Arctic OceanThe Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's fiveoceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, andthe recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (USand Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are twoimportant seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
ArgentinaIn 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declaredtheir independence from Spain. Eventually, Bolivia, Paraguay, andUruguay went their own way, but the area that remained becameArgentina. The country's population and culture were subsequentlyheavily shaped by immigrants from throughout Europe, but mostparticularly Italy and Spain, which provided the largest percentageof newcomers from 1860 to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century,much of Argentina's history was dominated by periods of internalpolitical conflict between Federalists and Unitarians and betweencivilian and military factions. After World War II, an era ofPeronist authoritarian rule and interference in subsequentgovernments was followed by a military junta that took power in1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and has persisted despite numerouschallenges, the most formidable of which was a severe economiccrisis in 2001-02 that led to violent public protests and theresignation of several interim presidents. The economy has sincerecovered strongly since bottoming out in 2002. The governmentrenegotiated its public debt in 2005 and paid off its remainingobligations to the IMF in early 2006.
ArmeniaArmenia prides itself on being the first nation to formallyadopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empiresincluding the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. DuringWorld War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkeyinstituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harshpractices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but wasconquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remainpreoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim Azerbaijan overNagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned toSoviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijanbegan fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated afterboth countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held notonly Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijanproper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by theirinability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution.Turkey imposed an economic blockade on Armenia and closed the commonborder because of the Armenian occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh andsurrounding areas.
ArubaDiscovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquiredby the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated bythree main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed byprosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. Thelast decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became aseparate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in1990.
Ashmore and Cartier IslandsThese uninhabited islands came underAustralian authority in 1931; formal administration began two yearslater. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marinehabitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. CartierIsland, a former bombing range, is now a marine reserve.
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of theworld's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than theIndian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait ofGibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)are important strategic access waterways. The decision by theInternational Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 todelimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portionof the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
AustraliaAboriginal settlers arrived on the continent fromSoutheast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans beganexploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims weremade until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the nameof Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth ofAustralia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its naturalresources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturingindustries and to make a major contribution to the British effort inWorld Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformeditself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adoptedin the 1980s. Long-term concerns include pollution, particularlydepletion of the ozone layer, and management and conservation ofcoastal areas, especially the Great Barrier Reef.
AustriaOnce the center of power for the large Austro-HungarianEmpire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat inWorld War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 andsubsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria'sstatus remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbadeunification with Germany. A constitutional law that same yeardeclared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition forSoviet military withdrawal. The Soviet Union's collapse in 1991 andAustria's entry into the European Union in 1995 have altered themeaning of this neutrality. A prosperous, democratic country,Austria entered the EU Economic Monetary Union in 1999.
AzerbaijanAzerbaijan - a nation with a Turkic and majority-Muslimpopulation - was briefly independent from 1918 to 1920; it regainedits independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve itsconflict with Armenia over the Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh enclave(largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijan has lost 16% of itsterritory and must support some 528,000 internally displaced personsas a result of the conflict. Corruption is ubiquitous, and thepromise of widespread wealth from Azerbaijan's undeveloped petroleumresources remains largely unfulfilled.
Bahamas, TheLucayan Indians inhabited the islands when ChristopherColumbus first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands becamea colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international bankingand investment management. Because of its geography, the country isa major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularlyshipments to the US, and its territory is used for smuggling illegalmigrants into the US.
BahrainIn 1782, the Al Khalifa family captured Bahrain from thePersians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into aseries of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that madeBahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained itsindependence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central locationamong Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancingact in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing decliningoil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing andrefining and has transformed itself into an international bankingcenter. King HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa, after coming to power in1999, pushed economic and political reforms to improve relationswith the Shia community and Shia political societies participated in2006 parliamentary and municipal elections. Al Wifaq, the largestShia political society, won the largest number of seats in theelected chamber of the legislature. However, Shia discontent hasresurfaced in recent years with street demonstrations and occasionallow-level violence.
Baker IslandThe US took possession of the island in 1857, and itsguano deposits were mined by US and British companies during thesecond half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt atcolonization was begun on this island - as well as on nearby HowlandIsland - but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned.Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the USDepartment of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middleof the west coast.
BangladeshEuropeans began to set up trading posts in the area ofBangladesh in the 16th century; eventually the British came todominate the region and it became part of British India. In 1947,West Pakistan and East Bengal (both primarily Muslim) separated fromIndia (largely Hindu) and jointly became the new country ofPakistan. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1955, but the awkwardarrangement of a two-part country with its territorial unitsseparated by 1,600 km left the Bengalis marginalized anddissatisfied. East Pakistan seceded from its union with WestPakistan in 1971 and was renamed Bangladesh. About a third of thisextremely poor country floods annually during the monsoon rainyseason, hampering economic development.
BarbadosThe island was uninhabited when first settled by theBritish in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established onthe island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economyremained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses productionthrough most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of socialand political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to completeindependence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism andmanufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
Bassas da IndiaThis atoll is a volcanic rock surrounded by reefsand is awash at high tide. A French possession since 1897, it wasplaced under the administration of an Administrateur Superieur ofthe French Southern and Antarctic Lands.
BelarusAfter seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closerpolitical and economic ties to Russia than any of the other formerSoviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-stateunion on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economicintegration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out theaccord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since hiselection in July 1994 as the country's first president, AlexandrLUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarianmeans. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press,peaceful assembly, and religion continue.
BelgiumBelgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; itwas occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The countryprospered in the past half century as a modern, technologicallyadvanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensionsbetween the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and theFrench-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years toconstitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognitionand autonomy.
BelizeBelize was the site of several Mayan city states until theirdecline at the end of the first millennium A.D. The British andSpanish disputed the region in the 17th and 18th centuries; itformally became the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Territorialdisputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence ofBelize until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nationuntil 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. Currentconcerns include high unemployment, growing involvement in the SouthAmerican drug trade, and increasing urban crime.
BeninPresent day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent WestAfrican kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory becamea French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments endedin 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and theestablishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO aspresident, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africafrom a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power byelections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities werealleged. KEREKOU stepped down at the end of his second term in 2006and was succeeded by Thomas YAYI BONI, a political outsider andindependent.
BermudaBermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked Englishcolonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape NorthAmerican winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourismcontinues to be important to the island's economy, althoughinternational business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda hasdeveloped into a highly successful offshore financial center.Although a referendum on independence from the UK was soundlydefeated in 1995, the present government has reopened debate on theissue.
BhutanIn 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange forceding some border land to British India. Under British influence, amonarchy was set up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signedwhereby the British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internalaffairs and Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs.This role was assumed by independent India after 1947. Two yearslater, a formal Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutanannexed by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the countryreceived, and defined India's responsibilities in defense andforeign relations. A refugee issue of some 100,000 Bhutanese inNepal remains unresolved; 90% of the refugees are housed in sevenUnited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)camps. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK unveiled thegovernment's draft constitution - which would introduce majordemocratic reforms - and pledged to hold a national referendum forits approval. A referendum date has yet to be named.
BoliviaBolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent historyhas consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups.Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders havefaced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, andillegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians electedMovement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by thewidest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rulein 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country'straditional political class and empower the nation's poor majority.However, since taking office, his controversial strategies haveexacerbated racial and economic tensions between the Amerindianpopulations of the Andean west and the non-indigenous communities ofthe eastern lowlands.
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina's declaration ofsovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration ofindependence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after areferendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supportedby neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armedresistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines andjoining Serb-held areas to form a "Greater Serbia." In March 1994,Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions fromthree to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/CroatFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, inDayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement thatbrought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the finalagreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton PeaceAccords retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundariesand created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government chargedwith conducting foreign, diplomatic, and fiscal policy. Alsorecognized was a second tier of government comprised of two entitiesroughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). TheFederation and RS governments were charged with overseeing mostgovernment functions. The Office of the High Representative (OHR)was established to oversee the implementation of the civilianaspects of the agreement. In 1995-96, a NATO-led internationalpeacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia toimplement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFORwas succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR)whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. European Unionpeacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December 2004; theirmission is to maintain peace and stability throughout the country.EUFOR plans to phase out its mission beginning in 2007.
BotswanaFormerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswanaadopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades ofuninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, andsignificant capital investment have created one of the most dynamiceconomies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector dueto the country's conservation practices and extensive naturepreserves. Botswana has one of the world's highest known rates ofHIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive andcomprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.
Bouvet IslandThis uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirelycovered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discoveredin 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupiedthe island the previous year. In 1971, Bouvet Island and theadjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. Since1977, Norway has run an automated meteorological station on theisland.
BrazilFollowing three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazilbecame an independent nation in 1822 and a republic in 1889. By farthe largest and most populous country in South America, Brazilovercame more than half a century of military intervention in thegovernance of the country when in 1985 the military regimepeacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues topursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of itsinterior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool,it is today South America's leading economic power and a regionalleader. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressingproblem.
British Indian Ocean TerritoryEstablished as a territory of the UKin 1965, a number of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT)islands were transferred to the Seychelles when it attainedindependence in 1976. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of thesix main island groups comprising the Chagos Archipelago. Thelargest and most southerly of the islands, Diego Garcia, contains ajoint UK-US naval support facility. All of the remaining islands areuninhabited. Former agricultural workers, earlier residents in theislands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius but also to theSeychelles, between 1967 and 1973. In 2000, a British High Courtruling invalidated the local immigration order that had excludedthem from the archipelago, but upheld the special military status ofDiego Garcia.
British Virgin IslandsFirst inhabited by Arawak and later by CaribIndians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 andthen annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of theBritish colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they weregranted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the largerand more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar isthe legal currency.
BruneiThe Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15thand 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas ofnorthwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequentlyentered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royalsuccession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence wasachieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over sixcenturies. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gasfields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in thedeveloping world.
BulgariaThe Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with thelocal Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the firstBulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled withthe Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by theend of the 14th century the country was overrun by the OttomanTurks. Northern Bulgaria attained autonomy in 1878 and all ofBulgaria became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Havingfought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell withinthe Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held itsfirst multiparty election since World War II and began thecontentious process of moving toward political democracy and amarket economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,and crime. The country joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Burkina FasoBurkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achievedindependence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early1990s. Current President Blaise COMPAORE came to power in a 1987military coup and has won every election since then. Burkina Faso'shigh population density and limited natural resources result in pooreconomic prospects for the majority of its citizens. Recent unrestin Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana has hindered the ability ofseveral hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabe farm workers to findemployment in neighboring countries.
BurmaBritain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administeredas a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth wasattained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, andlater as political kingpin. Despite multiparty legislative electionsin 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party - the NationalLeague for Democracy (NLD) - winning a landslide victory, the rulingjunta refused to hand over power. NLD leader and Nobel Peace Prizerecipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was under house arrest from 1989 to1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned in May 2003 and subsequentlytransferred to house arrest, where she remains virtuallyincommunicado. In February 2006, the junta extended her detentionfor another year. Her supporters, as well as all those who promotedemocracy and improved human rights, are routinely harassed orjailed.
BurundiBurundi's first democratically elected president wasassassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsifactions. Over 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflict thatspanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands of Burundianswere internally displaced or became refugees in neighboringcountries. An internationally brokered power-sharing agreementbetween the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebels in 2003paved the way for a transition process that led to an integrateddefense force, established a new constitution in 2005, and elected amajority Hutu government in 2005. The new government, led byPresident Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokeredceasefire with the country's last rebel group in September of 2006but still faces many challenges.
CambodiaMost Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much ofSoutheast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13thcenturies. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)weakened the empire ushering in a long period of decline. The kingplaced the country under French protection in 1863. Cambodia becamepart of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation inWorld War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rougeforces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. Atleast 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. ADecember 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into thecountryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched offalmost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandateddemocratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respectedby the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restoresome semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factionalfighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a secondround of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of anothercoalition government and renewed political stability. The remainingelements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of theremaining Khmer Rouge leaders are awaiting trial by a UN-sponsoredtribunal for crimes against humanity. Elections in July 2003 wererelatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations betweencontending political parties before a coalition government wasformed.
CameroonThe former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroonmerged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generallyenjoyed stability, which has permitted the development ofagriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.Despite a slow movement toward democratic reform, political powerremains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy headed byPresident Paul BIYA.
CanadaA land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canadabecame a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to theBritish crown. Economically and technologically the nation hasdeveloped in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south acrossan unfortified border. Canada faces the political challenges ofmeeting public demands for quality improvements in health care andeducation services, as well as responding to separatist concerns inpredominantly francophone Quebec. Canada also aims to develop itsdiverse energy resources while maintaining its commitment to theenvironment.
Cape VerdeThe uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized bythe Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became atrading center for African slaves and later an important coaling andresupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Followingindependence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification withGuinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintaineduntil multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continuesto exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century causedsignificant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.
Cayman IslandsThe Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by theBritish during the 18th and 19th centuries, and were administered byJamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory withinthe Federation of the West Indies, but when the Federation dissolvedin 1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.
Central African RepublicThe former French colony of Ubangi-Sharibecame the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. Afterthree tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued byunrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led byGeneral Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groupsand the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested themunicipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March andMay of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. Thegovernment still does not fully control the countryside, wherepockets of lawlessness persist.
ChadChad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, enduredthree decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya beforea semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The governmenteventually drafted a democratic constitution, and held flawedpresidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion brokeout in northern Chad, which sporadically flares up despite severalpeace agreements between the government and the rebels. In 2005 newrebel groups emerged in western Sudan and have made probing attacksinto eastern Chad. Power remains in the hands of an ethnic minority.In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held a referendum successfullyremoving constitutional term limits.
ChilePrior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indiansinhabited central and southern Chile; the latter were not completelysubjugated by Spain until the early 1880s. Although Chile declaredits independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was notachieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-84), Chiledefeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern lands. Athree-year-old Marxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrownin 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET,who ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990.Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s,have contributed to steady growth and have helped secure thecountry's commitment to democratic and representative government.Chile has increasingly assumed regional and international leadershiproles befitting its status as a stable, democratic nation.
ChinaFor centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacingthe rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th andearly 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, majorfamines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World WarII, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocraticsocialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposedstrict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens ofmillions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping andother leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, livingstandards have improved dramatically and the room for personalchoice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.
Christmas IslandNamed in 1643 for the day of its discovery, theisland was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphatemining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty toAustralia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declareda national park.
Clipperton IslandThis isolated island was named for JohnCLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18thcentury. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which tookpossession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) IslandsThere are 27 coral islands in the group.Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but theyremained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.The population on the two inhabited islands generally is splitbetween the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays onHome Island.
ColombiaColombia was one of the three countries that emerged fromthe collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador andVenezuela). A 40-year conflict between government forces andanti-government insurgent groups and illegal paramilitary groups -both heavily funded by the drug trade - escalated during the 1990s.The insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary tooverthrow the government, and violence has been decreasing sinceabout 2002, but insurgents continue attacks against civilians andlarge swaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence.Paramilitary groups challenge the insurgents for control ofterritory and the drug trade. Most paramilitary members havedemobilized since 2002 in an ongoing peace process, although theircommitment to ceasing illicit activity is unclear. The ColombianGovernment has stepped up efforts to reassert government controlthroughout the country, and now has a presence in every one of itsmunicipalities. However, neighboring countries worry about theviolence spilling over their borders.
ComorosComoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups sincegaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands ofAnjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He pledged to resolve thesecessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the 2000Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a new constitutionand presidential elections took place in the spring of 2002. Eachisland in the archipelago elected its own president and a new unionpresident took office in May 2002.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but its early years were marred by political and social instability. Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU retained his position for 32 years through several subsequent sham elections, as well as through the use of brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion led by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged by an insurrection backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph KABILA, was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity. A transitional government was set up in July 2003; with Joseph KABILA as president and joined by four vice presidents representing the former government, former rebel groups, and the political opposition. The transitional government held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005 and elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and provincial legislatures in 2006. KABILA was inaugurated president in December 2006.
Congo, Republic of theUpon independence in 1960, the former Frenchregion of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quartercentury of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and ademocratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civilwar in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present ahumanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa'slargest petroleum producers, but with declining production it willneed to hope for new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earningsover the long term.
Cook IslandsNamed after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, theislands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965residents chose self-government in free association with NewZealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand andgovernment deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea IslandsScattered over more than three-quarters of amillion square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands weredeclared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabitedexcept for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy manyother islands and reefs.
Costa RicaAlthough explored by the Spanish early in the 16thcentury, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica provedunsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: diseasefrom mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlementof Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provincesthat jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years laterit joined the United Provinces of Central America, but thisfederation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Ricaproclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19thcentury, only two brief periods of violence have marred thecountry's democratic development. Although it still maintains alarge agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy toinclude strong technology and tourism industries. The standard ofliving is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread.
Cote d'IvoireClose ties to France since independence in 1960, thedevelopment of cocoa production for export, and foreign investmentmade Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropicalAfrican states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. InDecember 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire'shistory - overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEIblatantly rigged elections held in late 2000 and declared himselfthe winner. Popular protest forced him to step aside and broughtrunner-up Laurent GBAGBO into power. Ivorian dissidents anddisaffected members of the military launched a failed coup attemptin September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of thecountry, and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in aunity government under the auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis PeaceAccord. President GBAGBO and rebel forces resumed implementation ofthe peace accord in December 2003 after a three-month stalemate, butissues that sparked the civil war, such as land reform and groundsfor citizenship, remain unresolved. The central government has yetto exert control over the northern regions and tensions remain highbetween GBAGBO and opposition leaders. Several thousand French andWest African troops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to maintain peace andfacilitate the disarmament, demobilization, and rehabilitationprocess.
CroatiaThe lands that today comprise Croatia were part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, theCroats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 asYugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federalindependent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting beforeoccupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. UnderUN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia wasreturned to Croatia in 1998.
CubaThe native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline afterthe European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492and following its development as a Spanish colony during the nextseveral centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported towork the coffee and sugar plantations, and Havana became thelaunching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain fromMexico and Peru. Spanish rule, marked initially by neglect, becameincreasingly repressive, provoking an independence movement andoccasional rebellions that were harshly suppressed. It was USintervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 that finallyoverthrew Spanish rule. The subsequent Treaty of Paris establishedCuban independence, which was granted in 1902 after a three-yeartransition period. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959;his iron rule has held the regime together since then. Cuba'sCommunist revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughoutLatin America and Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Thecountry is now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in1990, following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties asthe result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migrationto the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, air flights, orvia the southwest border - is a continuing problem. The US CoastGuard intercepted 2,810 individuals attempting to cross the Straitsof Florida in fiscal year 2006.
CyprusA former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between theGreek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a headin December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadicintercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a GreekGovernment-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met bymilitary intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than athird of the island. In 1983, the Turkish-held area declared itselfthe "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," but it is recognized onlyby Turkey. The latest two-year round of UN-brokered talks - betweenthe leaders of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities toreach an agreement to reunite the divided island - ended when theGreek Cypriots rejected the UN settlement plan in an April 2004referendum. The entire island entered the EU on 1 May 2004, althoughthe EU acquis - the body of common rights and obligations - appliesonly to the areas under direct Republic of Cyprus control, and issuspended in the areas administered by Turkish Cypriots. However,individual Turkish Cypriots able to document their eligibility forRepublic of Cyprus citizenship legally enjoy the same rightsaccorded to other citizens of European Union states. Nicosiacontinues to oppose EU efforts to establish direct trade andeconomic links to north Cyprus as a way of encouraging the TurkishCypriot community to continue to support reunification.
Czech RepublicFollowing the First World War, the closely relatedCzechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged toform Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country'sleaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands ofother ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably theSudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere ofinfluence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended theefforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party ruleand create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrationsthe following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With thecollapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained itsfreedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two nationalcomponents, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republicjoined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.
DenmarkOnce the seat of Viking raiders and later a major northEuropean power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nationthat is participating in the general political and economicintegration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now theEU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elementsof the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the EuropeanEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, andissues concerning certain justice and home affairs.
DhekeliaBy terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that createdthe independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereigntyand jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the Dhekelia SovereignBase Area, which is also referred to as the Eastern Sovereign BaseArea.
DjiboutiThe French Territory of the Afars and the Issas becameDjibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarianone-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil warthat ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accordbetween Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. In 1999,Djibouti's first multi-party presidential elections resulted in theelection of Ismail Omar GUELLEH; he was re-elected to a second andfinal term in 2005. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographiclocation at the mouth of the Red Sea and serves as an importanttransshipment location for goods entering and leaving the eastAfrican highlands. The present leadership favors close ties toFrance, which maintains a significant military presence in thecountry, but is also developing stronger ties with the US. Djiboutihosts the only US military base in sub-Saharan Africa and is afront-line state in the global war on terrorism.
DominicaDominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to becolonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of thenative Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years afterindependence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt andtyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary EugeniaCHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, whoremained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians stillliving on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remainingin the eastern Caribbean.
Dominican RepublicExplored and claimed by Christopher COLUMBUS onhis first voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became aspringboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the Americanmainland. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the westernthird of the island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder ofthe island, by then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its ownindependence in 1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitiansfor 22 years; it finally attained independence as the DominicanRepublic in 1844. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned tothe Spanish Empire, but two years later they launched a war thatrestored independence in 1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostlynon-representative rule followed, capped by the dictatorship ofRafael Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-1961. Juan BOSCH was electedpresident in 1962, but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. In1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civilwar sparked by an uprising to restore BOSCH. In 1966, JoaquinBALAGUER defeated BOSCH in an election to become president. BALAGUERmaintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years wheninternational reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail histerm in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have beenheld in which opposition candidates have won the presidency. FormerPresident (1996-2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna won election to asecond term in 2004 following a constitutional amendment allowingpresidents to serve more than one term.
East TimorThe Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor inthe early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century. Skirmishingwith the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treatyin which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. ImperialJapan occupied East Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumedcolonial authority after the Japanese defeat in World War II. EastTimor declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later.It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province ofEast Timor. An unsuccessful campaign of pacification followed overthe next two decades, during which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000individuals lost their lives. On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervisedpopular referendum, an overwhelming majority of the people of EastTimor voted for independence from Indonesia. Between the referendumand the arrival of a multinational peacekeeping force in lateSeptember 1999, anti-independence Timorese militias - organized andsupported by the Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale,scorched-earth campaign of retribution. The militias killedapproximately 1,400 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people intoWest Timor as refugees. The majority of the country'sinfrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supplysystems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electricalgrid were destroyed. On 20 September 1999 the Australian-ledpeacekeeping troops of the International Force for East Timor(INTERFET) deployed to the country and brought the violence to anend. On 20 May 2002, East Timor was internationally recognized as anindependent state. In March of 2006, a military strike led toviolence and a near breakdown of law and order. Over 2,000Australian, New Zealand, and Portuguese police and peacekeepersdeployed to East Timor in late May. Although many of thepeacekeepers were replaced by UN police officers, 850 Australiansoldiers remained as of 1 January 2007.
EcuadorWhat is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empireuntil the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanishcolonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of NewGranada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence by 1819and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. When Quito withdrewin 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor of the "Republicof the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost territories ina series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border war with Peruthat flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. Although Ecuador marked 25years of civilian governance in 2004, the period has been marred bypolitical instability. Protests in Quito have contributed to themid-term ouster of Ecuador's last three democratically electedPresidents.
EgyptThe regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east andwest, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatcivilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a seriesof dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The lastnative dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn werereplaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs whointroduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and whoruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, theMamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after theconquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following thecompletion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an importantworld transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control ofEgypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the OttomanEmpire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. Thecompletion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant LakeNasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in theagriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (thelargest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence onthe Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. Thegovernment has struggled to ready the economy for the new millenniumthrough economic reform and massive investment in communications andphysical infrastructure.
El SalvadorEl Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 andfrom the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 whenthe government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided formilitary and political reforms.
Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of amainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smalleston the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGOhas ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996and 2002 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The presidentexerts almost total control over the political system and hasdiscouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experiencedrapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oilreserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa'sthird largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfallfrom oil production resulting in a massive increase in governmentrevenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in thepopulation's living standards.
EritreaEritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of afederation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 yearslater sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence wasoverwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-yearborder war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UNauspices in December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UN peacekeepingoperation that is monitoring a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone onthe border with Ethiopia. An international commission, organized toresolve the border dispute, posted its findings in 2002 but finaldemarcation is on hold due to Ethiopian objections.
EstoniaAfter centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russianrule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporatedinto the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US - itregained its freedom in 1991, with the collapse of the Soviet Union.Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free topromote economic and political ties with Western Europe. It joinedboth NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
EthiopiaUnique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopianmonarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with theexception of the 1936-41 Italian occupation during World War II. In1974, a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE(who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Tornby bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugeeproblems, the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition ofrebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's firstmultiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrealate in the 1990's ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. Finaldemarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due to Ethiopianobjections to an international commission's finding requiring it tosurrender territory considered sensitive to Ethiopia.
Europa IslandA French possession since 1897, the island is heavilywooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs aweather station.
European UnionFollowing the two devastating World Wars of the firsthalf of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lastingpeace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France andGermany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the FrenchForeign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of allEurope, the first step of which would be the integration of the coaland steel industries of Western Europe. The following year theEuropean Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when sixmembers, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and theNetherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris. The ECSC was so successfulthat within a few years the decision was made to integrate otherparts of the countries' economies. In 1957, the Treaties of Romecreated the European Economic Community (EEC) and the EuropeanAtomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member statesundertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming acommon market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communitieswere formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating asingle Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the EuropeanParliament. Members of the European Parliament were initiallyselected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first directelections were undertaken and they have been held every five yearssince. In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with theaddition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s sawfurther membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spainand Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basisfor further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, injudicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economicand monetary union - including a common currency. This furtherintegration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria,Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to15. A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EUstates except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002,citizens of the 12 euro-area countries began using the eurobanknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 -Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - and in 2007 Bulgaria andRomania joined, bringing the current membership to 27. In order toensure that the EU can continue to function efficiently with anexpanded membership, the Treaty of Nice (in force as of 1 February2003) set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EUinstitutions. An EU Constitutional Treaty, signed in Rome on 29October 2004, gave member states two years to ratify the documentbefore it was scheduled to take effect on 1 November 2006. Referendaheld in France and the Netherlands in May-June 2005 rejected theproposed constitution. This development set back the ratificationeffort and left the longer-term political integration of the EU inlimbo.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)Although first sighted by anEnglish navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occuruntil almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned overto Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subjectof a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, thenbetween Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to theislands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentinainvaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with anexpeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fiercefighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe IslandsThe population of the Faroe Islands is largelydescended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. Theislands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14thcentury. A high degree of self government was attained in 1948.
FijiFiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as aBritish colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived asdominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborersbrought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). Thecoups and a 1990 constitution that cemented native Melanesiancontrol of Fiji, led to heavy Indian emigration; the population lossresulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesiansbecame the majority. A new constitution enacted in 1997 was moreequitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in agovernment led by an Indo-Fijian, but a civilian-led coup in May2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil.Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with ademocratically elected government led by Prime Minister LaiseniaQARASE. Re-elected in May 2006, QARASE was ousted in a December 2006military coup led by Commodore Voreqe BAINIMARAMA, who initiallyappointed himself acting president. In January 2007, BAINIMARAMA wasappointed interim prime minister.
FinlandFinland was a province and then a grand duchy under Swedenfrom the 12th to the 19th centuries and an autonomous grand duchy ofRussia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917. DuringWorld War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom andresist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss ofterritory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made aremarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to adiversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now onpar with Western Europe. A member of the European Union since 1995,Finland was the only Nordic state to join the euro system at itsinitiation in January 1999.
FranceAlthough ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, Francesuffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rankas a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of themost modern countries in the world and is a leader among Europeannations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracyresistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentarydemocracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperationwith Germany have proved central to the economic integration ofEurope, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,the euro, in January 1999. At present, France is at the forefront ofefforts to develop the EU's military capabilities to supplementprogress toward an EU foreign policy.
French PolynesiaThe French annexed various Polynesian island groupsduring the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred upwidespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atollafter a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has beenconsiderably expanded.
French Southern and Antarctic Lands The Southern Lands consist of two archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanic islands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the native fauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in 1840.
GabonOnly two autocratic presidents have ruled Gabon sinceindependence from France in 1960. The current president of Gabon, ElHadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads of statein the world - has dominated the country's political scene foralmost four decades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multipartysystem and a new constitution in the early 1990s. However,allegations of electoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 andthe presidential elections in 2005 have exposed the weaknesses offormal political structures in Gabon. Gabon's political oppositionremains weak, divided, and financially dependent on the currentregime. Despite political conditions, a small population, abundantnatural resources, and considerable foreign support have helped makeGabon one of the more prosperous and stable African countries.
Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965.Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-livedfederation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the twonations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensionshave flared up intermittently since then. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH leda military coup in 1994 that overthrew the president and bannedpolitical activity. A new constitution and presidential elections in1996, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, completed anominal return to civilian rule. JAMMEH has been elected presidentin all subsequent elections, including most recently in late 2006.
Gaza StripThe Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on InterimSelf-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington inSeptember 1993, provided for a transitional period of Palestinianinterim self-government in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Atransfer of authority to the Palestinian Authority (PA) for the GazaStrip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and, inadditional areas of the West Bank, pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharmel-Sheikh Agreement. Direct negotiations to determine the permanentstatus of Gaza and the West Bank began in September 1999 after athree-year hiatus, but were derailed by a second intifadah thatbroke out a year later. In April 2003, the Quartet (US, EU, UN, andRussia) presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by2005 based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to twostates, Israel and a democratic Palestine. The proposed date for apermanent status agreement has been postponed indefinitely due toviolence and accusations that both sides have not followed throughon their commitments. Following Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT'sdeath in late 2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January2005. A month later, Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-SheikhCommitments in an effort to move the peace process forward. InSeptember 2005, Israel withdrew all its settlers and soldiers anddismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip and fournorthern West Bank settlements. Nonetheless, Israel controlsmaritime, airspace, and most access to the Gaza Strip. A November2005 PA-Israeli agreement authorized the reopening of the Rafahborder crossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt under joint PA andEgyptian control. In January 2006, the Islamic Resistance Movement,HAMAS, won control of the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC). Theinternational community has refused to accept the HAMAS-ledgovernment because it does not recognize Israel, will not renounceviolence, and refuses to honor previous peace agreements betweenIsrael and the PA. Since March 2006, President Abbas has had littlesuccess negotiating with HAMAS to present a political platformacceptable to the international community so as to lift the economicsiege on Palestinians. The PLC was unable to convene in late 2006 asa result of Israel's detention of many HAMAS PLC members andIsraeli-imposed travel restrictions on other PLC members.