American SamoaSettled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was "discovered"by European explorers in the 18th century. International rivalriesin the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of easternislands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the following year.
AndorraFor 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, Andorrans lived under aunique co-principality, ruled by French and Spanish leaders (from1607 onward, the French chief of state and the Spanish bishop of Seud'Urgell). In 1993, this feudal system was modified with the titularheads of state retained, but the government transformed into aparliamentary democracy. For decades Andorra enjoyed its status as asmall refuge of fiscal and banking freedom and benefitted fromSpanish and French tourists attracted to the country's duty-freeshopping. The situation has changed in recent years as Andorrastarted to tax foreign investment and other sectors. Tourismaccounts for over 80% of Andorra's gross domestic product.
AngolaAngola is rebuilding its country after the end of a 27-yearcivil war in 2002. Fighting between the Popular Movement for theLiberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS, and theNational Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led byJonas SAVIMBI, followed independence from Portugal in 1975. Peaceseemed imminent in 1992 when Angola held national elections, butfighting picked up again by 1996. Up to 1.5 million lives may havebeen lost - and 4 million people displaced - in the quarter centuryof fighting. SAVIMBI's death in 2002 ended UNITA's insurgency andstrengthened the MPLA's hold on power. President DOS SANTOS heldlegislative elections in September 2008 and, despite promising tohold presidential elections in 2009, has since made a presidentialpoll contingent on the drafting of a new constitution.
AnguillaColonized by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650,Anguilla was administered by Great Britain until the early 19thcentury, when the island - against the wishes of the inhabitants -was incorporated into a single British dependency along with SaintKitts and Nevis. Several attempts at separation failed. In 1971, twoyears after a revolt, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede; thisarrangement was formally recognized in 1980 with Anguilla becoming aseparate British dependency.
AntarcticaSpeculation over the existence of a "southern land" wasnot confirmed until the early 1820s when British and Americancommercial operators and British and Russian national expeditionsbegan exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas southof the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established thatAntarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands oran area of ocean. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in theearly 20th century, but generally the area saw little humanactivity. Following World War II, however, there was an upsurge inscientific research on the continent. A number of countries have setup a range of year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refugesto support scientific research in Antarctica. Seven have madeterritorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. Inorder to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on thecontinent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither deniesnor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antigua and BarbudaThe Siboney were the first to inhabit theislands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indianspopulated the islands when COLUMBUS landed on his second voyage in1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded bythe English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to runthe sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islandsbecame an independent state within the British Commonwealth ofNations in 1981.
Arctic OceanThe Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's fiveoceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, andthe recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (USand Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are twoimportant seasonal waterways. In recent years the polar ice pack hasthinned allowing for increased navigation and raising thepossibility of future sovereignty and shipping disputes amongcountries bordering the Arctic Ocean.
ArgentinaIn 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declaredtheir independence from Spain. After Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguaywent their separate ways, the area that remained became Argentina.The country's population and culture were heavily shaped byimmigrants from throughout Europe, but most particularly Italy andSpain, which provided the largest percentage of newcomers from 1860to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century, much of Argentina'shistory was dominated by periods of internal political conflictbetween Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and militaryfactions. After World War II, an era of Peronist populism and directand indirect military interference in subsequent governments wasfollowed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracyreturned in 1983 after a failed bid to seize the Falkland (Malvinas)Islands by force, and has persisted despite numerous challenges, themost formidable of which was a severe economic crisis in 2001-02that led to violent public protests and the successive resignationsof several presidents.
ArmeniaArmenia prides itself on being the first nation to formallyadopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empiresincluding the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. DuringWorld War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkeyinstituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harshpractices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but wasconquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remainpreoccupied by the long conflict with Azerbaijan overNagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned toSoviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijanbegan fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated afterboth countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, ethnic Armenian forcesheld not only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion ofAzerbaijan proper. The economies of both sides have been hurt bytheir inability to make substantial progress toward a peacefulresolution. Turkey closed the common border with Armenia in 1994because of the Armenian separatists' control of Nagorno-Karabakh andsurrounding areas, further hampering Armenian economic growth. In2009, senior Armenian leaders began pursuing rapprochement withTurkey, aiming to secure an opening of the border; this process iscurrently dormant.
ArubaDiscovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquiredby the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated bythree main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed byprosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. Thelast decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became aseparate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in1990.
Ashmore and Cartier IslandsThese uninhabited islands came underAustralian authority in 1931; formal administration began two yearslater. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marinehabitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. CartierIsland, a former bombing range, became a marine reserve in 2000.
Atlantic OceanThe Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of theworld's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than theIndian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait ofGibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)are important strategic access waterways. The decision by theInternational Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 todelimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portionof the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
AustraliaAboriginal settlers arrived on the continent fromSoutheast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans beganexploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims weremade until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the nameof Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth ofAustralia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its naturalresources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturingindustries and to make a major contribution to the British effort inWorld Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformeditself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adoptedin the 1980s. Long-term concerns include climate-change issues suchas the depletion of the ozone layer and more frequent droughts, andmanagement and conservation of coastal areas, especially the GreatBarrier Reef.
AustriaOnce the center of power for the large Austro-HungarianEmpire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat inWorld War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 andsubsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria'sstatus remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbadeunification with Germany. A constitutional law that same yeardeclared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition forSoviet military withdrawal. The Soviet Union's collapse in 1991 andAustria's entry into the European Union in 1995 have altered themeaning of this neutrality. A prosperous, democratic country,Austria entered the EU Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.
AzerbaijanAzerbaijan - a nation with a majority-Turkic andmajority-Muslim population - was briefly independent from 1918 to1920; it regained its independence after the collapse of the SovietUnion in 1991. Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet toresolve its conflict with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarilyArmenian-populated region that Moscow recognized as part of SovietAzerbaijan in the 1920s after Armenia and Azerbaijan disputed thestatus of the territory. Armenia and Azerbaijan began fighting overthe area in 1988; the struggle escalated after both countriesattained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994,when a cease-fire took hold, ethnic Armenian forces held not onlyNagorno-Karabakh but also seven surrounding provinces in theterritory of Azerbaijan. Corruption in the country is ubiquitous,and the government, which eliminated presidential term limits in a2009 referendum, has been accused of authoritarianism. Although thepoverty rate has been reduced in recent years due to revenue fromoil production, the promise of widespread wealth resulting from thecontinued development of Azerbaijan's energy sector remains largelyunfulfilled.
Bahamas, TheLucayan Indians inhabited the islands when ChristopherCOLUMBUS first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands becamea colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,The Bahamas has prospered through tourism and international bankingand investment management. Because of its geography, the country isa major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularlyshipments to the US and Europe, and its territory is used forsmuggling illegal migrants into the US.
BahrainIn 1783, the al-Khalifa family captured Bahrain from thePersians. In order to secure these holdings, it entered into aseries of treaties with the UK during the 19th century that madeBahrain a British protectorate. The archipelago attained itsindependence in 1971. Bahrain's small size and central locationamong Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancingact in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing decliningoil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing andrefining and has transformed itself into an international bankingcenter. King HAMAD bin Isa al-Khalifa, after coming to power in1999, pushed economic and political reforms to improve relationswith the Shia community. Shia political societies participated in2010 parliamentary and municipal elections. Al Wifaq, the largestShia political society, won the largest number of seats in theelected chamber of the legislature. However, Shia discontent hasresurfaced in recent years with street demonstrations and occasionallow-level violence.
BangladeshEuropeans began to set up trading posts in the area ofBangladesh in the 16th century; eventually the British came todominate the region and it became part of British India. In 1947,West Pakistan and East Bengal (both primarily Muslim) separated fromIndia (largely Hindu) and jointly became the new country ofPakistan. East Bengal became East Pakistan in 1955, but the awkwardarrangement of a two-part country with its territorial unitsseparated by 1,600 km left the Bengalis marginalized anddissatisfied. East Pakistan seceded from its union with WestPakistan in 1971 and was renamed Bangladesh. A military-backed,emergency caretaker regime suspended parliamentary elections plannedfor January 2007 in an effort to reform the political system androot out corruption. In contrast to the strikes and violent streetrallies that had marked Bangladeshi politics in previous years, theparliamentary elections finally held in late December 2008 weremostly peaceful and Sheikh HASINA Wajed was elected prime minister.About a third of this extremely poor country floods annually duringthe monsoon rainy season, hampering economic development.
BarbadosThe island was uninhabited when first settled by theBritish in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established onthe island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economyremained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses productionthrough most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of socialand political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to completeindependence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism andmanufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
BelarusAfter seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closerpolitical and economic ties to Russia than any of the other formerSoviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-stateunion on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economicintegration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out theaccord, serious implementation has yet to take place. Since hiselection in July 1994 as the country's first president, AleksandrLUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarianmeans. Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press,peaceful assembly, and religion remain in place.
BelgiumBelgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830; itwas occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. The countryprospered in the past half century as a modern, technologicallyadvanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensionsbetween the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and theFrench-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years toconstitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognitionand autonomy.
BelizeBelize was the site of several Mayan city states until theirdecline at the end of the first millennium A.D. The British andSpanish disputed the region in the 17th and 18th centuries; itformally became the colony of British Honduras in 1854. Territorialdisputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence ofBelize until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nationuntil 1992 and the two countries are involved in an ongoing borderdispute. Guatemala and Belize plan to hold a simultaneous referendumto determine if this dispute will go before the International Courtof Justice at The Hague, though they have not yet set a date.Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. Current concernsinclude the country's heavy foreign debt burden, high unemployment,growing involvement in the South American drug trade, high crimerates, and increasing incidences of HIV/AIDS.
BeninPresent day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent WestAfrican kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory becamea French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments endedin 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and theestablishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO aspresident, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africafrom a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power byelections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities werealleged. KEREKOU stepped down at the end of his second term in 2006and was succeeded by Thomas YAYI Boni, a political outsider andindependent. YAYI has begun a high profile fight against corruptionand has strongly promoted accelerating Benin's economic growth.
BermudaBermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked Englishcolonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape NorthAmerican winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourismcontinues to be important to the island's economy, althoughinternational business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda hasdeveloped into a highly successful offshore financial center.Although a referendum on independence from the UK was soundlydefeated in 1995, the present government has reopened debate on theissue.
BhutanIn 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange forceding some border land to British India. Under British influence, amonarchy was set up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signedwhereby the British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internalaffairs and Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs.This role was assumed by independent India after 1947. Two yearslater, a formal Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutanannexed by the British, formalized the annual subsidies the countryreceived, and defined India's responsibilities in defense andforeign relations. A refugee issue of over 100,000 Bhutanese inNepal remains unresolved; 90% of the refugees are housed in sevenUnited Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)camps. In March 2005, King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK unveiled thegovernment's draft constitution - which would introduce majordemocratic reforms - and pledged to hold a national referendum forits approval. In December 2006, the King abdicated the throne to hisson, Jigme Khesar Namgyel WANGCHUCK, in order to give him experienceas head of state before the democratic transition. In early 2007,India and Bhutan renegotiated their treaty to allow Bhutan greaterautonomy in conducting its foreign policy, although Thimphucontinues to coordinate policy decisions in this area with NewDelhi. In July 2007, seven ministers of Bhutan's ten-member cabinetresigned to join the political process, and the cabinet acted as acaretaker regime until democratic elections for seats to thecountry's first parliament were completed in March 2008. The kingratified the country's first constitution in July 2008.
BoliviaBolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent historyhas consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and countercoups.Democratic civilian rule was established in 1982, but leaders havefaced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, andillegal drug production. In December 2005, Bolivians electedMovement Toward Socialism leader Evo MORALES president - by thewidest margin of any leader since the restoration of civilian rulein 1982 - after he ran on a promise to change the country'straditional political class and empower the nation's poor,indigenous majority. However, since taking office, his controversialstrategies have exacerbated racial and economic tensions between theAmerindian populations of the Andean west and the non-indigenouscommunities of the eastern lowlands. In December 2009, PresidentMORALES easily won reelection, and his party took control of thelegislative branch of the government, which will allow him tocontinue his process of change.
Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina's declaration ofsovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration ofindependence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after areferendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supportedby neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armedresistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines andjoining Serb-held areas to form a "Greater Serbia." In March 1994,Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions fromthree to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/CroatFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, inDayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement thatbrought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the finalagreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton PeaceAccords retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundariesand created a multi-ethnic and democratic government charged withconducting foreign, diplomatic, and fiscal policy. Also recognizedwas a second tier of government composed of two entities roughlyequal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia andHerzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). TheFederation and RS governments were charged with overseeing mostgovernment functions. The Dayton Accords also established the Officeof the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation ofthe civilian aspects of the agreement. The Peace ImplementationCouncil (PIC) at its conference in Bonn in 1997 also gave the HighRepresentative the authority to impose legislation and removeofficials, the so-called "Bonn Powers." In 1995-96, a NATO-ledinternational peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served inBosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of theagreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led StabilizationForce (SFOR) whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities.European Union peacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December2004; their mission is to maintain peace and stability throughoutthe country. EUFOR's mission changed from peacekeeping to civilpolicing in October 2007, with its presence reduced from nearly7,000 to less than 2,500 troops. Troop strength at the end of 2009stood at roughly 2,000. In January 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovinaassumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the2010-11 term.
BotswanaFormerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswanaadopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades ofuninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, andsignificant capital investment have created one of the most dynamiceconomies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector dueto the country's conservation practices and extensive naturepreserves. Botswana has one of the world's highest known rates ofHIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive andcomprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.
Bouvet IslandThis uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirelycovered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discoveredin 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupiedthe island the previous year. In 1971, Norway designated BouvetIsland and the adjacent territorial waters a nature reserve. Since1977, it has run an automated meteorological station on the island.
BrazilFollowing more than three centuries under Portuguese rule,Brazil gained its independence in 1822, maintaining a monarchicalsystem of government until the abolition of slavery in 1888 and thesubsequent proclamation of a republic by the military in 1889.Brazilian coffee exporters politically dominated the country untilpopulist leader Getulio VARGAS rose to power in 1930. By far thelargest and most populous country in South America, Brazil underwentmore than half a century of populist and military government until1985, when the military regime peacefully ceded power to civilianrulers. Brazil continues to pursue industrial and agriculturalgrowth and development of its interior. Exploiting vast naturalresources and a large labor pool, it is today South America'sleading economic power and a regional leader, one of the first inthe area to begin an economic recovery. Highly unequal incomedistribution and crime remain pressing problems. In January 2010,Brazil assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council forthe 2010-11 term.
British Indian Ocean TerritoryFormerly administered as part of theBritish Crown Colony of Mauritius, the British Indian OceanTerritory (BIOT) was established as an overseas territory of the UKin 1965. A number of the islands of the territory were latertransferred to the Seychelles when it attained independence in 1976.Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groupscomprising the Chagos Archipelago. The largest and most southerly ofthe islands, Diego Garcia, contains a joint UK-US naval supportfacility. All of the remaining islands are uninhabited. Between 1967and 1973, former agricultural workers, earlier residents in theislands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius, but also to theSeychelles. Negotiations between 1971 and 1982 resulted in theestablishment of a trust fund by the British Government ascompensation for the displaced islanders, known as Chagossians.Beginning in 1998, the islanders pursued a series of lawsuitsagainst the British Government seeking further compensation and theright to return to the territory. In 2006 and 2007, British courtrulings invalidated the immigration policies contained in the 2004BIOT Constitution Order that had excluded the islanders from thearchipelago, but upheld the special military status of Diego Garcia.In 2008, the House of Lords, as the final court of appeal in the UK,ruled in favor of the British Government by overturning the lowercourt rulings and finding no right of return for the Chagossians.
British Virgin IslandsFirst inhabited by Arawak and later by CaribIndians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 andthen annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of theBritish colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they weregranted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the largerand more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar isthe legal currency.
BruneiThe Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15thand 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas ofnorthwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequentlyentered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royalsuccession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence wasachieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over sixcenturies. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gasfields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in Asia.
BulgariaThe Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with thelocal Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the firstBulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled withthe Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by theend of the 14th century the country was overrun by the OttomanTurks. Northern Bulgaria attained autonomy in 1878 and all ofBulgaria became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Havingfought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell withinthe Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held itsfirst multiparty election since World War II and began thecontentious process of moving toward political democracy and amarket economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,and crime. The country joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Burkina FasoBurkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achievedindependence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early1990s. Current President Blaise COMPAORE came to power in a 1987military coup and has won every election since then. Burkina Faso'shigh population density and limited natural resources result in pooreconomic prospects for the majority of its citizens. Recent unrestin Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana has hindered the ability ofseveral hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabe farm workers to findemployment in neighboring countries.
BurmaBritain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administeredas a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth wasattained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, andlater as political kingpin. In September 1988, the military deposedNE WIN and established a new ruling junta. Despite multipartylegislative elections in 1990 that resulted in the main oppositionparty - the National League for Democracy (NLD) - winning alandslide victory, the junta refused to hand over power. NLD leaderand Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was underhouse arrest from 1989 to 1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned inMay 2003 and subsequently transferred to house arrest. She wasfinally released in November 2010. After the ruling junta in August2007 unexpectedly increased fuel prices, tens of thousands ofBurmese marched in protest, led by prodemocracy activists andBuddhist monks. In late September 2007, the government brutallysuppressed the protests, killing at least 13 people and arrestingthousands for participating in the demonstrations. Since then, theregime has continued to raid homes and monasteries and arrestpersons suspected of participating in the pro-democracy protests.Burma in early May 2008 was struck by Cyclone Nargis which officialestimates claimed left over 80,000 dead and 50,000 injured. Despitethis tragedy, the junta proceeded with its May constitutionalreferendum, the first vote in Burma since 1990. Parliamentaryelections held in November 2010, considered flawed by many in theinternational community, saw the junta's Union Solidarity andDevelopment Party garnering over 70 percent of the seats. Parliamentis constitutionally mandated to convene within 90 days of theelection; the president, two vice presidents, and ministers will beselected at that time.
BurundiBurundi's first democratically elected president wasassassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsifactions. More than 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflictthat spanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands ofBurundians were internally displaced or became refugees inneighboring countries. An internationally brokered power-sharingagreement between the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebelsin 2003 paved the way for a transition process that led to anintegrated defense force, established a new constitution in 2005,and elected a majority Hutu government in 2005. The new government,led by President Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokeredceasefire with the country's last rebel group in September of 2006but still faces many challenges.
CambodiaMost Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much ofSoutheast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13thcenturies. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)weakened the empire, ushering in a long period of decline. The kingplaced the country under French protection in 1863 and it becamepart of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation inWorld War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rougeforces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. Atleast 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. ADecember 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into thecountryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched offalmost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandateddemocratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respectedby the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restoresome semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factionalfighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a secondround of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of anothercoalition government and renewed political stability. The remainingelements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of thesurviving Khmer Rouge leaders have been tried or are awaiting trialfor crimes against humanity by a hybrid UN-Cambodian tribunalsupported by international assistance. Elections in July 2003 wererelatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations betweencontending political parties before a coalition government wasformed. In October 2004, King Norodom SIHANOUK abdicated the throneand his son, Prince Norodom SIHAMONI, was selected to succeed him.Local elections were held in Cambodia in April 2007, with little ofthe pre-election violence that preceded prior elections. Nationalelections in July 2008 were relatively peaceful.
CameroonThe former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroonmerged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generallyenjoyed stability, which has permitted the development ofagriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.Despite slow movement toward democratic reform, political powerremains firmly in the hands of President Paul BIYA.
CanadaA land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canadabecame a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to theBritish crown. Economically and technologically the nation hasdeveloped in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south acrossan unfortified border. Canada faces the political challenges ofmeeting public demands for quality improvements in health care andeducation services, as well as responding to the particular concernsof predominantly francophone Quebec. Canada also aims to develop itsdiverse energy resources while maintaining its commitment to theenvironment.
Cape VerdeThe uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized bythe Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became atrading center for African slaves and later an important coaling andresupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Followingindependence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification withGuinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintaineduntil multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continuesto exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century causedsignificant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.
Cayman IslandsThe Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by theBritish during the 18th and 19th centuries and were administered byJamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory withinthe Federation of the West Indies. When the Federation dissolved in1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.
Central African RepublicThe former French colony of Ubangi-Sharibecame the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. Afterthree tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued byunrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led byGeneral Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groupsand the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested themunicipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March andMay of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. Thegovernment still does not fully control the countryside, wherepockets of lawlessness persist. Unrest in the neighboring nations ofChad, Sudan, and the DRC continues to affect stability in theCentral African Republic as well.
ChadChad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, enduredthree decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya beforea semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The governmenteventually drafted a democratic constitution and held flawedpresidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion brokeout in northern Chad, which has sporadically flared up despiteseveral peace agreements between the government and the rebels. In2005, new rebel groups emerged in western Sudan and made probingattacks into eastern Chad despite signing peace agreements inDecember 2006 and October 2007. Power remains in the hands of anethnic minority. In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held areferendum successfully removing constitutional term limits and wonanother controversial election in 2006. Sporadic rebel campaignscontinued throughout 2006 and 2007. The capital experienced asignificant rebel threat in early 2008.
ChilePrior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,northern Chile was under Inca rule while the indigenous Mapucheinhabited central and southern Chile. Although Chile declared itsindependence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was notachieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chiledefeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern regions. Itwas not until the 1880s that the Mapuche Indians were completelysubjugated. After a series of elected governments, a three-year-oldMarxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrown in 1973 by amilitary coup led by Augusto PINOCHET, who ruled until a freelyelected president was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies,maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steadygrowth, reduced poverty rates by over half, and have helped securethe country's commitment to democratic and representativegovernment. Chile has increasingly assumed regional andinternational leadership roles befitting its status as a stable,democratic nation.
ChinaFor centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacingthe rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th andearly 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, majorfamines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World WarII, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocraticsocialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposedstrict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens ofmillions of people. After 1978, MAO's successor DENG Xiaoping andother leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, livingstandards have improved dramatically and the room for personalchoice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight. Chinasince the early 1990s has increased its global outreach andparticipation in international organizations.
Christmas IslandNamed in 1643 for the day of its discovery, theisland was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphatemining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty toAustralia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declareda national park.
Clipperton IslandThis isolated island was named for JohnCLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18thcentury. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which tookpossession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) IslandsThere are 27 coral islands in the group.Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but theyremained uninhabited until the 19th century. From the 1820s to 1978,members of the CLUNIE-ROSS family controlled the islands and thecopra produced from local coconuts. Annexed by the UK in 1857, theCocos Islands were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.The population on the two inhabited islands generally is splitbetween the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays onHome Island.
ColombiaColombia was one of the three countries that emerged fromthe collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador andVenezuela). A four-decade long conflict between government forcesand anti-government insurgent groups, principally the RevolutionaryArmed Forces of Colombia (FARC) heavily funded by the drug trade,escalated during the 1990s. The insurgents lack the military orpopular support necessary to overthrow the government and violencehas been decreasing since about 2002, but insurgents continueattacks against civilians and large areas of the countryside areunder guerrilla influence or are contested by security forces. Morethan 31,000 former paramilitaries had demobilized by the end of 2006and the United Self Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) as a formalorganization had ceased to function. In the wake of the paramilitarydemobilization, emerging criminal groups arose, whose membersinclude some former paramilitaries. The Colombian Government hasstepped up efforts to reassert government control throughout thecountry, and now has a presence in every one of its administrativedepartments. However, neighboring countries worry about the violencespilling over their borders. In January 2011, Colombia assumed anonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2011-12 term.
ComorosComoros has endured more than 20 coups or attempted coupssince gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islandsof Anjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,military chief Col. AZALI seized power in a bloodless coup, andhelped negotiate the 2000 Fomboni Accords power-sharing agreement inwhich the federal presidency rotates among the three islands, andeach island maintains its own local government. AZALI won the 2002presidential election, and each island in the archipelago electedits own president. AZALI stepped down in 2006 and President SAMBIwas elected to office. In 2007, Mohamed BACAR effected Anjouan'sde-facto secession from the Union, refusing to step down in favor offresh Anjouanais elections when Comoros' other islands heldlegitimate elections in July. The African Union (AU) initiallyattempted to resolve the political crisis by applying sanctions anda naval blockade on Anjouan, but in March 2008, AU and Comoransoldiers seized the island. The move was generally welcomed by theisland's inhabitants.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the Established as a Belgian colony in 1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but its early years were marred by political and social instability. Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU retained his position for 32 years through several sham elections, as well as through brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion backed by Rwanda and Uganda and fronted by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged by a second insurrection again backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe intervened to support KABILA's regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph KABILA, was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a government of national unity. A transitional government was set up in July 2003. Joseph KABILA as president and four vice presidents represented the former government, former rebel groups, the political opposition, and civil society. The transitional government held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005 and elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and provincial legislatures in 2006. The National Assembly was installed in September 2006 and KABILA was inaugurated president in December 2006. Provincial assemblies were constituted in early 2007, and elected governors and national senators in January 2007.
Congo, Republic of theUpon independence in 1960, the former Frenchregion of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quartercentury of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and ademocratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civilwar in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present ahumanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa'slargest petroleum producers, but with declining production it willneed new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earnings over thelong term.
Cook IslandsNamed after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, theislands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965,residents chose self-government in free association with NewZealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand andgovernment deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea IslandsScattered over more than three-quarters of amillion square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands weredeclared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabitedexcept for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy manyother islands and reefs.
Costa RicaAlthough explored by the Spanish early in the 16thcentury, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica provedunsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: diseasefrom mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlementof Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provincesthat jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years laterit joined the United Provinces of Central America, but thisfederation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Ricaproclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19thcentury, only two brief periods of violence have marred thecountry's democratic development. Although it still maintains alarge agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy toinclude strong technology and tourism industries. The standard ofliving is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread.
Cote d'IvoireClose ties to France since independence in 1960, thedevelopment of cocoa production for export, and foreign investmentmade Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the West Africanstates, but did not protect it from political turmoil. In December1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history -overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEI blatantly riggedelections held in late 2000 and declared himself the winner. Popularprotest forced him to step aside and brought Laurent GBAGBO intopower. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of the militarylaunched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebel forcesclaimed the northern half of the country, and in January 2003 weregranted ministerial positions in a unity government under theauspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President GBAGBO andrebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked thecivil war, such as land reform and grounds for citizenship, remainedunresolved. In March 2007 President GBAGBO and former New Forcerebel leader Guillaume SORO signed the Ouagadougou PoliticalAgreement. As a result of the agreement, SORO joined GBAGBO'sgovernment as Prime Minister and the two agreed to reunite thecountry by dismantling the zone of confidence separating North fromSouth, integrate rebel forces into the national armed forces, andhold elections. Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration ofrebel forces have been problematic as rebels seek to enter the armedforces. Citizen identification and voter registration pose electiondifficulties, and balloting planned for November 2009 was postponedwith no future date set. Several thousand UN troops and severalhundred French remain in Cote d'Ivoire to help the parties implementtheir commitments and to support the peace process.
CroatiaThe lands that today comprise Croatia were part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, theCroats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 asYugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federalindependent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting beforeoccupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. UnderUN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia wasreturned to Croatia in 1998. In April 2009, Croatia joined NATO; itis a candidate for eventual EU accession.
CubaThe native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline afterthe European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492and following its development as a Spanish colony during the nextseveral centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported towork the coffee and sugar plantations, and Havana became thelaunching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain fromMexico and Peru. Spanish rule eventually provoked an independencemovement and occasional rebellions that were harshly suppressed. USintervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 assisted theCubans in overthrowing Spanish rule. The Treaty of Paris establishedCuban independence from the US in 1902 after which the islandexperienced a string of governments mostly dominated by the militaryand corrupt politicians. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in1959; his iron rule held the subsequent regime together for nearlyfive decades. He stepped down as president in February 2008 in favorof his younger brother Raul CASTRO. Cuba's Communist revolution,with Soviet support, was exported throughout Latin America andAfrica during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The country faced asevere economic downturn in 1990 following the withdrawal of formerSoviet subsidies worth $4 billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba attimes portrays the US embargo, in place since 1961, as the source ifits difficulties. Illicit migration to the US - using homemaderafts, alien smugglers, air flights, or via the southwest border -is a continuing problem. The US Coast Guard intercepted 982individuals attempting to cross the Straits of Florida in fiscalyear 2009.
CuracaoOriginally settled by Arawak Indians, Curacao was seized bythe Dutch in 1634 along with the neighboring island of Bonaire. Oncethe center of the Caribbean slave trade, Curacao was hard hit by theabolition of slavery in 1863. Its prosperity (and that ofneighboring Aruba) was restored in the early 20th century with theconstruction of the Isla Refineria to service the newly discoveredVenezuelan oil fields. In 1954, Curacao and several other DutchCaribbean possesions were reorganized as the Netherlands Antilles,part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In referenda in 2005 and2009, the citizens of Curacao voted to become a self-governingcountry within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The change in statusbecame effective in October of 2010 with the dissolution of theNetherlands Antilles.
CyprusA former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between theGreek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a headin December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadicintercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a GreekGovernment-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met bymilitary intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than athird of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot-occupied areadeclared itself the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" ("TRNC"),but it is recognized only by Turkey. The election of a new Cypriotpresident in 2008 served as the impetus for the UN to encourage boththe Turkish and Cypriot Governments to reopen unificationnegotiations. In September 2008, the leaders of the Greek Cypriotand Turkish Cypriot communities started negotiations under UNauspices aimed at reuniting the divided island. The entire islandentered the EU on 1 May 2004, although the EU acquis - the body ofcommon rights and obligations - applies only to the areas under theinternationally recognized government, and is suspended in the areasadministered by Turkish Cypriots. However, individual TurkishCypriots able to document their eligibility for Republic of Cypruscitizenship legally enjoy the same rights accorded to other citizensof European Union states.
Czech RepublicFollowing the First World War, the closely relatedCzechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged toform Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country'sleaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands ofother ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably theSudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere ofinfluence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended theefforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party ruleand create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrationsthe following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With thecollapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained itsfreedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two nationalcomponents, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republicjoined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.
DenmarkOnce the seat of Viking raiders and later a major northEuropean power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nationthat is participating in the general political and economicintegration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now theEU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elementsof the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the EuropeanEconomic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, andissues concerning certain justice and home affairs.
DhekeliaBy terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that createdthe independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereigntyand jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the Dhekelia SovereignBase Area, which is also referred to as the Eastern Sovereign BaseArea.
DjiboutiThe French Territory of the Afars and the Issas becameDjibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarianone-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil warthat ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accordbetween Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. In 1999,Djibouti's first multi-party presidential elections resulted in theelection of Ismail Omar GUELLEH; he was re-elected to a second termin 2005. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographic location at themouth of the Red Sea and serves as an important transshipmentlocation for goods entering and leaving the east African highlands.The present leadership favors close ties to France, which maintainsa significant military presence in the country but also has strongties with the US. Djibouti hosts the only US military base insub-Saharan Africa and is a front-line state in the global war onterrorism.
DominicaDominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to becolonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of thenative Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years afterindependence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt andtyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary EugeniaCHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, whoremained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians stillliving on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remainingin the eastern Caribbean.
Dominican RepublicExplored and claimed by Christopher COLUMBUS onhis first voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became aspringboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the Americanmainland. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the westernthird of the island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder ofthe island, by then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its ownindependence in 1821 but was conquered and ruled by the Haitians for22 years; it finally attained independence as the Dominican Republicin 1844. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the SpanishEmpire, but two years later they launched a war that restoredindependence in 1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostlynon-representative rule followed, capped by the dictatorship ofRafael Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-61. Juan BOSCH was electedpresident in 1962 but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. In1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civilwar sparked by an uprising to restore BOSCH. In 1966, JoaquinBALAGUER defeated BOSCH in an election to become president. BALAGUERmaintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years wheninternational reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail histerm in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have beenheld in which opposition candidates have won the presidency. FormerPresident (1996-2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna won election to a newterm in 2004 following a constitutional amendment allowingpresidents to serve more than one term, and was since reelected to asecond consecutive term.
EcuadorWhat is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empireuntil the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanishcolonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of NewGranada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence between1819 and 1822 and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. WhenQuito withdrew in 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor ofthe "Republic of the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lostterritories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A borderwar with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. AlthoughEcuador marked 30 years of civilian governance in 2004, the periodhas been marred by political instability. Protests in Quitocontributed to the mid-term ouster of three of Ecuador's last fourdemocratically elected Presidents. In September 2008, votersapproved a new constitution; Ecuador's twentieth since gainingindependence. General elections, under the new constitutionalframework, were held in April 2009, and voters re-elected PresidentRafael CORREA.
EgyptThe regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east andwest, allowed for the development of one of the world's greatcivilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a seriesof dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The lastnative dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn werereplaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs whointroduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and whoruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, theMamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after theconquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following thecompletion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an importantworld transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control ofEgypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the OttomanEmpire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of theBritish-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan HighDam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered thetime-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecologyof Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arabworld), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continueto overtax resources and stress society. The government hasstruggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population througheconomic reform and massive investment in communications andphysical infrastructure.
El SalvadorEl Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 andfrom the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 whenthe government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided formilitary and political reforms.
Equatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of amainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smalleston the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGOhas ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996,2002, and 2009 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The presidentexerts almost total control over the political system and hasdiscouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experiencedrapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oilreserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa'sthird largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfallfrom oil production resulting in a massive increase in governmentrevenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in thepopulation's living standards.
EritreaThe UN awarded Eritrea to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of afederation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 yearslater sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence wasoverwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-yearborder war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UNauspices in December 2000. Eritrea hosted a UN peacekeepingoperation that monitored a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone (TSZ)on the border with Ethiopia. Eritrea's denial of fuel to the missioncaused the UN to withdraw the mission and terminate its mandate 31July 2008. An international commission, organized to resolve theborder dispute, posted its findings in 2002. However, both partieshave been unable to reach agreement on implementing the decision. On30 November 2007, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission remotelydemarcated the border by coordinates and dissolved itself, leavingEthiopia still occupying several tracts of disputed territory,including the town of Badme. Eritrea accepted the EEBC's "virtualdemarcation" decision and called on Ethiopia to remove its troopsfrom the TSZ that it states is Eritrean territory. Ethiopia has notaccepted the virtual demarcation decision. In 2009 the UN imposedsanctions on Eritrea after accusing it of backing anti-EthiopianIslamist insurgents in Somalia.
EstoniaAfter centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russianrule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporatedinto the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US - itregained its freedom in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free topromote economic and political ties with Western Europe. It joinedboth NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.