GeorgiaThe region of present-day Georgia contained the ancientkingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Romaninfluence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became thestate religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turkswas followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that wascut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottomanand Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgiawas absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russianrevolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until theSoviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgiangovernment to manipulate national legislative elections in November2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation ofEduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his NationalMovement Party. Progress on market reforms and democratization hasbeen made in the years since independence, but this progress hasbeen complicated by two civil conflicts in the breakaway regions ofAbkhazia and South Ossetia. These two territories remain outside thecontrol of the central government and are ruled by de facto,unrecognized governments, supported by Russia. Russian-ledpeacekeeping operations continue in both regions. The GeorgianGovernment put forward a new peace initiative for the peacefulresolution of the status of South Ossetia in 2005.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation,Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, anddefense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany intwo devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century andleft the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US,UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of theCold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western FederalRepublic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economicand security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold Warallowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany hasexpended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wagesup to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EUcountries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstsub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. Along series of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitutionin 1981 and a ban on political parties. A new constitution,restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. JerryRAWLINGS, head of state since 1981, won presidential elections in1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from running for athird term in 2000. John KUFUOR, who defeated former Vice PresidentJohn ATTA-MILLS in a free and fair election, succeeded him.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly cededto Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the Britishgarrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendumheld in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a Britishdependency. Although the current 1969 Constitution for Gibraltarstates that the British government will never allow the people ofGibraltar to pass under the sovereignty of another state againsttheir freely and democratically expressed wishes, a series of talkswere held by the UK and Spain between 1997 and 2002 on establishingtemporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar. In response to thesetalks, the Gibraltarian Government set up a referendum in late 2002in which a majority of the citizens voted overwhelmingly against anysharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since the referendum, tripartitetalks have been held with Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and inSeptember 2006 a three-way agreement was signed. Spain agreed toallow airlines other than British to serve Gibraltar, to speed upcustoms procedures, and to add more telephone lines into Gibraltar.Britain agreed to pay pensions to Spaniards who had been employed inGibraltar before the border closed in 1969. Spain will be allowed toopen a cultural institute from which the Spanish flag will fly.
Glorioso IslandsA French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
GreeceGreece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupiedby Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil warbetween supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following thelatter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A militarydictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties andforced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentaryrepublic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981 Greece joined the EC(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the euro zone in 2001.
GreenlandGreenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century fromIceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, andGreenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joinedthe European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973, butwithdrew in 1985 over a dispute centered on stringent fishingquotas. Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danishparliament; the law went into effect the following year. Denmarkcontinues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs inconsultation with Greenland's Home Rule Government.
GrenadaCarib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered theisland in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugarestates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain tookthe island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main exportcrop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Fullindependence was attained in 1974 making Grenada one of the smallestindependent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada was seizedby a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later theisland was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbeannations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundredsof Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the followingyear and have continued since that time. Hurricane Ivan struckGrenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaThe Maya civilization flourished in Guatemala andsurrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almostthree centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independencein 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienceda variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-yearguerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreementformally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000people dead and had created some 1 million refugees.
GuernseyGuernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway inboth France and England. The islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a Britishcrown dependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UKGovernment is constitutionally responsible for defense andinternational representation.
GuineaGuinea has had only two presidents since gaining itsindependence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in1984 when the military seized the government after the death of thefirst president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democraticelections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the militarygovernment) was elected president of the civilian government. He wasreelected in 1998 and again in 2003. Unrest in Sierra Leone andLiberia has spilled over into Guinea on several occasions over thepast decade, threatening stability and creating humanitarianemergencies. In 2006, declining economic conditions prompted twomassive strikes that sparked urban unrest in many Guinean cities.
Guinea-BissauSince independence from Portugal in 1974,Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and militaryupheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritariandictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting apath to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime wascharacterized by the suppression of political opposition and thepurging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980sand early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was electedpresident in the country's first free elections. A military mutinyand resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster inMay 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned overpower to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was electedpresident in transparent polling. In September 2003, after onlythree years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in abloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in asinterim president. In 2005, former President VIEIRA was re-electedpresident pledging to pursue economic development and nationalreconciliation.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, andsince then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. After his death five years later, his wife, JaneJAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.
HaitiThe native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of theisland, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based onforestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiestin the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of Africanslaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the firstblack republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorestcountry in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued bypolitical violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellionled to the departure of President Jean-Betrand ARISTIDE in February2004, an interim government took office to organize new electionsunder the auspices of the United Nations Stabilization Mission inHaiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delays promptedrepeated postponements, but Haiti finally did inaugurate ademocratically elected president and parliament in May of 2006.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include religious freedom, international development, theMiddle East, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation,and the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change andglobalization. About 1 billion people worldwide profess the Catholicfaith.
HondurasOnce part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billionin damage.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In thisagreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, twosystems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not beimposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree ofautonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for thenext 50 years.
Howland IslandDiscovered by the US early in the 19th century, theisland was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and Britishcompanies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a daybeacon near the middle of the west coast that was partiallydestroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it isnamed in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island isadministered by the US Department of the Interior as a NationalWildlife Refuge.
HungaryHungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communistrule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announcedwithdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive militaryintervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called"Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 andthe EU in 2004.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesionare first-rate by world standards.
Iles EparsesThe Iles Eparses, or scattered islands, are a group offive French entities - Bassas da India, Europa Island, GloriosoIslands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island - which on 1 April1960 came under the authority of the Minister in charge of overseaspossessions. On 19 September 1960 by decree, the islands weretransferred to the charge of the Prefet of Reunion where theyremained until 3 January 2005 when they were transferred by anotherdecree to the Senior Administrator of the Territory of the FrenchSouthern and Antarctic Lands (TAAF).Bassas da India: A French possession since 1897, this atoll is avolcanic seamount surrounded by reefs and awash at high tide.Europa Island: A French possession since 1897, the island is heavilywooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs aweather station.Glorioso Islands: A French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.Juan de Nova Island: Named after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.Tromelin Island: First explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.
IndiaThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,dates back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwestinfiltrated onto Indian lands about 1500 B.C.; their merger with theearlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkish in the 12thwere followed by those of European traders, beginning in the late15th century. By the 19th century, Britain had assumed politicalcontrol of virtually all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in theBritish army played a vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolentresistance to British colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI andJawaharlal NEHRU brought independence in 1947. The subcontinent wasdivided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim stateof Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resultedin East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Despiteimpressive gains in economic investment and output, India facespressing problems such as the ongoing dispute with Pakistan overKashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation,extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious strife.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south latitude.
IndonesiaThe Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17thcentury; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but itrequired four years of intermittent negotiations, recurringhostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed torelinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagicstate and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Currentissues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism,consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism,implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, andholding the military and police accountable for human rightsviolations. Indonesia was the nation worst hit by the December 2004tsunami, which particularly affected Aceh province causing over100,000 deaths and over $4 billion in damage. An additionalearthquake in March 2005 created heavy destruction on the island ofNias. Reconstruction in these areas may take up to a decade. In2005, Indonesia reached a historic peace agreement with armedseparatists in Aceh, but it continues to face a low intensityseparatist guerilla movement in Papua.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah wasforced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established atheocratic system of government with ultimate political authoritynominally vested in a learned religious scholar. Iranian-USrelations have been strained since a group of Iranian studentsseized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisivewar with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and ledto clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces between1987-1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism forits activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remainssubject to US economic sanctions and export controls because of itscontinued involvement. Following the elections of a reformistpresident and Majlis in the late 1990s, attempts to foster politicalreform in response to popular dissatisfaction floundered asconservative politicians prevented reform measures from beingenacted, increased repressive measures, and made electoral gainsagainst reformers. Parliamentary elections in 2004 and the August2005 inauguration of a conservative stalwart as president, completedthe reconsolidation of conservative power in Iran's government.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof military strongmen ruled the country until 2003, the last wasSADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusiveand costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seizedKuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during theGulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation,the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons ofmass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UNverification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSCresolutions over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion ofIraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime.Coalition forces remain in Iraq under a UNSC mandate, helping toprovide security and to support the freely elected government. TheCoalition Provisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraqafter the invasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28June 2004 to the Iraqi Interim Government, which governed under theTransitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL,elections for a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) wereheld in Iraq on 30 January 2005. Following these elections, theIraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA wascharged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which wasapproved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An electionunder the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives(CoR) was held on 15 December 2005. The CoR approval in theselection of most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked thetransition from the ITG to Iraq's first constitutional government innearly a half-century.
IrelandCeltic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1948 Ireland withdrewfrom the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification ofIreland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. Apeace settlement for Northern Ireland is being implemented with somedifficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British governments developedand began working to implement the St. Andrew's Agreement, buildingon the Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.
Isle of ManPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crowndependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Governmentremains constitutionally responsible for defense and internationalrepresentation.
IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israeloccupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 aDeclaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords") guidingan interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorialand other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israelwithdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupiedsince 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the MadridConference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conductedbetween Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achievea permanent settlement. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working inconjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took thelead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflictby 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to twostates, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However, progress towarda permanent status agreement was undermined by Israeli-Palestinianviolence between September 2003 and February 2005. AnIsraeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in February2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestinian ceasefire,significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of 2005, Israelunilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuating settlers andits military. The election of HAMAS in January 2006 to head thePalestinian Legislative Council froze relations between Israel andthe Palestinian Authority. Ehud OLMERT became prime minister inMarch 2006; following an Israeli military operation in Gaza inJune-July 2006, he shelved plans to unilaterally evacuate from mostof the West Bank. The kidnapping of two Israeli soldiers by LebaneseHizballah led to a 34-day conflict in Lebanon in June-August 2006.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional statesof the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came toa close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established aFascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany ledto Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replacedthe monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was acharter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). Ithas been at the forefront of European economic and politicalunification, joining the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.Persistent problems include illegal immigration, organized crime,corruption, high unemployment, sluggish economic growth, and the lowincomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with theprosperous north.
JamaicaThe island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The nativeTaino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, weregradually exterminated, replaced by African slaves. England siezedthe island in 1655 and a plantation economy - based on sugar, cocoa,and coffee - was established. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freeda quarter million slaves, many of which became small farmers.Jamaica gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain, andin 1958 it joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming theFederation of the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence whenit withdrew from the federation in 1962. Deteriorating economicconditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangscreated by the major political parties evolved into powerfulorganized crime networks involved in international drug smugglingand money laundering. The cycle of violence, drugs, and poverty hasserved to impoverish large sectors of the populace. Nonetheless,many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contributesubstantially to the economy.
Jan MayenThis desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutchwhaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlierclaims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal huntersand trappers over the following centuries, the island came underNorwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VIIToppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is thenorthernmost active volcano on earth.
JapanIn 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) usheredin a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order tosecure its power. For 250 years this policy enabled Japan to enjoystability and a flowering of its indigenous culture. Following theTreaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened its ports andbegan to intensively modernize and industrialize. During the late19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a regional power thatwas able to defeat the forces of both China and Russia. It occupiedKorea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island. In 1931-32Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched a full-scaleinvasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 - triggeringAmerica's entry into World War II - and soon occupied much of Eastand Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II, Japanrecovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of the US.While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity,actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats,and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdownstarting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedentedgrowth, but Japan still remains a major economic power, both in Asiaand globally.
Jarvis IslandFirst discovered by the British in 1821, theuninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the islandin 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. TheUS occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after WorldWar II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refugeadministered by the US Department of the Interior.
JerseyJersey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in bothFrance and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crowndependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government isconstitutionally responsible for defense and internationalrepresentation.
Johnston AtollBoth the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexedJohnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guanodeposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands weredesignated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atollin 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948.The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storageand disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is nowcomplete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed by May2005.
JordanFollowing World War I and the dissolution of the OttomanEmpire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan fromPalestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independencein 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country'slong-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, hesuccessfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a largeinternal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coupattempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary elections andgradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a peace treatywith Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the son of King HUSSEIN, assumed thethrone following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, hehas consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economicreform program. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in2000, and began to participate in the European Free TradeAssociation in 2001. After a two-year delay, parliamentary andmunicipal elections took place in the summer of 2003. The primeminister appointed in November 2005 stated the government wouldfocus on political reforms, improving conditions for the poor, andfighting corruption.
Juan de Nova IslandNamed after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.
KazakhstanNative Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused manyof these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing acohesive national identity; expanding the development of thecountry's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, andmining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring statesand other foreign powers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, whenPresident Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutionalsuccession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) madeitself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal andexternal pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. Theethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from powerin elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence andfraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of theKenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 followingfair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidateof the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National RainbowCoalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumedthe presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruptionplatform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over theconstitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANUto form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popularreferendum in November 2005.
Kingman ReefThe US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoonserved as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoaflights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants onthe reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundantand diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surroundingthe reef out to 12 nm were designated a US National Wildlife Refuge.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, North An independent kingdom for much of its long history, Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 following the Russo-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the entire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with the northern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist domination. After failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, North Korea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il-so'ng, adopted a policy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against excessive Soviet or Communist Chinese influence. The DPRK demonized the US as the ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in 1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied heavily on international aid to feed its population while continuing to expend resources to maintain an army of 1 million. North Korea's long-range missile development, as well as its nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons programs and massive conventional armed forces, are of major concern to the international community. In December 2002, following revelations that the DPRK was pursuing a nuclear weapons program based on enriched uranium in violation of a 1994 agreement with the US to freeze and ultimately dismantle its existing plutonium-based program, North Korea expelled monitors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2003, it declared its withdrawal from the international Non-Proliferation Treaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it had completed the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extract weapons-grade plutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent." Since August 2003, North Korea has participated in the Six-Party Talks with China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the US designed to resolve the stalemate over its nuclear programs. The fourth round of Six-Party Talks were held in Beijing during July-September 2005. All parties agreed to a Joint Statement of Principles in which, among other things, the six parties unanimously reaffirmed the goal of verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula in a peaceful manner. In the Joint Statement, the DPRK committed to "abandoning all nuclear weapons and existing nuclear programs and returning, at an early date, to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to IAEA safeguards." The Joint Statement also commits the US and other parties to certain actions as the DPRK denuclearizes. The US offered a security assurance, specifying that it had no nuclear weapons on ROK territory and no intention to attack or invade the DPRK with nuclear or other weapons. The US and DPRK will take steps to normalize relations, subject to the DPRK's implementing its denuclearization pledge and resolving other longstanding concerns. While the Joint Statement provides a vision of the end-point of the Six-Party process, much work lies ahead to implement the elements of the agreement.
Korea, SouthAn independent Korean state or collection of states hasexisted almost continuously for several millennia. Between itsinitial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessorKorean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a singleindependent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it wasannexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence followingJapan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of theKorean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed inthe north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops andUN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend SouthKorea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. Anarmistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along ademilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, SouthKorea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income risingto roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Yo'ng-sambecame South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years ofmilitary rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning moderndemocracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit tookplace between the South's President KIM Tae-chung and the North'sleader KIM Jong Il.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled sincereturning to power in 1991, and reestablished an elected legislaturethat in recent years has become increasingly assertive.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Nationwidedemonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster ofPresident Askar AKAYEV, who had run the country since 1990.Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were wonoverwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIYEV. Thepolitical opposition organized demonstrations in Bishkek in inApril, May, and November 2006 resulting in the adoption of newconstitution that transfered some of the president's powers toparliament and the government. Current concerns include:privatization of state-owned enterprises, expansion of democracy andpolitical freedoms, reduction of corruption, improving interethnicrelations, and combating terrorism.
LaosModern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of LanXang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For threehundred years Lan Xang included large parts of present-day Cambodiaand Thailand, as well as all of what is now Laos. After centuries ofgradual decline, Laos came under the control of Siam (Thailand) fromthe late 18th century until the late 19th century when it becamepart of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1907 definedthe current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the Communist PathetLao took control of the government ending a six-century-old monarchyand instituting a strict socialist regime closely aligned toVietnam. A gradual return to private enterprise and theliberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986. Laos becamea member of ASEAN in 1997.
LatviaAfter a brief period of independence between the two WorldWars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action neverrecognized by the US and many other countries. It reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LebanonFollowing the capture of Syria from the Ottoman Empire byAnglo-French forces in 1918, France received a mandate over thisterritory and separated out a region of Lebanon in 1920. Francegranted this area independence in 1943. A 15-year civil war(1976-1991) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since madeprogress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under theTa'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - theLebanese established a more equitable political system, particularlyby giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process whileinstitutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since theend of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections,most militias have been disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces(LAF) have extended authority over about two-thirds of the country.Hizballah, a radical Shi'a organization listed by the US StateDepartment as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, retains its weapons.During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'ifAccord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainlyeast of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Damascus justified itscontinued military presence in Lebanon by citing Beirut's requestsand the failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of theconstitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal fromsouthern Lebanon in May 2000, however, encouraged some Lebanesegroups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The passageof UNSCR 1559 in early October 2004 - a resolution calling for Syriato withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebaneseaffairs - further emboldened Lebanese groups opposed to Syria'spresence in Lebanon. The assassination of former Prime MinisterRafiq HARIRI and 20 others in February 2005 led to massivedemonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the CedarRevolution"). Syria finally withdrew the remainder of its militaryforces from Lebanon in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon heldits first legislative elections since the end of the civil war freeof foreign interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by SaadHARIRI, the slain prime minister's son. Hizballah kidnapped twoIsraeli soldiers in July 2006 leading to a 34-day conflict withIsrael. UNSCR 1701, which passed in August 2006, called for thedisarmament of Hizballah.
LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruledfor the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, butreturned to Lesotho in 1992 and reinstated in 1995. Constitutionalgovernment was restored in 1993 after 7 years of military rule. In1998, violent protests and a military mutiny following a contentiouselection prompted a brief but bloody intervention by South Africanand Botswanan military forces under the aegis of the SouthernAfrican Development Community. Constitutional reforms have sincerestored political stability; peaceful parliamentary elections wereheld in 2002.
LiberiaSettlement of freed slaves from the US in what is todayLiberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able toestablish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, didmuch to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,social, and political gaps between the descendents of the originalsettlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a militarycoup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. InDecember 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE'sregime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself waskilled. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for electionsthat brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. AnAugust 2003, peace agreement ended the war and prompted theresignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who was exiled toNigeria. After two years of rule by a transitional government,democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSONSIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), which maintainsa strong presence throughout the country, completed a disarmamentprogram for former combatants in late 2004, but the securitysituation is still volatile and the process of rebuilding the socialand economic structure of this war-torn country remains sluggish.
LibyaThe Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks from the area aroundTripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 whendefeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration andachieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own politicalsystem, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination ofsocialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and issupposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in aunique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himselfas a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds duringthe 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end ofMarxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engagedin military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gainaccess to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadianpolitics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Libyan support for terrorism appearedto have decreased after the imposition of sanctions. During the1990s, QADHAFI also began to rebuild his relationships with Europe.UN sanctions were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted inSeptember 2003 after Libya resolved the Lockerbie case. In December2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end itsprograms to develop weapons of mass destruction, and QADHAFI hasmade significant strides in normalizing relations with westernnations since then. He has received various Western European leadersas well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and madehis first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled toBrussels in April 2004. QADHAFI also resolved in 2004 some of theoutstanding cases against his government for terrorist activities inthe 1980s by compensating some families of victims of the Pan Am103, French airliner UTA, and La Belle disco bombings. The USresumed full diplomatic relations with Libya in May 2006 andrescinded Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism inJune.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forcedLiechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union withSwitzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remainedneutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economicgrowth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight resulted inconcerns about the use of financial institutions for moneylaundering. However, Liechtenstein implemented anti-money-launderinglegislation over the past several years and a Mutual LegalAssistance Treaty with the US went into effect in 2003.
LithuaniaIndependent between the two World Wars, Lithuania wasannexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US.On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first of the Soviet republicsto declare its independence, but Moscow did not recognize thisproclamation until September of 1991 (following the abortive coup inMoscow). The last Russian troops withdrew in 1993. Lithuaniasubsequently restructured its economy for integration into WesternEuropean institutions; it joined both NATO and the EU in the springof 2004.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced inMacau, and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in allmatters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
MacedoniaMacedonia gained its independence peacefully fromYugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use ofwhat it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed internationalrecognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifteda 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalizerelations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by itsconstitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiationscontinue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economicinequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won thesupport of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and ledto the internationally-brokered Framework Agreement, which ended thefighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the rights ofminorities. The undetermined status of neighboring Kosovo,implementation of the Framework Agreement, and a weak economycontinue to be challenges for Macedonia.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1896, but regained its independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections wereheld, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the countryheld multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitutionwhich came into full effect the following year. Current PresidentBingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt bythe previous president to amend the constitution to permit anotherterm, has struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor,who still leads their shared political party. MUTHARIKA'santi-corruption efforts have led to several high-level arrests andone prominent conviction. Increasing corruption, population growth,increasing pressure on agricultural lands, and the spread ofHIV/AIDS pose major problems for the country.
MalaysiaDuring the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britainestablished colonies and protectorates in the area of currentMalaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed theFederation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia wasformed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and theEast Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo joined the Federation. The first several years of thecountry's history were marred by Indonesian efforts to controlMalaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and Singapore's secession fromthe Federation in 1965. During the 22-year term of Prime MinisterMAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003), Malaysia was successful indiversifying its economy from dependence on exports of rawmaterials, to expansion in manufacturing, services, and tourism.
MaldivesThe Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. Since 1978, President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM- currently in his sixth term in office - has dominated the islands'political scene. Following riots in the capital Male in August 2004,the president and his government pledged to embark upon democraticreforms, including a more representative political system andexpanded political freedoms. Progress has been slow, however, andmany promised reforms have been delayed indefinitely. Tourism andfishing are being developed on the archipelago.
MaliThe Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamedMali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a coupthat ushered in democratic government. President Alpha KONARE wonMali's first democratic presidential election in 1992 and wasreelected in 1997. In keeping with Mali's two-term constitutionallimit, KONARE stepped down in 2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE.
MaltaGreat Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, theisland has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, afinancial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EUmember in May 2004.
Marshall IslandsAfter almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missiledefense network.
MauritaniaIndependent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by thePolisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984.Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widelyseen as flawed, but October 2001 legislative and municipal electionswere generally free and open. A bloodless coup in August 2005deposed President TAYA and ushered in a military council headed byCol. Ely Ould Mohamed VALL, which declared it would remain in powerfor up to two years while it created conditions for genuinedemocratic institutions and organized elections. Accordingly,parliamentary elections were held in December of 2006 and senatorialand presidential elections will follow (January and March 2007respectively). The newly-elected legislature is expected to assumepower following the inauguration of the new president. For now,however, Mauritania remains an autocratic state, and the countrycontinues to experience ethnic tensions among its black populationand different Moor (Arab-Berber) communities.
MauritiusAlthough known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in1505; it was subsequently held by the Dutch, French, and Britishbefore independence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy withregular free elections and a positive human rights record, thecountry has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earnedone of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather anddeclining sugar prices have slowed economic growth, leading to someprotests over standards of living in the Creole community.
MayotteMayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands ofthe Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelagothat voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and foregoindependence.
MexicoThe site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressiverecovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low realwages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunitiesfor the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southernstates. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the party ingovernment, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Vicente FOXof the National Action Party (PAN) was sworn in on 1 December 2000as the first chief executive elected in free and fair elections.
Micronesia, Federated States ofIn 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, andoverdependence on US aid.
Midway IslandsThe US took formal possession of the islands in 1867.The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through theislands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947,Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. TheUS naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one ofthe turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serveas a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are anational wildlife refuge. From 1996 to 2001 the refuge was open tothe public; it is now temporarily closed.
MoldovaFormerly part of Romania, Moldova was incorporated into theSoviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent fromthe USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovanterritory east of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majoritypopulation, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a"Transnistria" republic. The poorest nation in Europe, Moldovabecame the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist as itspresident in 2001.
MonacoThe Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-dayMonaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured controlin the late 13th century, and a principality was established in1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century witha railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gamblingfacilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreationcenter.
MongoliaThe Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when underChinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his deaththe empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, butthese broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventuallyretired to their original steppe homelands and later came underChinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Sovietbacking. A Communist regime was installed in 1924. The ex-CommunistMongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990and 1992, but was defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC)in the 1996 parliamentary election. Since then, parliamentaryelections returned the MPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000 andproduced a coalition government in 2004.
MontenegroThe use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th centurywhen the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality ofZeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain itsindependence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19thcenturies, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishopprinces; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituentrepublic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When thelatter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first asthe Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looserunion of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked itsright under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro tohold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote forsevering ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June2006.
MontserratEnglish and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settledon Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived threedecades later. The British and French fought for possesion of theisland for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed asa British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economywas converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the populationfled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcanothat began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activitysince, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.