarIndians, gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the SuezCanal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on theEast Indies trade route.
RomaniaThe principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuriesunder the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured theirautonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adoptedthe new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of itsindependence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I andacquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following theconflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers andparticipated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three yearslater, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. Thepost-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. Thedecades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressiveand draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown andexecuted in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the governmentuntil 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO inMarch of 2004 and completed accession talks with the European Union(EU) in December 2004; it is scheduled to accede to the EU in 2007.
RussiaFounded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, wasable to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15thcenturies) and to gradually conquer and absorb surroundingprincipalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynastycontinued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the BalticSea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19thcentury, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War I ledto widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire andto the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial household. The Communistsunder Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after and formed the USSR.The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53) strengthened communistrule and Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens ofmillions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in thefollowing decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV(1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika(restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but hisinitiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent republics.Since then, Russia has struggled in its efforts to build ademocratic political system and market economy to replace the strictsocial, political, and economic controls of the Communist period.While some progress has been made on the economic front, recentyears have seen a recentralization of power under Vladimir PUTIN andthe erosion of nascent democratic institutions. A determinedguerrilla conflict still plagues Russia in Chechnya and threatens todestabilize the North Caucasus region.