Arctic OceanThe Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's fiveoceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, andthe recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (USand Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are twoimportant seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
ArgentinaIn 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declaredtheir independence from Spain. After Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguaywent their separate ways, the area that remained became Argentina.The country's population and culture were heavily shaped byimmigrants from throughout Europe, but most particularly Italy andSpain, which provided the largest percentage of newcomers from 1860to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century, much of Argentina'shistory was dominated by periods of internal political conflictbetween Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and militaryfactions. After World War II, an era of Peronist authoritarian ruleand interference in subsequent governments was followed by amilitary junta that took power in 1976. Democracy returned in 1983,and has persisted despite numerous challenges, the most formidableof which was a severe economic crisis in 2001-02 that led to violentpublic protests and the resignation of several interim presidents.The economy has recovered strongly since bottoming out in 2002.
ArmeniaArmenia prides itself on being the first nation to formallyadopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empiresincluding the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. DuringWorld War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkeyinstituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harshpractices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but wasconquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remainpreoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim Azerbaijan overNagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned toSoviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijanbegan fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated afterboth countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held notonly Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijanproper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by theirinability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution.Turkey imposed an economic blockade on Armenia and closed the commonborder because of the Armenian separatists' control ofNagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas.
ArubaDiscovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquiredby the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated bythree main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed byprosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. Thelast decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became aseparate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in1990.
Ashmore and Cartier IslandsThese uninhabited islands came underAustralian authority in 1931; formal administration began two yearslater. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marinehabitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. CartierIsland, a former bombing range, became a marine reserve in 2000.
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of theworld's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than theIndian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait ofGibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)are important strategic access waterways. The decision by theInternational Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 todelimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portionof the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
AustraliaAboriginal settlers arrived on the continent fromSoutheast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans beganexploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims weremade until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the nameof Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth ofAustralia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its naturalresources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturingindustries and to make a major contribution to the British effort inWorld Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformeditself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adoptedin the 1980s. Long-term concerns include climate-change issues suchas the depletion of the ozone layer and more frequent droughts, andmanagement and conservation of coastal areas, especially the GreatBarrier Reef.
AustriaOnce the center of power for the large Austro-HungarianEmpire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat inWorld War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 andsubsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria'sstatus remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbadeunification with Germany. A constitutional law that same yeardeclared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition forSoviet military withdrawal. The Soviet Union's collapse in 1991 andAustria's entry into the European Union in 1995 have altered themeaning of this neutrality. A prosperous, democratic country,Austria entered the EU Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.
AzerbaijanAzerbaijan - a nation with a majority-Turkic andmajority-Muslim population - was briefly independent from 1918 to1920; it regained its independence after the collapse of the SovietUnion in 1991. Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet toresolve its conflict with Armenia over the AzerbaijaniNagorno-Karabakh enclave (largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijanhas lost 16% of its territory and must support some 600,000internally displaced persons as a result of the conflict. Corruptionis ubiquitous, and the government has been accused ofauthoritarianism. Although the poverty rate has been reduced inrecent years, the promise of widespread wealth from development ofAzerbaijan's energy sector remains largely unfulfilled.
Bahamas, TheLucayan Indians inhabited the islands when ChristopherCOLUMBUS first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands becamea colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international bankingand investment management. Because of its geography, the country isa major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularlyshipments to the US and Europe, and its territory is used forsmuggling illegal migrants into the US.
BahrainIn 1783, the al-Khalifa family captured Bahrain from thePersians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into aseries of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that madeBahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained itsindependence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central locationamong Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancingact in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing decliningoil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing andrefining and has transformed itself into an international bankingcenter. King HAMAD bin Isa al-Khalifa, after coming to power in1999, pushed economic and political reforms to improve relationswith the Shia community. Shia political societies participated in2006 parliamentary and municipal elections. Al Wifaq, the largestShia political society, won the largest number of seats in theelected chamber of the legislature. However, Shi'a discontent hasresurfaced in recent years with street demonstrations and occasionallow-level violence.
BangladeshEuropeans began to set up trading posts in the area ofBangladesh in the 16th century; eventually the British came todominate the region and it became part of British India. In 1947,West Pakistan and East Bengal (both primarily Muslim) separated fromIndia (largely Hindu) and jointly became the new country ofPakistan. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1955, but the awkwardarrangement of a two-part country with its territorial unitsseparated by 1,600 km left the Bengalis marginalized anddissatisfied. East Pakistan seceded from its union with WestPakistan in 1971 and was renamed Bangladesh. A military-backedcaretaker regime suspended planned parliamentary elections inJanuary 2007 in an effort to reform the political system and rootout corruption; the regime has pledged new democratic elections bythe end of 2008. About a third of this extremely poor country floodsannually during the monsoon rainy season, hampering economicdevelopment.
BarbadosThe island was uninhabited when first settled by theBritish in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established onthe island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economyremained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses productionthrough most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of socialand political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to completeindependence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism andmanufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
BelarusAfter seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closerpolitical and economic ties to Russia than any of the other formerSoviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-stateunion on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economicintegration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out theaccord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since hiselection in July 1994 as the country's first president, AlexandrLUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarianmeans. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press,peaceful assembly, and religion continue.
BelgiumBelgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; itwas occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The countryprospered in the past half century as a modern, technologicallyadvanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensionsbetween the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and theFrench-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years toconstitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognitionand autonomy.
BelizeBelize was the site of several Mayan city states until theirdecline at the end of the first millennium A.D. The British andSpanish disputed the region in the 17th and 18th centuries; itformally became the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Territorialdisputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence ofBelize until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nationuntil 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. Currentconcerns include an unsustainable foreign debt, high unemployment,growing involvement in the South American drug trade, growing urbancrime, and increasing incidences of HIV/AIDS.
BeninPresent day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent WestAfrican kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory becamea French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments endedin 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and theestablishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO aspresident, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africafrom a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power byelections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities werealleged. KEREKOU stepped down at the end of his second term in 2006and was succeeded by Thomas YAYI Boni, a political outsider andindependent. YAYI has begun a high profile fight against corruptionand has strongly promoted accelerating Benin's economic growth.
BermudaBermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked Englishcolonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape NorthAmerican winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourismcontinues to be important to the island's economy, althoughinternational business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda hasdeveloped into a highly successful offshore financial center.Although a referendum on independence from the UK was soundlydefeated in 1995, the present government has reopened debate on theissue.
BhutanIn 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange forceding some border land to British India. Under British influence, amonarchy was set up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signedwhereby the British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internalaffairs and Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs.This role was assumed by independent India after 1947. Two yearslater, a formal Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutanannexed by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the countryreceived, and defined India's responsibilities in defense andforeign relations. A refugee issue of over 100,000 Bhutanese inNepal remains unresolved; 90% of the refugees are housed in sevenUnited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)camps. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK unveiled thegovernment's draft constitution - which would introduce majordemocratic reforms - and pledged to hold a national referendum forits approval. In December 2006, the King abdicated the throne to hisson, Jigme Khesar Namgyel WANGCHUCK, in order to give him experienceas head of state before the democratic transition. In early 2007,India and Bhutan renegotiated their treaty to allow Bhutan greaterautonomy in conducting its foreign policy, although Thimphucontinues to coordinate policy decisions in this area with NewDelhi. In July 2007, seven ministers of Bhutan's ten-member cabinetresigned to join the political process, and the cabinet acted as acaretaker regime until democratic elections for seats to thecountry's first parliament were completed in March 2008. The kingratified the country's first constitution in July 2008.
BoliviaBolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent historyhas consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups.Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders havefaced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, andillegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians electedMovement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by thewidest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rulein 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country'straditional political class and empower the nation's poor majority.However, since taking office, his controversial strategies haveexacerbated racial and economic tensions between the Amerindianpopulations of the Andean west and the non-indigenous communities ofthe eastern lowlands.
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina's declaration ofsovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration ofindependence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after areferendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supportedby neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armedresistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines andjoining Serb-held areas to form a "Greater Serbia." In March 1994,Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions fromthree to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/CroatFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, inDayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement thatbrought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the finalagreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton PeaceAccords retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundariesand created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government chargedwith conducting foreign, diplomatic, and fiscal policy. Alsorecognized was a second tier of government comprised of two entitiesroughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). TheFederation and RS governments were charged with overseeing mostgovernment functions. The Office of the High Representative (OHR)was established to oversee the implementation of the civilianaspects of the agreement. In 1995-96, a NATO-led internationalpeacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia toimplement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFORwas succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR)whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. European Unionpeacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December 2004; theirmission is to maintain peace and stability throughout the country.EUFOR's mission changed from peacekeeping to civil policing inOctober 2007, with its presence reduced from nearly 7,000 to 2,500troops.
BotswanaFormerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswanaadopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades ofuninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, andsignificant capital investment have created one of the most dynamiceconomies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector dueto the country's conservation practices and extensive naturepreserves. Botswana has one of the world's highest known rates ofHIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive andcomprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.
Bouvet IslandThis uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirelycovered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discoveredin 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupiedthe island the previous year. In 1971, Norway designated BouvetIsland and the adjacent territorial waters a nature reserve. Since1977, it has run an automated meteorological station on the island.
BrazilFollowing three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazilbecame an independent nation in 1822 and a republic in 1889. By farthe largest and most populous country in South America, Brazilovercame more than half a century of military intervention in thegovernance of the country when in 1985 the military regimepeacefully ceded power to civilian rulers. Brazil continues topursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of itsinterior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool,it is today South America's leading economic power and a regionalleader. Highly unequal income distribution and crime remain pressingproblems.
British Indian Ocean TerritoryFormerly administered as part of theBritish Crown Colony of Mauritius, the British Indian OceanTerritory (BIOT) was established as an overseas territory of the UKin 1965. A number of the islands of the territory were latertransferred to the Seychelles when it attained independence in 1976.Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groupscomprising the Chagos Archipelago. The largest and most southerly ofthe islands, Diego Garcia, contains a joint UK-US naval supportfacility. All of the remaining islands are uninhabited. Between 1967and 1973, former agricultural workers, earlier residents in theislands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius, but also to theSeychelles. Negotiations between 1971 and 1982 resulted in theestablishment of a trust fund by the British Government ascompensation for the displaced islanders, known as Chagossians.Beginning in 1998, the islanders pursued a series of lawsuitsagainst the British Government seeking further compensation and theright to return to the territory. In 2006 and 2007, British courtrulings invalidated the immigration policies contained in the 2004BIOT Constitution Order that had excluded the islanders from thearchipelago, but upheld the special military status of Diego Garcia.In 2008, the House of Lords, as the final court of appeal in the UK,ruled in favor of the British Goverment by overturning the lowercourt rulings and finding no right of return on the part of theChagossians.
British Virgin IslandsFirst inhabited by Arawak and later by CaribIndians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 andthen annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of theBritish colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they weregranted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the largerand more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar isthe legal currency.
BruneiThe Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15thand 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas ofnorthwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequentlyentered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royalsuccession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence wasachieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over sixcenturies. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gasfields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in Asia.
BulgariaThe Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with thelocal Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the firstBulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled withthe Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by theend of the 14th century the country was overrun by the OttomanTurks. Northern Bulgaria attained autonomy in 1878 and all ofBulgaria became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Havingfought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell withinthe Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held itsfirst multiparty election since World War II and began thecontentious process of moving toward political democracy and amarket economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,and crime. The country joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Burkina FasoBurkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achievedindependence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early1990s. Current President Blaise COMPAORE came to power in a 1987military coup and has won every election since then. Burkina Faso'shigh population density and limited natural resources result in pooreconomic prospects for the majority of its citizens. Recent unrestin Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana has hindered the ability ofseveral hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabe farm workers to findemployment in neighboring countries.
BurmaBritain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administeredas a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth wasattained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, andlater as political kingpin. Despite multiparty legislative electionsin 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party - the NationalLeague for Democracy (NLD) - winning a landslide victory, the rulingjunta refused to hand over power. NLD leader and Nobel Peace Prizerecipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was under house arrest from 1989 to1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned in May 2003 and subsequentlytransferred to house arrest. After Burma's ruling junta in August2007 unexpectedly increased fuel prices, tens of thousands ofBurmese marched in protest, led by prodemocracy activists andBuddhist monks. In late September 2007, the government brutallysuppressed the protests, killing at least 13 people and arrestingthousands for participating in the demonstrations. Since then, theregime has continued to raid homes and monasteries and arrestpersons suspected of participating in the pro-democracy protests.The junta appointed Labor Minister AUNG KYI in October 2007 asliaison to AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who remains under house arrest andvirtually incommunicado with her party and supporters.
BurundiBurundi's first democratically elected president wasassassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsifactions. More than 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflictthat spanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands ofBurundians were internally displaced or became refugees inneighboring countries. An internationally brokered power-sharingagreement between the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebelsin 2003 paved the way for a transition process that led to anintegrated defense force, established a new constitution in 2005,and elected a majority Hutu government in 2005. The new government,led by President Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokeredceasefire with the country's last rebel group in September of 2006but still faces many challenges.
CambodiaMost Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much ofSoutheast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13thcenturies. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)weakened the empire, ushering in a long period of decline. The kingplaced the country under French protection in 1863 and it becamepart of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation inWorld War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rougeforces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. Atleast 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. ADecember 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into thecountryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched offalmost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandateddemocratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respectedby the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restoresome semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factionalfighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a secondround of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of anothercoalition government and renewed political stability. The remainingelements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of theremaining Khmer Rouge leaders are awaiting trial by a UN-sponsoredtribunal for crimes against humanity. Elections in July 2003 wererelatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations betweencontending political parties before a coalition government wasformed. In October 2004, King SIHANOUK abdicated the throne due toillness and his son, Prince Norodom SIHAMONI, was selected tosucceed him. Local elections were held in Cambodia in April 2007,and there was little in the way of pre-election violence thatpreceded prior elections. National elections are scheduled for July2008.
CameroonThe former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroonmerged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generallyenjoyed stability, which has permitted the development ofagriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.Despite a slow movement toward democratic reform, political powerremains firmly in the hands of President Paul BIYA.
CanadaA land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canadabecame a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to theBritish crown. Economically and technologically the nation hasdeveloped in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south acrossan unfortified border. Canada faces the political challenges ofmeeting public demands for quality improvements in health care andeducation services, as well as responding to separatist concerns inpredominantly francophone Quebec. Canada also aims to develop itsdiverse energy resources while maintaining its commitment to theenvironment.
Cape VerdeThe uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized bythe Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became atrading center for African slaves and later an important coaling andresupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Followingindependence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification withGuinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintaineduntil multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continuesto exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century causedsignificant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.
Cayman IslandsThe Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by theBritish during the 18th and 19th centuries, and were administered byJamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory withinthe Federation of the West Indies, but when the Federation dissolvedin 1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.
Central African RepublicThe former French colony of Ubangi-Sharibecame the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. Afterthree tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued byunrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led byGeneral Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groupsand the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested themunicipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March andMay of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. Thegovernment still does not fully control the countryside, wherepockets of lawlessness persist. Unrest in neighboring nations, Chad,Sudan, and the DRC, continues to affect stability in the CentralAfrican Republic as well.
ChadChad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, enduredthree decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya beforea semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The governmenteventually drafted a democratic constitution, and held flawedpresidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion brokeout in northern Chad, which has sporadically flared up despiteseveral peace agreements between the government and the rebels. In2005, new rebel groups emerged in western Sudan and made probingattacks into eastern Chad, despite signing peace agreements inDecember 2006 and October 2007. Power remains in the hands of anethnic minority. In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held areferendum successfully removing constitutional term limits and wonanother controversial election in 2006. Sporadic rebel campaignscontinued throughout 2006 and 2007, and the capital experienced asignificant rebel threat in early 2008.
ChilePrior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,northern Chile was under Inca rule while Araucanian Indians (alsoknown as Mapuches) inhabited central and southern Chile. AlthoughChile declared its independence in 1810, decisive victory over theSpanish was not achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific(1879-83), Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its presentnorthern regions. It was not until the 1880s that the AraucanianIndians were completely subjugated. A three-year-old Marxistgovernment of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrown in 1973 by a militarycoup led by Augusto PINOCHET, who ruled until a freely electedpresident was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies, maintainedconsistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady growth,reduced poverty rates by over half, and have helped secure thecountry's commitment to democratic and representative government.Chile has increasingly assumed regional and international leadershiproles befitting its status as a stable, democratic nation.
ChinaFor centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacingthe rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th andearly 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, majorfamines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World WarII, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocraticsocialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposedstrict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens ofmillions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping andother leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, livingstandards have improved dramatically and the room for personalchoice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.
Christmas IslandNamed in 1643 for the day of its discovery, theisland was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphatemining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty toAustralia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declareda national park.
Clipperton IslandThis isolated island was named for JohnCLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18thcentury. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which tookpossession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) IslandsThere are 27 coral islands in the group.Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but theyremained uninhabited until the 19th century. From the 1820s to 1978,members of the CLUNIE-ROSS family controlled the islands and thecopra produced from local coconuts. Annexed by the UK in 1857, theCocos Islands were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.The population on the two inhabited islands generally is splitbetween the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays onHome Island.
ColombiaColombia was one of the three countries that emerged fromthe collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador andVenezuela). A 40-year conflict between government forces andanti-government insurgent groups and illegal paramilitary groups -both heavily funded by the drug trade - escalated during the 1990s.The insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary tooverthrow the government, and violence has been decreasing sinceabout 2002, but insurgents continue attacks against civilians andlarge swaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence. Morethan 32,000 former paramilitaries had demobilized by the end of 2006and the United Self Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) as a formalorganization had ceased to function. Still, some renegades continuedto engage in criminal activities. The Colombian Government hasstepped up efforts to reassert government control throughout thecountry, and now has a presence in every one of its administrativedepartments. However, neighboring countries worry about the violencespilling over their borders.
ComorosComoros has endured more than 20 coups or attempted coupssince gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islandsof Anjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,military chief Col. AZALI seized power in a bloodless coup, andhelped negotiate the 2000 Fomboni Accords power-sharing agreement inwhich the federal presidency rotates among the three islands, andeach island maintains its own local government. AZALI won the 2002Presidential election, and each island in the archipelago electedits own president. AZALI stepped down in 2006 and President SAMBItook office. Since 2006, Anjouan's President Mohamed BACAR hasrefused to work effectively with the Union presidency. In 2007,BACAR effected Anjouan's de-facto secession from the Union, refusingto step down in favor of fresh Anjouanais elections when Comoros'other islands held legitimate elections in July. The African Union(AU) initially attempted to resolve the political crisis by applyingsanctions and a naval blockade on Anjouan, but in March 2008, AU andComoran soldiers seized the island. The move was generally welcomedby the island's inhabitants.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but its early years were marred by political and social instability. Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU retained his position for 32 years through several sham elections, as well as through the use of brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion backed by Rwanda and Uganda and fronted by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged by a second insurrection again backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe intervened to support KABILA's regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph KABILA, was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity. A transitional government was set up in July 2003. Joseph KABILA as president and four vice presidents represented the former government, former rebel groups, the political opposition, and civil society. The transitional government held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005 and elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and provincial legislatures in 2006. KABILA was inaugurated president in December 2006. The National Assembly was installed in September 2006. Its president, Vital KAMERHE, was chosen in December. Provincial assemblies were constituted in early 2007, and elected governors and national senators in January 2007.
Congo, Republic of theUpon independence in 1960, the former Frenchregion of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quartercentury of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and ademocratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civilwar in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present ahumanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa'slargest petroleum producers, but with declining production it willneed new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earnings over thelong term.
Cook IslandsNamed after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, theislands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965,residents chose self-government in free association with NewZealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand andgovernment deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea IslandsScattered over more than three-quarters of amillion square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands weredeclared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabitedexcept for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy manyother islands and reefs.
Costa RicaAlthough explored by the Spanish early in the 16thcentury, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica provedunsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: diseasefrom mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlementof Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provincesthat jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years laterit joined the United Provinces of Central America, but thisfederation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Ricaproclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19thcentury, only two brief periods of violence have marred thecountry's democratic development. Although it still maintains alarge agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy toinclude strong technology and tourism industries. The standard ofliving is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread.
Cote d'IvoireClose ties to France since independence in 1960, thedevelopment of cocoa production for export, and foreign investmentmade Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the West Africanstates, but did not protect it from political turmoil. In December1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history -overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEI blatantly riggedelections held in late 2000 and declared himself the winner. Popularprotest forced him to step aside and brought Laurent GBAGBO intopower. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of the militarylaunched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebel forcesclaimed the northern half of the country, and in January 2003 weregranted ministerial positions in a unity government under theauspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President GBAGBO andrebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked thecivil war, such as land reform and grounds for citizenship, remainedunresolved. In March 2007 President GBAGBO and former New Forcerebel leader Guillaume SORO signed the Ouagadougou PoliticalAgreement. As a result of the agreement, SORO joined GBAGBO'sgovernment as Prime Minister and the two agreed to reunite thecountry by dismantling the zone of confidence separating North fromSouth, integrate rebel forces into the national armed forces, andhold elections. Several thousand French and UN troops remain in Coted'Ivoire to help the parties implement their commitments and tosupport the peace process.
CroatiaThe lands that today comprise Croatia were part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, theCroats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 asYugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federalindependent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting beforeoccupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. UnderUN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia wasreturned to Croatia in 1998.
CubaThe native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline afterthe European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492and following its development as a Spanish colony during the nextseveral centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported towork the coffee and sugar plantations, and Havana became thelaunching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain fromMexico and Peru. Spanish rule, marked initially by neglect, becameincreasingly repressive, provoking an independence movement andoccasional rebellions that were harshly suppressed. It was USintervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 that finallyoverthrew Spanish rule. The subsequent Treaty of Paris establishedCuban independence, which was granted in 1902 after a three-yeartransition period. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959;his iron rule held the subsequent regime together for nearly fivedecades. He stepped down as president in February 2008 in favor ofhis younger brother Raul CASTRO. Cuba's Communist revolution, withSoviet support, was exported throughout Latin America and Africaduring the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The country is now slowlyrecovering from a severe economic downturn in 1990, following thewithdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4 billion to $6billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties as the result ofthe US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migration to the US -using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, air flights, or via thesouthwest border - is a continuing problem. The US Coast Guardintercepted 2,864 individuals attempting to cross the Straits ofFlorida in fiscal year 2006.
CyprusA former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between theGreek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a headin December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadicintercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a GreekGovernment-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met bymilitary intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than athird of the island. In 1983, the Turkish-held area declared itselfthe "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC), but it isrecognized only by Turkey. The latest two-year round of UN-brokeredtalks - between the leaders of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriotcommunities to reach an agreement to reunite the divided island -ended when the Greek Cypriots rejected the UN settlement plan in anApril 2004 referendum. The entire island entered the EU on 1 May2004, although the EU acquis - the body of common rights andobligations - applies only to the areas under direct governmentcontrol, and is suspended in the areas administered by TurkishCypriots. However, individual Turkish Cypriots able to documenttheir eligibility for Republic of Cyprus citizenship legally enjoythe same rights accorded to other citizens of European Union states.The election of a new Cypriot president in 2008 served as theimpetus for the UN to encourage both the Turkish and CypriotGovernments to reopen unification negotiations.
Czech RepublicFollowing the First World War, the closely relatedCzechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged toform Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country'sleaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands ofother ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably theSudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere ofinfluence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended theefforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party ruleand create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrationsthe following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With thecollapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained itsfreedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two nationalcomponents, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republicjoined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.
DenmarkOnce the seat of Viking raiders and later a major northEuropean power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nationthat is participating in the general political and economicintegration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now theEU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elementsof the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the EuropeanEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, andissues concerning certain justice and home affairs.
DhekeliaBy terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that createdthe independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereigntyand jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the Dhekelia SovereignBase Area, which is also referred to as the Eastern Sovereign BaseArea.
DjiboutiThe French Territory of the Afars and the Issas becameDjibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarianone-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil warthat ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accordbetween Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. In 1999,Djibouti's first multi-party presidential elections resulted in theelection of Ismail Omar GUELLEH; he was re-elected to a second andfinal term in 2005. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographiclocation at the mouth of the Red Sea and serves as an importanttransshipment location for goods entering and leaving the eastAfrican highlands. The present leadership favors close ties toFrance, which maintains a significant military presence in thecountry, but also has strong ties with the US. Djibouti hosts theonly US military base in sub-Saharan Africa and is a front-linestate in the global war on terrorism.
DominicaDominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to becolonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of thenative Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years afterindependence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt andtyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary EugeniaCHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, whoremained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians stillliving on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remainingin the eastern Caribbean.
Dominican RepublicExplored and claimed by Christopher COLUMBUS onhis first voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became aspringboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the Americanmainland. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the westernthird of the island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder ofthe island, by then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its ownindependence in 1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitiansfor 22 years; it finally attained independence as the DominicanRepublic in 1844. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned tothe Spanish Empire, but two years later they launched a war thatrestored independence in 1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostlynon-representative rule followed, capped by the dictatorship ofRafael Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-61. Juan BOSCH was electedpresident in 1962, but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. In1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civilwar sparked by an uprising to restore BOSCH. In 1966, JoaquinBALAGUER defeated BOSCH in an election to become president. BALAGUERmaintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years wheninternational reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail histerm in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have beenheld in which opposition candidates have won the presidency. FormerPresident (1996-2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna won election to asecond term in 2004 following a constitutional amendment allowingpresidents to serve more than one term.
EcuadorWhat is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empireuntil the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanishcolonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of NewGranada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence between1819 and 1822 and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. WhenQuito withdrew in 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor ofthe "Republic of the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lostterritories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A borderwar with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. AlthoughEcuador marked 25 years of civilian governance in 2004, the periodhas been marred by political instability. Protests in Quito havecontributed to the mid-term ouster of Ecuador's last threedemocratically elected Presidents. In 2007, a Constituent Assemblywas elected to draft a new constitution; Ecuador's twentieth sincegaining independence.
EgyptThe regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east andwest, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatcivilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a seriesof dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The lastnative dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn werereplaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs whointroduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and whoruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, theMamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after theconquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following thecompletion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an importantworld transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control ofEgypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the OttomanEmpire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of theBritish-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan HighDam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered thetime-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecologyof Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arabworld), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continueto overtax resources and stress society. The government hasstruggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population througheconomic reform and massive investment in communications andphysical infrastructure.
El SalvadorEl Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 andfrom the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 whenthe government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided formilitary and political reforms.
Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of amainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smalleston the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGOhas ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996and 2002 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The presidentexerts almost total control over the political system and hasdiscouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experiencedrapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oilreserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa'sthird largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfallfrom oil production resulting in a massive increase in governmentrevenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in thepopulation's living standards.
EritreaEritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of afederation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 yearslater sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence wasoverwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-yearborder war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UNauspices in December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UN peacekeepingoperation that is monitoring a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone(TSZ) on the border with Ethiopia. An international commission,organized to resolve the border dispute, posted its findings in2002. However, both parties have been unable to reach agreement onimplementing the decision. On 30 November 2007, the Eritrea-EthiopiaBoundary Commission remotely demarcated the border by coordinatesand dissolved itself, leaving Ethiopia still occupying severaltracts of disputed territory, including the town of Badme. Eritreaaccepted the EEBC's "virtual demarcation" decision and called onEthiopia to remove its troops from the TSZ which it states isEritrean territory. Ethiopia has not accepted the virtualdemarcation decision.
EstoniaAfter centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russianrule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporatedinto the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US - itregained its freedom in 1991, with the collapse of the Soviet Union.Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free topromote economic and political ties with Western Europe. It joinedboth NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
EthiopiaUnique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopianmonarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with theexception of the 1936-41 Italian occupation during World War II. In1974, a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE(who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Tornby bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugeeproblems, the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition ofrebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's firstmultiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrealate in the 1990s ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. TheEritrea-Ethiopia Border Commission in November 2007 remotelydemarcated the border by geographical coordinates, but finaldemarcation of the boundary on the ground is currently on holdbecause of Ethiopian objections to an international commission'sfinding requiring it to surrender territory considered sensitive toEthiopia.
European UnionFollowing the two devastating World Wars of the firsthalf of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lastingpeace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France andGermany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the FrenchForeign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of allEurope, the first step of which would be the integration of the coaland steel industries of Western Europe. The following year theEuropean Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when sixmembers, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and theNetherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris.The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision wasmade to integrate other parts of the countries' economies. In 1957,the Treaties of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC)and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the sixmember states undertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselvesby forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all threecommunities were formally merged into the European Community (EC),creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and theEuropean Parliament. Members of the European Parliament wereinitially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the firstdirect elections were undertaken and they have been held every fiveyears since.In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with theaddition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s sawfurther membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spainand Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basisfor further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, injudicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economicand monetary union - including a common currency. This furtherintegration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria,Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to15.A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EUstates except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002,citizens of the 12 euro-area countries began using the eurobanknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 -Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - and in 2007 Bulgaria andRomania joined, bringing the current membership to 27. In order toensure that the EU can continue to function efficiently with anexpanded membership, the Treaty of Nice (in force as of 1 February2003) set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EUinstitutions. An effort to establish an EU constitution, begun inOctober 2004, failed to attain unanimous ratification. A new effort,undertaken in June 2007, calls for the creation of anIntergovernmental Conference to form a political agreement, known asthe Reform Treaty, which is to serve as a constitution. Unlike theconstitution, however, the Reform Treaty would amend existingtreaties rather than replace them.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)Although first sighted by anEnglish navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occuruntil almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned overto Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subjectof a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, thenbetween Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to theislands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentinainvaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with anexpeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fiercefighting forced an Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe IslandsThe population of the Faroe Islands is largelydescended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. Theislands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14thcentury. A high degree of self government was attained in 1948.
FijiFiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as aBritish colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived asdominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborersbrought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). Thecoups and a 1990 constitution that cemented native Melanesiancontrol of Fiji, led to heavy Indian emigration; the population lossresulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesiansbecame the majority. A new constitution enacted in 1997 was moreequitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in agovernment led by an Indo-Fijian, but a civilian-led coup in May2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil.Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with ademocratically elected government led by Prime Minister LaiseniaQARASE. Re-elected in May 2006, QARASE was ousted in a December 2006military coup led by Commodore Voreqe BAINIMARAMA, who initiallyappointed himself acting president. In January 2007, BAINIMARAMA wasappointed interim prime minister.
FinlandFinland was a province and then a grand duchy under Swedenfrom the 12th to the 19th centuries, and an autonomous grand duchyof Russia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917.During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedomand resist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss ofterritory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made aremarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to adiversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is nowamong the highest in Western Europe. A member of the European Unionsince 1995, Finland was the only Nordic state to join the eurosystem at its initiation in January 1999.
FranceAlthough ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, Francesuffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rankas a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of themost modern countries in the world and is a leader among Europeannations. Since 1958, it has constructed a hybridpresidential-parliamentary governing system resistant to theinstabilities experienced in earlier more purely parliamentaryadministrations. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperationwith Germany have proved central to the economic integration ofEurope, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,the euro, in January 1999. At present, France is at the forefront ofefforts to develop the EU's military capabilities to supplementprogress toward an EU foreign policy.
French PolynesiaThe French annexed various Polynesian island groupsduring the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred upwidespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atollafter a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has beenconsiderably expanded.
French Southern and Antarctic LandsIn February 2007, the IlesEparses became an integral part of the French Southern and AntarcticLands (TAAF). The Southern Lands are now divided into fiveadministrative districts, two of which are archipelagos, Iles Crozetand Iles Kerguelen; the third is a district composed of two volcanicislands, Ile Saint-Paul and Ile Amsterdam; the fourth, Iles Eparses,consists of five scattered tropical islands around Madagascar. Theycontain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchersstudying the native fauna, scientists at the various scientificstations, fishermen, and military personnel. The fifth district isthe Antarctic portion, which consists of "Adelie Land," a thin sliceof the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in1840.Ile Amsterdam: Discovered but not named in 1522 by the Spanish, theisland subsequently received the appellation of Nieuw Amsterdam froma Dutchman; it was claimed by France in 1843. A short-lived attemptat cattle farming began in 1871. A French meteorological stationestablished on the island in 1949 is still in use.Ile Saint Paul: Claimed by France since 1893, the island was afishing industry center from 1843 to 1914. In 1928, a spiny lobstercannery was established, but when the company went bankrupt in 1931,seven workers were abandoned. Only two survived until 1934 whenrescue finally arrived.Iles Crozet: A large archipelago formed from the Crozet Plateau,Iles Crozet is divided into two main groups: L'Occidental (theWest), which includes Ile aux Cochons, Ilots des Apotres, Ile desPingouins, and the reefs Brisants de l'Heroine; and L'Oriental (theeast), which includes Ile d'Est and Ile de la Possession (thelargest island of the Crozets). Discovered and claimed by France in1772, the islands were used for seal hunting and as a base forwhaling. Originally administered as a dependency of Madagascar, theybecame part of the TAAF in 1955.Iles Kerguelen: This island group, discovered in 1772, is made up ofone large island (Ile Kerguelen) and about 300 smaller islands. Apermanent group of 50 to 100 scientists resides at the main base atPort-aux-Francais.Adelie Land: The only non-insular district of the TAAF is theAntarctic claim known as "Adelie Land." The US Government does notrecognize it as a French dependency.Bassas da India: A French possession since 1897, this atoll is avolcanic rock surrounded by reefs and is awash at high tide.Europa Island: This heavily wooded island has been a Frenchpossession since 1897; it is the site of a small military garrisonthat staffs a weather station.Glorioso Islands: A French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.Juan de Nova Island: Named after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.Tromelin Island: First explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.