GabonOnly two autocratic presidents have ruled Gabon sinceindependence from France in 1960. The current president of Gabon, ElHadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads of statein the world - has dominated the country's political scene for fourdecades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty system anda new constitution in the early 1990s. However, allegations ofelectoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 and thepresidential elections in 2005 have exposed the weaknesses of formalpolitical structures in Gabon. Gabon's political opposition remainsweak, divided, and financially dependent on the current regime.Despite political conditions, a small population, abundant naturalresources, and considerable foreign support have helped make Gabonone of the more prosperous and stable African countries.
Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965.Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-livedfederation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the twonations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensionshave flared up intermittently since then. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH leda military coup in 1994 that overthrew the president and bannedpolitical activity. A new constitution and presidential elections in1996, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, completed anominal return to civilian rule. JAMMEH has been elected presidentin all subsequent elections, including most recently in late 2006.
Gaza Strip The September 1993 Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitional period of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Under a series of agreements signed between May 1994 and September 1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority (PA) security and civilian responsibility for Palestinian-populated areas of the West Bank and Gaza. Negotiations to determine the permanent status of the West Bank and Gaza stalled following the outbreak of an intifada in September 2000, as Israeli forces reoccupied most Palestinian-controlled areas. In April 2003, the Quartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia) presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the conflict by 2005 based on reciprocal steps by the two parties leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. The proposed date for a permanent status agreement was postponed indefinitely due to violence and accusations that both sides had not followed through on their commitments. Following Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT's death in late 2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January 2005. A month later, Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments in an effort to move the peace process forward. In September 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew all its settlers and soldiers and dismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip and withdrew settlers and redeployed soldiers from four small northern West Bank settlements. Nonetheless, Israel controls maritime, airspace, and most access to the Gaza Strip. A November 2005 PA-Israeli agreement authorized the reopening of the Rafah border crossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt under joint PA and Egyptian control. In January 2006, the Islamic Resistance Movement, HAMAS, won control of the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC). The international community refused to accept the HAMAS-led government because it did not recognize Israel, would not renounce violence, and refused to honor previous peace agreements between Israel and the PA. HAMAS took control of the PA government in March 2006, but President ABBAS had little success negotiating with HAMAS to present a political platform acceptable to the international community so as to lift economic sanctions on Palestinians. The PLC was unable to convene throughout most of 2006 as a result of Israel's detention of many HAMAS PLC members and Israeli-imposed travel restrictions on other PLC members. Violent clashes took place between Fatah and HAMAS supporters in the Gaza Strip in 2006 and early 2007, resulting in numerous Palestinian deaths and injuries. ABBAS and HAMAS Political Bureau Chief MISHAL in February 2007 signed the Mecca Agreement in Saudi Arabia that resulted in the formation of a Palestinian National Unity Government (NUG) headed by HAMAS member Ismail HANIYA. However, fighting continued in the Gaza Strip, and in June, HAMAS militants succeeded in a violent takeover of all military and governmental institutions in the Gaza Strip. ABBAS dismissed the NUG and through a series of Presidential decrees formed a PA government in the West Bank led by independent Salam FAYYAD. HAMAS rejected the NUG's dismissal and has called for resuming talks with Fatah, but ABBAS has ruled out negotiations until HAMAS agrees to a return of PA control over the Gaza Strip and recognizes the FAYYAD-led government. FAYYAD and his PA government initiated a series of security and economic reforms to improve conditions in the West Bank. ABBAS participated in talks with Israel's Prime Minister OLMERT and secured the release of some Palestinian prisoners and previously withheld customs revenue. During a November 2007 international meeting in Annapolis Maryland, ABBAS and OLMERT agreed to resume peace negotiations with the goal of reaching a final peace settlement by the end of 2008.
GeorgiaThe region of present-day Georgia contained the ancientkingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Romaninfluence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became thestate religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turkswas followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that wascut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottomanand Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgiawas absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russianrevolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until theSoviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgiangovernment to manipulate national legislative elections in November2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation ofEduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his NationalMovement party. Progress on market reforms and democratization hasbeen made in the years since independence, but this progress hasbeen complicated by Russian assistance and support to the breakawayregions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Georgian military action inSouth Ossetia in early August 2008 led to a Russian militaryresponse that not only occupied the breakaway areas, but largeportions of Georgia proper as well. Russian troops pulled back frommost occupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russiaunilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and SouthOssetia. This action was strongly condemned by most of the world'snations and international organizations.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation,Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, anddefense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany intwo devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century andleft the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US,UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of theCold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western FederalRepublic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economicand security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold Warallowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany hasexpended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wagesup to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EUcountries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstsub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.Ghana endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS tookpower in 1981 and banned political parties. After approving a newconstitution and restoring multiparty politics in 1992, RAWLINGS wonpresidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionallyprevented from running for a third term in 2000. John KUFUORsucceeded him and was reelected in 2004. Kufuor is constitutionallybarred from running for a third term in upcoming Presidentialelections, which are scheduled for December 2008.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly cededto Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the Britishgarrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendumheld in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a Britishdependency. The subsequent granting of autonomy in 1969 by the UKled to Spain closing the border and severing all communicationlinks. A series of talks were held by the UK and Spain between 1997and 2002 on establishing temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar.In response to these talks, the Gibraltar Government called areferendum in late 2002 in which the majority of citizens votedoverwhelmingly against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Sincethe referendum, tripartite talks on other issues have been held withSpain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and in September 2006 a three-wayagreement was signed. Spain agreed to remove restrictions on airmovements, to speed up customs procedures, to implementinternational telephone dialing, and to allow mobile roamingagreements. Britain agreed to pay increased pensions to Spaniardswho had been employed in Gibraltar before the border closed. Spainwill be allowed to open a cultural institute from which the Spanishflag will fly. A new noncolonial constitution came into effect in2007, but the UK retains responsibility for defense, foreignrelations, internal security, and financial stability.
GreeceGreece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupiedby Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil warbetween supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following thelatter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A militarydictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties andforced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentaryrepublic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Economic andMonetary Union in 2001.
GreenlandGreenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century fromIceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, andGreenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joinedthe European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973, butwithdrew in 1985 over a dispute centered on stringent fishingquotas. Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danishparliament; the law went into effect the following year. Denmarkcontinues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs inconsultation with Greenland's Home Rule Government.
GrenadaCarib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered theisland in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugarestates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain tookthe island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main exportcrop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Fullindependence was attained in 1974, making Grenada one of thesmallest independent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenadawas seized by a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Sixdays later the island was invaded by US forces and those of sixother Caribbean nations, which quickly captured the ringleaders andtheir hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstitutedthe following year and have continued since that time. HurricaneIvan struck Grenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaThe Mayan civilization flourished in Guatemala andsurrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almostthree centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independencein 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienceda variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-yearguerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreementformally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000people dead and had created, by some estimates, some 1 millionrefugees.
GuernseyGuernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway inboth France and England. The islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a Britishcrown dependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UKGovernment is constitutionally responsible for its defense andinternational representation.
GuineaGuinea has had only two presidents since gaining itsindependence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in1984 when the military seized the government after the death of thefirst president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democraticelections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the militarygovernment) was elected president of the civilian government. He wasreelected in 1998 and again in 2003, though all the polls have beenmarred by irregularities. Guinea has maintained its internalstability despite spillover effects from conflict in Sierra Leoneand Liberia. As those countries have rebuilt, Guinea's ownvulnerability to political and economic crisis has increased.Declining economic conditions and popular dissatisfaction withcorruption and bad governance prompted two massive strikes in 2006;a third nationwide strike in early 2007 sparked violent protests inmany Guinean cities and prompted two weeks of martial law. Toappease the unions and end the unrest, CONTE named a new primeminister in March 2007.
Guinea-BissauSince independence from Portugal in 1974,Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and militaryupheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritariandictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting apath to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime wascharacterized by the suppression of political opposition and thepurging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980sand early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was electedpresident in the country's first free elections. A military mutinyand resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster inMay 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned overpower to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was electedpresident in transparent polling. In September 2003, after onlythree years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in abloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in asinterim president. In 2005, former President VIEIRA was re-electedpresident pledging to pursue economic development and nationalreconciliation.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, andsince then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. After his death five years later, his wife, JanetJAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.
HaitiThe native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of theisland, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based onforestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiestin the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of Africanslaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the firstblack republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorestcountry in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued bypolitical violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellionled to the forced resignation and exile of President Jean-BertrandARISTIDE in February 2004, an interim government took office toorganize new elections under the auspices of the United NationsStabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence andtechnical delays prompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finallydid inaugurate a democratically elected president and parliament inMay of 2006.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include religious freedom, international development, theenvironment, the Middle East, China, the decline of religion inEurope, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, andthe application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change andglobalization. About one billion people worldwide profess theCatholic faith.
HondurasOnce part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billionin damage.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In thisagreement, China promised that, under its "one country, two systems"formula, China's socialist economic system would not be imposed onHong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy a high degree of autonomyin all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50years.
HungaryHungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for manycenturies served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion inEurope. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglotAustro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. Thecountry fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, arevolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were metwith a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadershipof Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its firstmultiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. Itjoined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesionare first-rate by world standards.
IndiaAryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated onto the Indiansubcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlierDravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. TheMaurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reached itszenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Ageushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw aflowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Arab incursionsstarting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed bythose of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. Bythe 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtuallyall Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played avital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to Britishcolonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU broughtindependence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secularstate of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third warbetween the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becomingthe separate nation of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons testingin 1998 caused Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year. Thedispute between the countries over the state of Kashmir is ongoing,but discussions and confidence-building measures have led todecreased tensions since 2002. Despite impressive gains in economicinvestment and output, India faces pressing problems such assignificant overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensivepoverty, and ethnic and religious strife.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south latitude.
IndonesiaThe Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17thcentury; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but itrequired four years of intermittent negotiations, recurringhostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed torelinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagicstate and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Currentissues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism,consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism,implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, holdingthe military and police accountable for human rights violations, andcontrolling avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historicpeace agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led todemocratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face alow intensity separatist movement in Papua.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah wasforced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established atheocratic system of government with ultimate political authorityvested in a learned religious scholar referred to commonly as theSupreme Leader who, according to the constitution, is accountableonly to the Assembly of Experts. US-Iranian relations have beenstrained since a group of Iranian students seized the US Embassy inTehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq thateventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led to clashes betweenUS Navy and Iranian military forces between 1987 and 1988. Iran hasbeen designated a state sponsor of terrorism for its activities inLebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains subject to US and UNeconomic sanctions and export controls because of its continuedinvolvement in terrorism and conventional weapons proliferation.Following the election of reformer Hojjat ol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMIas president in 1997 and similarly a reformer Majles (parliament) in2000, a campaign to foster political reform in response to populardissatisfaction was initiated. The movement floundered asconservative politicians, through the control of unelectedinstitutions, prevented reform measures from being enacted andincreased repressive measures. Starting with nationwide municipalelections in 2003 and continuing through Majles elections in 2004,conservatives reestablished control over Iran's elected governmentinstitutions, which culminated with the August 2005 inauguration ofhardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. In December 2006 andMarch 2007, the international community passed resolutions 1737 and1747 respectively after Iran failed to comply with UN demands tohalt the enrichment of uranium or to agree to full IAEA oversight ofits nuclear program. In October 2007, Iranian entities were alsosubject to US sanctions under EO 13382 designations forproliferation activities and EO 13224 designations for providingmaterial support to the Taliban and other terrorist organizations.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof military strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last wasSADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusiveand costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seizedKuwait but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during theGulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation,the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons ofmass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UNverification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSCresolutions over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion ofIraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime.Coalition forces remain in Iraq under a UNSC mandate, helping toprovide security and to support the freely elected government. TheCoalition Provisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraqafter the invasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28June 2004 to the Iraqi Interim Government, which governed under theTransitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL,elections for a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) wereheld in Iraq on 30 January 2005. Following these elections, theIraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA wascharged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which wasapproved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An electionunder the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives(CoR) was held on 15 December 2005. The CoR approval in theselection of most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked thetransition from the ITG to Iraq's first constitutional government innearly a half-century.
IrelandCeltic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrewfrom the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification ofIreland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. Apeace settlement for Northern Ireland is being implemented with somedifficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British governments developedand began to implement the St. Andrews Agreement, building on theGood Friday Agreement approved in 1998.
Isle of ManPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crowndependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Governmentremains constitutionally responsible for its defense andinternational representation.
IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israeloccupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Inkeeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference inOctober 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israeland Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanentsettlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstandingterritorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which ithad occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, workingin conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - tookthe lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of theconflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two partiesleading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined byIsraeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February2005. An Israeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh inFebruary 2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestinianceasefire, significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuatingsettlers and its military while retaining control over most pointsof entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS in January 2006to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations betweenIsrael and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became primeminister in March 2006; following an Israeli military operation inGaza in June-July 2006 and a 34-day conflict with Hizballah inLebanon in June-August 2006, he shelved plans to unilaterallyevacuate from most of the West Bank. OLMERT in June 2007 resumedtalks with the PA after HAMAS seized control of the Gaza Strip andPA President Mahmoud ABBAS formed a new government without HAMAS.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional statesof the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came toa close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established aFascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy'sdefeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchyin 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member ofNATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at theforefront of European economic and political unification, joiningthe Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems includeillegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technicalstandards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.
JamaicaThe island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The nativeTaino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, weregradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. Englandseized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy basedon sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freeda quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaicagradually obtained increasing independence from Britain, and in 1958it joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federationof the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when itwithdrew from the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economicconditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangsaffiliated with the major political parties evolved into powerfulorganized crime networks involved in international drug smugglingand money laundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and povertypose significant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless,many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contributesubstantially to the economy.
Jan MayenThis desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named aftera Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by sealhunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island cameunder Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VIIToppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recenteruption occurred in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano onearth.
JapanIn 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) usheredin a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order tosecure its power. For more than two centuries this policy enabledJapan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture.Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan openedits ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize.During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became aregional power that was able to defeat the forces of both China andRussia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern SakhalinIsland. In 1931-32 Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launcheda full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupiedmuch of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally ofthe US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of nationalunity, elected politicians - with heavy input from bureaucrats andbusiness executives - wield actual decisionmaking power. The economyexperienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following threedecades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a majoreconomic power, both in Asia and globally.
JerseyJersey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in bothFrance and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crowndependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government isconstitutionally responsible for its defense and internationalrepresentation.
JordanFollowing World War I and the dissolution of the OttomanEmpire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan fromPalestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independencein 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country'slong-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, hesuccessfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a largeinternal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coupattempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary elections andgradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a peace treatywith Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the son of King HUSSEIN, assumed thethrone following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, hehas consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economicreform program. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in2000, and began to participate in the European Free TradeAssociation in 2001. Municipal elections were held in July 2007under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councils werereserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were held inNovember 2007 and saw independent pro-government candidates win thevast majority of seats. In November 2007, King Abdallah instructedhis new prime minister to focus on socioeconomic reform, developinga healthcare and housing network for civilians and militarypersonnel, and improving the educational system.
KazakhstanNative Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused manyof these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is larger thanthose of all the other Central Asian states combined, largely due tothe country's vast natural resources and a recent history ofpolitical stability. Current issues include: developing a cohesivenational identity; expanding the development of the country's vastenergy resources and exporting them to world markets; achieving asustainable economic growth; diversifying the economy outside theoil, gas, and mining sectors; enhancing Kazakhstan'scompetitiveness; and strengthening relations with neighboring statesand other foreign powers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, whenPresident Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutionalsuccession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) madeitself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal andexternal pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. Theethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from powerin elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence andfraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of theKenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 followingfair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidateof the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National RainbowCoalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumedthe presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruptionplatform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over theconstitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANUto form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popularreferendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA andunleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 peopledied. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharingaccord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored positionof prime minister.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in thePacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sitesof major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisonsin 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, NorthAn independent kingdom for much of its long history,Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 following the Russo-JapaneseWar. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the entire peninsula.Following World War II, Korea was split with the northern halfcoming under Soviet-sponsored Communist domination. After failing inthe Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea(ROK) in the southern portion by force, North Korea (DPRK), underits founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted a policy of ostensiblediplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against excessiveSoviet or Communist Chinese influence. The DPRK demonized the US asthe ultimate threat to its social system through state-fundedpropaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policiesaround the core ideological objective of eventual unification ofKorea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIMJong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until theelder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagementand resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has reliedheavily on international aid to feed its population while continuingto expend resources to maintain an army of approximately 1 million.North Korea's history of regional military provocations,proliferation of military-related items, and long-range missiledevelopment - as well as its nuclear, chemical, and biologicalweapons programs and massive conventional armed forces - are ofmajor concern to the international community. In December 2002,following revelations that the DPRK was pursuing a nuclear weaponsprogram based on enriched uranium in violation of a 1994 agreementwith the US to freeze and ultimately dismantle its existingplutonium-based program, North Korea expelled monitors from theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2003, itdeclared its withdrawal from the international Non-ProliferationTreaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it had completed thereprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extract weapons-gradeplutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent." Beginning inAugust 2003, North Korea, China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and theUS have participated in the Six-Party Talks aimed at resolving thestalemate over the DPRK's nuclear programs. North Korea pulled outof the talks in November 2005. It test-fired ballistic missiles inJuly 2006 and conducted a nuclear test in October 2006. North Koreareturned to the Six-Party Talks in December 2006 and subsequentlysigned two agreements on denuclearization. The 13 February 2007Initial Actions Agreement shut down the North's nuclear facilitiesat Yongbyon in July 2007. In the 3 October 2007 Second Phase ActionsAgreement, Pyongyang pledged to disable those facilities and providea correct and complete declaration of its nuclear programs. Underthe supervision of US nuclear experts, North Korean personnelcompleted a number of agreed-upon disablement actions at the threecore facilities at the Yongbyon nuclear complex by the end of 2007.North Korea also began the discharge of spent fuel rods in December2007, but it did not provide a declaration of its nuclear programsby the end of the year.
Korea, SouthAn independent Korean state or collection of states hasexisted almost continuously for several millennia. Between itsinitial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessorKorean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a singleindependent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it wasannexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence followingJapan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of theKorean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed inthe north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops andUN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend SouthKorea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. Anarmistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along ademilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, SouthKorea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income risingto roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sambecame South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years ofmilitary rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning moderndemocracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit tookplace between the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North'sleader KIM Jong Il. In October 2007, a second North-South summittook place between the South's President ROH Moo-hyun and the NorthKorean leader.
Kosovo Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo in the 7th century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbian realm until the early 13th century. The Serbian defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 led to five centuries of Ottoman rule during which large numbers of Turks and Albanians moved to Kosovo. By the end of the 19th century, Albanians replaced the Serbs as the dominant ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbia reacquired control over Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War (1912). After World War II (1945), the government of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia led by Josip TITO reorganized Kosovo as an autonomous province within the constituent republic of Serbia. Over the next four decades, Kosovo Albanians lobbied for greater autonomy, and Kosovo was granted the status almost equal to that of a republic in the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution. Despite the legislative concessions, Albanian nationalism increased in the 1980s leading to nationalist riots and calls for Kosovo's independence. Serbs in Kosovo complained of mistreatment and Serb nationalist leaders, such as Slobodan MILOSEVIC, exploited those charges to win support among Serbian voters many of whom viewed Kosovo as their cultural heartland. Under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia instituted a new constitution in 1989 that drastically curtailed Kosovo's autonomy. Kosovo Albanian leaders responded in 1991 by organizing a referendum that declared Kosovo independent from Serbia. The MILOSEVIC regime carried out repressive measures against the Albanians in the early 1990s as the unofficial government of Kosovo, led by Ibrahim RUGOVA, tried to use passive resistance to gain international assistance and recognition of its demands for independence. In 1995, Albanians dissatisfied with RUGOVA's nonviolent strategy created the Kosovo Liberation Army and launched an insurgency. In 1998, MILOSEVIC authorized a counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians by Serbian military, police, and paramilitary forces. The international community tried to resolve the conflict peacefully, but MILOSEVIC rejected the proposed international settlement - the Rambouillet Accords - leading to a three-month NATO bombing of Serbia beginning in March 1999, which forced Serbia to withdraw its military and police forces from Kosovo in June 1999. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) placed Kosovo under a transitional administration, the UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination of Kosovo's future status. Under the resolution, Serbia's territorial integrity was protected, but it was UNMIK that assumed responsibility for governing Kosovo. In 2001, UNMIK promulgated a Constitutional Framework, which established Kosovo's Provisional Institutions of Self-Government (PISG). In succeeding years UNMIK increasingly devolved responsibilities to the PISG. A UN-led process began in late 2005 to determine Kosovo's future status. Negotiations held intermittently between 2006 and 2007 on issues related to decentralization, religious heritage, and minority rights failed to yield a resolution between Serbia's willingness to grant a high degree of autonomy and the Albanians' call for full independence for Kosovo. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declared its independence from Serbia.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled sincereturning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislaturethat in recent years has become increasingly assertive.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed toRussia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the TsaristEmpire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz populationwas killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achievedindependence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwidedemonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster ofPresident Askar AKAYEV, who had run the country since 1990.Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were wonoverwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. Thepolitical opposition organized demonstrations in Bishkek in April,May, and November 2006 resulting in the adoption of a newconstitution that transferred some of the president's powers toparliament and the government. In December 2006, the Kyrgyzparliament voted to adopt new amendments, restoring some of thepresidential powers lost in the November 2006 constitutional change.By late-September 2007, both previous versions of the constitutionwere declared illegal, and the country reverted to the AKAYEV-era2003 constitution, which was subsequently modified in a flawedreferendum initiated by BAKIEV. The president then dissolvedparliament, called for early elections, and gained control of thenew parliament through his newly-created political party, Ak Jol, inDecember 2007 elections. Current concerns include: privatization ofstate-owned enterprises, negative trends in democracy and politicalfreedoms, reduction of corruption, improving interethnic relations,and combating terrorism.
LaosModern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of LanXang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia andThailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuriesof gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th centurywhen it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treatyof 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, theCommunist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending asix-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regimeclosely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual return to private enterpriseand the liberalization of foreign investment laws began in 1986.Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997.
LatviaThe name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, oneof four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of theLatvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The regionsubsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, andfinally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognizedby the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LebanonFollowing the capture of Syria from the Ottoman Empire byAnglo-French forces in 1918, France received a mandate over thisterritory and separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920. Francegranted this area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war(1975-1990) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since madeprogress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under theTa'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - theLebanese established a more equitable political system, particularlyby giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process whileinstitutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since theend of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections.Most militias have been disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces(LAF) have extended authority over about two-thirds of the country.Hizballah, a radical Shia organization listed by the US StateDepartment as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, retains its weapons.During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'ifAccord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainlyeast of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Israel's withdrawal fromsouthern Lebanon in May 2000 and the passage in October 2004 ofUNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanonand end its interference in Lebanese affairs - encouraged someLebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well.The assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 20others in February 2005 led to massive demonstrations in Beirutagainst the Syrian presence ("the Cedar Revolution"), and Syriawithdrew the remainder of its military forces in April 2005. InMay-June 2005, Lebanon held its first legislative elections sincethe end of the civil war free of foreign interference, handing amajority to the bloc led by Saad HARIRI, the slain prime minister'sson. Lebanon continues to be plagued by violence - Hizballahkidnapped two Israeli soldiers in July 2006 leading to a 34-dayconflict with Israel. The LAF in May-September 2007 battled Sunniextremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid Palestinianrefugee camp; and the country has witnessed a string of politicallymotivated assassinations since the death of Rafiq HARIRI. Lebanesepoliticians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor toEmile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a politicalvacuum until the election of Army Commander Michel SULAYMAN in May2008 and the formation of a new cabinet in July 2008.
LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruledfor the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, butreturned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years ofmilitary rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutinyfollowing a contentious election prompted a brief but bloodyintervention by South African and Botswanan military forces underthe aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequentconstitutional reforms restored relative political stability.Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the NationalAssembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested andaggrieved parties continue to periodically demonstrate theirdistrust of the results.
LiberiaSettlement of freed slaves from the US in what is todayLiberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able toestablish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, didmuch to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,social, and political gaps between the descendents of the originalsettlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a militarycoup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. InDecember 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE'sregime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself waskilled. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for electionsthat brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. AnAugust 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted theresignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimescharges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone'scivil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSONSIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains astrong presence throughout the country, but the security situationis still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social andeconomic structure of this war-torn country will take many years.
LibyaThe Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area aroundTripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 whendefeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration andachieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own politicalsystem, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination ofsocialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and issupposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in aunique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himselfas a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds duringthe 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end ofMarxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engagedin military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gainaccess to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadianpolitics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began torebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspendedin April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libyaaccepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs todevelop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations withWestern nations since then. He has received various Western Europeanleaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when hetraveled to Brussels in April 2004. Libya has responded in goodfaith to legal cases brought against it in US courts for terroristacts that predate its renunciation of violence. Claims forcompensation in the Lockerbie bombing, LaBelle disco bombing, andUTA 772 bombing cases are ongoing. The US rescinded Libya'sdesignation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In late2007, Libya was elected by the General Assembly to a nonpermanentseat on the United Nations Security Council for the 2008-09 term.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French andRussian troops during the Napoleanic wars, it became a sovereignstate in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when theConfederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it wasclosely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by thatconflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetaryunion with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtensteinremained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstandingeconomic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatoryoversight resulted in concerns about the use of financialinstitutions for money laundering. However, Liechtensteinimplemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual LegalAssistance Treaty with the US went into effect in 2003.
LithuaniaLithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; overthe next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extendedits territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. Bythe end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state inEurope. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into aunion through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania andPoland formally united into a single dual state, thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795,when its remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries.Lithuania regained its independence following World War I but wasannexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the USand many other countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became thefirst of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, butMoscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troopswithdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economyfor integration into Western European institutions; it joined bothNATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a largermeasure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrunby Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 whenit entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATOthe following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the sixfounding countries of the European Economic Community (later theEuropean Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December1999. In this agreement, China promised that, under its "onecountry, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic systemwould not be practiced in Macau, and that Macau would enjoy a highdegree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairsfor the next 50 years.
MacedoniaMacedonia gained its independence peacefully fromYugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use ofwhat it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed internationalrecognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifteda 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalizerelations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by itsconstitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiationscontinue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economicinequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won thesupport of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and ledto the internationally-brokered Framework Agreement, which ended thefighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the rights ofminorities. Fully implementating the Framework Agreement andstimulating economic growth and development continue to bechallenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on bothfronts over the past several years.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were heldending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner. RAVALOMANANA is now in his second term following alandslide victory in the generally free and fair presidentialelections of 2006.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the countryheld multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitutionthat came into full effect the following year. Current PresidentBingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt bythe previous president to amend the constitution to permit anotherterm, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor andsubsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen substantialeconomic improvement but because of political deadlock in thelegislature, his minority party has been unable to pass significantlegislation, and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Populationgrowth, increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, andthe spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi.
MalaysiaDuring the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britainestablished colonies and protectorates in the area of currentMalaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed theFederation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia wasformed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and theEast Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo joined the Federation. The first several years of thecountry's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesianconfrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, andSingapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependenceon exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,and tourism.