EthiopiaUnique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopianmonarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with theexception of a short-lived Italian occupation from 1936-41. In 1974,a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who hadruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloodycoups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems,the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition of rebelforces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's firstmultiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrealate in the 1990s ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. InNovember 2007, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Border Commission remotelydemarcated the border by geographical coordinates, but finaldemarcation of the boundary on the ground is currently on holdbecause of Ethiopian objections to an international commission'sfinding requiring it to surrender territory considered sensitive toEthiopia.
European Union Following the two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late 1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lasting peace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France and Germany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of all Europe, the first step of which would be the integration of the coal and steel industries of Western Europe. The following year the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six members, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris. The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision was made to integrate other parts of the countries' economies. In 1957, the Treaties of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member states undertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first direct elections were undertaken and they have been held every five years since. In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s saw further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic and monetary union - including a common currency. This further integration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to 15. A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EU states except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002, citizens of the 12 euro-area countries (the European Monetary Union or EMU) began using the euro banknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - and in 2007 Bulgaria and Romania joined, bringing the current membership to 27. In order to ensure that the EU can continue to function efficiently with an expanded membership, the Treaty of Nice (in force as of 1 February 2003) set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EU institutions. An effort to establish an EU constitution, begun in October 2004, failed to attain unanimous ratification. A new effort, undertaken in June 2007, created an Intergovernmental Conference to formulate a political agreement - initially known as the Reform Treaty but subsequently referred to as the Treaty of Lisbon - which would serve as a constitution. Unlike the constitution, however, the Treaty of Lisbon sought to amend existing treaties rather than replace them. In October 2009, an Irish referendum approved the Treaty (overturning a previous rejection) and cleared the way for an ultimate unanimous endorsement - the Czech Republic signed on soon after. Treaty implementation began on 1 December 2009. In 2010, the prospect of a Greek default on its euro-denominated debt created severe strains within the EMU and raised the question of whether a member country might be removed.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)Although first sighted by anEnglish navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occuruntil almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned overto Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subjectof a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, thenbetween Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to theislands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentinainvaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with anexpeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fiercefighting forced an Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe IslandsThe population of the Faroe Islands is largelydescended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. Theislands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14thcentury. A high degree of self government was granted the Faroese in1948, who have autonomy over most internal affairs while Denmark isresponsible for justice, defense, and foreign affairs. The FaroeIslands are not part of the European Union.
FijiFiji became independent in 1970 after nearly a century as aBritish colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two militarycoups in 1987 caused by concern over a government perceived asdominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborersbrought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). Thecoups and a 1990 constitution that cemented native Melanesiancontrol of Fiji led to heavy Indian emigration; the population lossresulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesiansbecame the majority. A new constitution enacted in 1997 was moreequitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in agovernment led by an Indo-Fijian, but a civilian-led coup in May2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil.Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with ademocratically elected government led by Prime Minister LaiseniaQARASE. Re-elected in May 2006, QARASE was ousted in a December 2006military coup led by Commodore Voreqe BAINIMARAMA, who initiallyappointed himself acting president but in January 2007 becameinterim prime minister. Since taking power BAINIMARAMA hasneutralized his opponents, crippled Fiji's democratic institutions,and refused to hold elections.
FinlandFinland was a province and then a grand duchy under Swedenfrom the 12th to the 19th centuries, and an autonomous grand duchyof Russia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917.During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedomand resist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss ofterritory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made aremarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to adiversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is nowamong the highest in Western Europe. A member of the European Unionsince 1995, Finland was the only Nordic state to join the eurosystem at its initiation in January 1999. In the 21st century, thekey features of Finland's modern welfare state are a high standardof education, equality promotion, and national social securitysystem; currently challenged by an aging population and thefluctuations of an export-driven economy.
FranceAlthough ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, Francesuffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rankas a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of themost modern countries in the world and is a leader among Europeannations. Since 1958, it has constructed a hybridpresidential-parliamentary governing system resistant to theinstabilities experienced in earlier more purely parliamentaryadministrations. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperationwith Germany have proved central to the economic integration ofEurope, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,the euro, in January 1999.
French PolynesiaThe French annexed various Polynesian island groupsduring the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred upwidespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atollafter a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has beenconsiderably expanded.
French Southern and Antarctic LandsIn February 2007, the IlesEparses became an integral part of the French Southern and AntarcticLands (TAAF). The Southern Lands are now divided into fiveadministrative districts, two of which are archipelagos, Iles Crozetand Iles Kerguelen; the third is a district composed of two volcanicislands, Ile Saint-Paul and Ile Amsterdam; the fourth, Iles Eparses,consists of five scattered tropical islands around Madagascar. Theycontain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchersstudying the native fauna, scientists at the various scientificstations, fishermen, and military personnel. The fifth district isthe Antarctic portion, which consists of "Adelie Land," a thin sliceof the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in1840.Ile Amsterdam: Discovered but not named in 1522 by the Spanish, theisland subsequently received the appellation of Nieuw Amsterdam froma Dutchman; it was claimed by France in 1843. A short-lived attemptat cattle farming began in 1871. A French meteorological stationestablished on the island in 1949 is still in use.Ile Saint Paul: Claimed by France since 1893, the island was afishing industry center from 1843 to 1914. In 1928, a spiny lobstercannery was established, but when the company went bankrupt in 1931,seven workers were abandoned. Only two survived until 1934 whenrescue finally arrived.Iles Crozet: A large archipelago formed from the Crozet Plateau,Iles Crozet is divided into two main groups: L'Occidental (theWest), which includes Ile aux Cochons, Ilots des Apotres, Ile desPingouins, and the reefs Brisants de l'Heroine; and L'Oriental (theeast), which includes Ile d'Est and Ile de la Possession (thelargest island of the Crozets). Discovered and claimed by France in1772, the islands were used for seal hunting and as a base forwhaling. Originally administered as a dependency of Madagascar, theybecame part of the TAAF in 1955.Iles Kerguelen: This island group, discovered in 1772, is made up ofone large island (Ile Kerguelen) and about 300 smaller islands. Apermanent group of 50 to 100 scientists resides at the main base atPort-aux-Francais.Adelie Land: The only non-insular district of the TAAF is theAntarctic claim known as "Adelie Land." The US Government does notrecognize it as a French dependency.Bassas da India: A French possession since 1897, this atoll is avolcanic rock surrounded by reefs and is awash at high tide.Europa Island: This heavily wooded island has been a Frenchpossession since 1897; it is the site of a small military garrisonthat staffs a weather station.Glorioso Islands: A French possession since 1892, the GloriosoIslands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (IleGlorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrisonoperates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.Juan de Nova Island: Named after a famous 15th century Spanishnavigator and explorer, the island has been a French possessionsince 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorologicalstation.Tromelin Island: First explored by the French in 1776, the islandcame under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, itserves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an importantmeteorological station.
GabonUntil recently, only two autocratic presidents had ruled Gabonsince its independence from France in 1960. The recent president ofGabon, El Hadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving headsof state in the world - had dominated the country's political scenefor four decades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multipartysystem and a new constitution in the early 1990s. However,allegations of electoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 andthe presidential elections in 2005 exposed the weaknesses of formalpolitical structures in Gabon. President BONGO died in June 2009.New elections in August 2009 brought Ali Ben BONGO, son of theformer president, to power. Despite political conditions, a smallpopulation, abundant natural resources, and considerable foreignsupport have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous and stableAfrican countries. In January 2010, Gabon assumed a nonpermanentseat on the UN Security Council for the 2010-11 term.
Gambia, TheThe Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965.Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-livedfederation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the twonations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensionshave flared up intermittently since then. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH leda military coup in 1994 that overthrew the president and bannedpolitical activity. A new constitution and presidential elections in1996, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, completed anominal return to civilian rule. JAMMEH has been elected presidentin all subsequent elections including most recently in late 2006.
Gaza StripThe September 1993 Israel-PLO Declaration of Principleson Interim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitionalperiod of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.Under a series of agreements signed between May 1994 and September1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority (PA) securityand civilian responsibility for many Palestinian-populated areas ofthe West Bank and Gaza Strip. Negotiations to determine thepermanent status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip stalled followingthe outbreak of an intifada in September 2000. In April 2003, theQuartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia) presented a roadmap to a finalsettlement of the conflict by 2005 based on reciprocal steps by thetwo parties leading to two states, Israel and a democraticPalestine. Following Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT's death in late2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January 2005. A monthlater, Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitmentsin an effort to move the peace process forward. In September 2005,Israel unilaterally withdrew all its settlers and soldiers anddismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip and withdrewsettlers and redeployed soldiers from four small northern West Banksettlements. Nonetheless, Israel still controls maritime, airspace,and most access to the Gaza Strip; and it enforces a restricted zonealong the border inside Gaza. In January 2006, the IslamicResistance Movement, HAMAS, won control of the PalestinianLegislative Council (PLC). HAMAS took control of the PA governmentin March 2006, but President ABBAS had little success negotiatingwith HAMAS to present a political platform acceptable to theinternational community so as to lift economic sanctions onPalestinians. Violent clashes between Fatah and HAMAS supporters inthe Gaza Strip in 2006 and early 2007 resulted in numerousPalestinian deaths and injuries. In February 2007, ABBAS and HAMASPolitical Bureau Chief MISHAL signed the Mecca Agreement in SaudiArabia that resulted in the formation of a Palestinian NationalUnity Government (NUG) headed by HAMAS member Ismail HANIYA.However, fighting continued in the Gaza Strip, and in June 2007,HAMAS militants succeeded in a violent takeover of all military andgovernmental institutions in the Gaza Strip. ABBAS dismissed the NUGand through a series of presidential decrees formed a PA governmentin the West Bank led by independent Salam FAYYAD. HAMAS rejected theNUG's dismissal, and despite multiple rounds of Egyptian-brokeredreconciliation negotiations, the two groups have failed to bridgetheir differences. Late November 2007 through June 2008 witnessed asubstantial increase in Israeli-Palestinian violence. AnEgyptian-brokered truce in June 2008 between Israel and HAMASbrought about a five-month pause in hostilities, but spiralingend-of-year violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,100 to1,400 Palestinians and left tens of thousands of people homeless.International donors pledged $4.5 billion in aid to rebuild the GazaStrip, but by the end of 2010 large-scale reconstruction had notbegun.
GeorgiaThe region of present day Georgia contained the ancientkingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Romaninfluence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became thestate religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turkswas followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that wascut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottomanand Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgiawas absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russianrevolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until theSoviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgiangovernment to manipulate national legislative elections in November2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation ofEduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his NationalMovement party. Progress on market reforms and democratization hasbeen made in the years since independence, but this progress hasbeen complicated by Russian assistance and support to the breakawayregions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. After a series of Russian andseparatist provocations in summer 2008, Georgian military action inSouth Ossetia in early August led to a Russian military responsethat not only occupied the breakaway areas, but large portions ofGeorgia proper as well. Russian troops pulled back from mostoccupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russiaunilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and SouthOssetia. This action was strongly condemned by most of the world'snations and international organizations.
GermanyAs Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation(after Russia), Germany is a key member of the continent's economic,political, and defense organizations. European power strugglesimmersed Germany in two devastating World Wars in the first half ofthe 20th century and left the country occupied by the victoriousAllied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945.With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the easternGerman Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itselfin key Western economic and security organizations, the EC, whichbecame the EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the frontline of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and theend of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Sincethen, Germany has expended considerable funds to bring Easternproductivity and wages up to Western standards. In January 1999,Germany and 10 other EU countries introduced a common Europeanexchange currency, the euro. In January 2011, Germany assumed anonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2011-12 term.
GhanaFormed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coastand the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the firstsub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.Ghana endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS tookpower in 1981 and banned political parties. After approving a newconstitution and restoring multiparty politics in 1992, RAWLINGS wonpresidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionallyprevented from running for a third term in 2000. John KUFUORsucceeded him and was reelected in 2004. John Atta MILLS took overas head of state in early 2009.
GibraltarStrategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly cededto Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the Britishgarrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendumheld in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a Britishdependency. The subsequent granting of autonomy in 1969 by the UKled to Spain closing the border and severing all communicationlinks. A series of talks were held by the UK and Spain between 1997and 2002 on establishing temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar.In response to these talks, the Gibraltar Government called areferendum in late 2002 in which the majority of citizens votedoverwhelmingly against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Sincelate 2004, tripartite talks among Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar havebeen held with the aim of cooperatively resolving problems thataffect the local population, and work continues on cooperationagreements in areas such as taxation and financial services;communications and maritime security; policy, legal and customsservices; environmental protection; and education and visa services.Throughout 2009, a dispute over Gibraltar's claim to territorialwaters extending out three miles gave rise to periodic non-violentmaritime confrontations between Spanish and UK naval patrols. A newnoncolonial constitution came into effect in 2007, and the EuropeanCourt of First Instance recognized Gibraltar's right to regulate itsown tax regime in December 2008, but the UK retains responsibilityfor defense, foreign relations, internal security, and financialstability.
GreeceGreece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands andterritories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupiedby Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil warbetween supporters of the king and other anti-Communists andCommunist rebels. Following the latter's defeat in 1949, Greecejoined NATO in 1952. In 1967, a group of military officers seizedpower, establishing a military dictatorship that suspended manypolitical liberties and forced the king to flee the country. In1974, democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentaryrepublic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Economic andMonetary Union in 2001. In 2010, the prospect of a Greek default onits euro-denominated debt created severe strains within the EMU andraised the question of whether a member country might voluntarilyleave the common currency or be removed.
GreenlandGreenland, the world's largest island, is about 81% icecapped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century from Iceland;Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and Greenland wasmade an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joined the EuropeanCommunity (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973 but withdrew in 1985over a dispute centered on stringent fishing quotas. Greenland wasgranted self-government in 1979 by the Danish parliament; the lawwent into effect the following year. Greenland voted in favor ofincreased self-rule in November 2008 and acquired greaterresponsibility for internal affairs in June 2009. Denmark, however,continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs,security, and financial policy in consultation with Greenland's HomeRule Government.
GrenadaCarib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered theisland in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugarestates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain tookthe island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main exportcrop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Fullindependence was attained in 1974 making Grenada one of the smallestindependent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada was seizedby a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later theisland was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbeannations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundredsof Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the followingyear and have continued since that time. Hurricane Ivan struckGrenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.
GuamGuam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by theJapanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. Themilitary installation on the island is one of the most strategicallyimportant US bases in the Pacific.
GuatemalaThe Mayan civilization flourished in Guatemala andsurrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almostthree centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independencein 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienceda variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-yearguerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreementformally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000people dead and had created, by some estimates, some 1 millionrefugees.
GuernseyGuernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway inboth France and England. The islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a Britishcrown dependency but is not part of the UK or of the European Union.However, the UK Government is constitutionally responsible for itsdefense and international representation.
GuineaGuinea has had a history of authoritarian rule since gainingits independence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in1984 when the military seized the government after the death of thefirst president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democraticelections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the militarygovernment) was elected president of the civilian government. He wasreelected in 1998 and again in 2003, though all the polls weremarred by irregularities. History repeated itself in December 2008when following President CONTE's death, Capt. Moussa Dadis CAMARAled a military coup, seizing power and suspending the constitution.His unwillingness to yield to domestic and international pressure tostep down led to heightened political tensions that culminated inSeptember 2009 when presidential guards opened fire on an oppositionrally killing more than 150 people, and in early December 2009 whenCAMARA was wounded in an assassination attempt and evacuated toMorocco and subsequently to Burkina Faso. A transitional governmentled by General Sekouba KONATE held democratic elections in 2010 andAlpha CONDE was elected president in the country's first free andfair elections since independence.
Guinea-BissauSince independence from Portugal in 1974,Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and militaryupheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritariandictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting apath to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime wascharacterized by the suppression of political opposition and thepurging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980sand early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was electedpresident in the country's first free elections. A military mutinyand resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster inMay 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned overpower to opposition leader Kumba YALA after he was elected presidentin transparent polling. In September 2003, after only three years inoffice, YALA was ousted by the military in a bloodless coup, andbusinessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in as interim president. In2005, former President VIEIRA was re-elected president pledging topursue economic development and national reconciliation; he wasassassinated in March 2009. Malam Bacai SANHA was elected in anemergency election held in June 2009.
GuyanaOriginally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyanahad become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led toblack settlement of urban areas and the importation of indenturedservants from India to work the sugar plantations. Thisethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulentpolitics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, andsince then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-orientedgovernments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what isconsidered the country's first free and fair election sinceindependence. After his death five years later, his wife, JanetJAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Hersuccessor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.
HaitiThe native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island ofHispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - werevirtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In theearly 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola.In 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the island,which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry andsugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in theCaribbean but only through the heavy importation of African slavesand considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18thcentury, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under ToussaintL'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the firstblack republic to declare independence in 1804. The poorest countryin the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by politicalviolence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion led tothe forced resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDEin February 2004, an interim government took office to organize newelections under the auspices of the United Nations StabilizationMission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delaysprompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally did inaugurate ademocratically elected president and parliament in May of 2006. Amassive magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti in January 2010 withan epicenter about 15 km southwest of the capital, Port-au-Prince.An estimated 2 million people live within the zone of heavy tomoderate structural damage. The earthquake is assessed as the worstin this region over the last 200 years and massive internationalassistance will be required to help the country recover.
Heard Island and McDonald IslandsThese uninhabited, barren,sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, theislands have been designated a nature preserve.
Holy See (Vatican City)Popes in their secular role ruled portionsof the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until themid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by thenewly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings werefurther circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes betweena series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 bythree Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state ofVatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certainof the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of RomanCatholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of theHoly See include religious freedom, international development, theenvironment, the Middle East, China, the decline of religion inEurope, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, andthe application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change andglobalization. About one billion people worldwide profess theCatholic faith.
HondurasOnce part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Hondurasbecame an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decadesof mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government cameto power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven foranti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Governmentand an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftistguerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billionin damage. Since then, the economy has slowly rebounded.
Hong KongOccupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally cededby China the following year; various adjacent lands were added laterin the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China andthe UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong SpecialAdministrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China on 1July 1997. In this agreement, China promised that, under its "onecountry, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic systemwould not be imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy ahigh degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defenseaffairs for the next 50 years.
HungaryHungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for manycenturies served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion inEurope. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglotAustro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. Thecountry fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, arevolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were metwith a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadershipof Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its firstmultiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. Itjoined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.
IcelandSettled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Icelandboasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, theAlthing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Icelandwas subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askjavolcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and causedwidespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of theisland's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limitedhome rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independenceattained in 1944. The second half of the 20th century sawsubstantial economic growth driven primarily by the fishingindustry. The economy diversified greatly after the country joinedthe European Economic Area in 1994, but Iceland was especially hardhit by the global financial crisis in the years following 2008.Literacy, longevity, and social cohesion are first rate by worldstandards.
IndiaThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the world's oldest,flourished during the 3rd and 2nd millennia B.C. and extended intonorthwestern India. Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated ontothe Indian subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with theearlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.The Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reachedits zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Ageushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw aflowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Islam spread acrossthe subcontinent over a period of 700 years. In the 10th and 11thcenturies, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established the DelhiSultanate. In the early 16th century, the Emperor BABUR establishedthe Mughal Dynasty which ruled India for more than three centuries.European explorers began establishing footholds in India during the16th century. By the 19th century, Great Britain had become thedominant political power on the subcontinent. The British IndianArmy played a vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistanceto British rule, led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU,eventually brought about independence in 1947. Communal violence ledto the subcontinent's bloody partition, which resulted in thecreation of two separate states, India and Pakistan. The twocountries have fought three wars since independence, the last ofwhich in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nationof Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons tests in 1998 caused Pakistanto conduct its own tests that same year. In November 2008,terrorists allegedly originating from Pakistan conducted a series ofcoordinated attacks in Mumbai, India's financial capital. Despitepressing problems such as significant overpopulation, environmentaldegradation, extensive poverty, and widespread corruption, rapideconomic development is fueling India's rise on the world stage. InJanuary 2011, India assumed a nonpermanent seat in the UN SecurityCouncil for the 2011-12 term.
Indian OceanThe Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world'sfive oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but largerthan the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically importantaccess waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait ofMalacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the InternationalHydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifthocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Oceansouth of 60 degrees south latitude.
IndonesiaThe Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17thcentury; Japan occupied the islands from 1942 to 1945. Indonesiadeclared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it requiredfour years of intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, andUN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to transfer sovereigntyin 1949. Free and fair legislative elections took place in 1999after decades of repressive rule. Indonesia is now the world's thirdmost populous democracy, the world's largest archipelagic state, andhome to the world's largest Muslim population. Current issuesinclude: alleviating poverty, improving education, preventingterrorism, consolidating democracy after four decades ofauthoritarianism, implementing economic and financial reforms,stemming corruption, holding the military and police accountable forhuman rights violations, addressing climate change, and controllingavian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historic peaceagreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led to democraticelections in Aceh in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face lowintensity armed resistance by the separatist Free Papua Movement.
IranKnown as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and Shah Mohammad RezaPAHLAVI was forced into exile. Conservative clerical forcesestablished a theocratic system of government with ultimatepolitical authority vested in a learned religious scholar referredto commonly as the Supreme Leader who, according to theconstitution, is accountable only to the Assembly of Experts - apopularly elected 86-member body of clerics. US-Iranian relationshave been strained since a group of Iranian students seized the USEmbassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until 20 January1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraqthat eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led to clashesbetween US Navy and Iranian military forces between 1987 and 1988.Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for itsactivities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains subjectto US, UN, and EU economic sanctions and export controls because ofits continued involvement in terrorism and its nuclear weaponsambitions. Following the election of reformer Hojjat ol-EslamMohammad KHATAMI as president in 1997 and a reformist Majles(legislature) in 2000, a campaign to foster political reform inresponse to popular dissatisfaction was initiated. The movementfloundered as conservative politicians, through the control ofunelected institutions, prevented reform measures from being enactedand increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwidemunicipal elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles electionsin 2004, conservatives reestablished control over Iran's electedgovernment institutions, which culminated with the August 2005inauguration of hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. Hiscontroversial reelection in June 2009 sparked nationwide protestsover allegations of electoral fraud. The UN Security Council haspassed a number of resolutions (1696 in July 2006, 1737 in December2006, 1747 in March 2007, 1803 in March 2008, and 1835 in September2008) calling for Iran to suspend its uranium enrichment andreprocessing activities and comply with its IAEA obligations andresponsibilities. Resolutions 1737, 1477, and 1803 subject a numberof Iranian individuals and entities involved in Iran's nuclear andballistic missile programs to sanctions. Additionally, severalIranian entities are subject to US sanctions under Executive Order13382 designations for proliferation activities and EO 13224designations for support of terrorism.
IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied byBritain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared aLeague of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages overthe next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a seriesof strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was SADDAMHusayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive andcostly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwaitbut was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf Warof January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UNSecurity Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of massdestruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verificationinspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutionsover a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq inMarch 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. US forcesremained in Iraq under a UNSC mandate through 2009 and under abilateral security agreement thereafter, helping to provide securityand to train and mentor Iraqi security forces. In October 2005,Iraqis approved a constitution in a national referendum and,pursuant to this document, elected a 275-member Council ofRepresentatives (CoR) in December 2005. After the election, Ibrahimal-JAFARI was selected as prime minister; he was replaced by Nurial-MALIKI in May 2006. The CoR approved most cabinet ministers inMay 2006, marking the transition to Iraq's first constitutionalgovernment in nearly a half century. On 31 January 2009, Iraq heldelections for provincial councils in all provinces except for thethree provinces comprising the Kurdistan Regional Government andKirkuk province. Iraq held a national legislative election in March2010, and after nine months of deadlock the CoR approved the newgovernment in December.
IrelandCeltic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century werefinally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more thanseven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellionsand harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touchedoff several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted inindependence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrewfrom the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification ofIreland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. Apeace settlement for Northern Ireland is gradually being implementeddespite some difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and Britishgovernments developed and began to implement the St. AndrewsAgreement, building on the Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.
Isle of ManPart of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under theBritish crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almostextinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crowndependency but is not part of the UK or of the European Union.However, the UK Government remains constitutionally responsible forits defense and international representation.
IsraelFollowing World War II, the British withdrew from theirmandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab andJewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without endingthe deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israeloccupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel countryprofile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrewfrom the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Inkeeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference inOctober 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israeland Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanentsettlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstandingterritorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which ithad occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, workingin conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - tookthe lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of theconflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two partiesleading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined byIsraeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February2005. In the summer of 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from theGaza Strip, evacuating settlers and its military while retainingcontrol over most points of entry into the Gaza Strip. The electionof HAMAS to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relationsbetween Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERTbecame prime minister in March 2006 and presided over a 34-dayconflict with Hizballah in Lebanon in June-August 2006 and a 23-dayconflict with HAMAS in the Gaza Strip during December 2008 andJanuary 2009. OLMERT, who in June 2007 resumed talks with PAPresident Mahmoud ABBAS, resigned in September 2008. Prime MinisterBinyamin NETANYAHU formed a coalition in March 2009 following aFebruary 2009 general election. Direct talks launched in September2010 collapsed following the expiration of Israel's 10-month partialsettlement construction moratorium in the West Bank. Diplomaticinitiatives to revive the negotiations through proximity talks beganat the end of 2010.
ItalyItaly became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional statesof the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united underKing Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came toa close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established aFascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy'sdefeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchyin 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member ofNATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at theforefront of European economic and political unification, joiningthe Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems includeillegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technicalstandards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.
JamaicaThe island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The nativeTaino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, weregradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. Englandseized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy basedon sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freeda quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaicagradually obtained increasing independence from Britain. In 1958 itjoined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation ofthe West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it withdrewfrom the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditionsduring the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs affiliatedwith the major political parties evolved into powerful organizedcrime networks involved in international drug smuggling and moneylaundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty posesignificant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless, manyrural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contributesubstantially to the economy.
Jan MayenThis desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named aftera Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by sealhunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island cameunder Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Beerenbergvolcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recent eruption occurredin 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano on earth.
JapanIn 1603, after decades of civil warfare, the Tokugawashogunate (a military-led, dynastic government) ushered in a longperiod of relative political stability and isolation from foreigninfluence. For more than two centuries this policy enabled Japan toenjoy a flowering of its indigenous culture. Japan opened its portsafter signing the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854 and beganto intensively modernize and industrialize. During the late 19th andearly 20th centuries, Japan became a regional power that was able todefeat the forces of both China and Russia. It occupied Korea,Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island. In 1931-32 Japanoccupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion ofChina. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 - triggering America's entryinto World War II - and soon occupied much of East and SoutheastAsia. After its defeat in World War II, Japan recovered to become aneconomic power and an ally of the US. While the emperor retains histhrone as a symbol of national unity, elected politicians holdactual decision-making power. Following three decades ofunprecedented growth, Japan's economy experienced a major slowdownstarting in the 1990s, but the country remains a major economicpower.
JerseyJersey and the other Channel Islands represent the lastremnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in bothFrance and England. These islands were the only British soiloccupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crowndependency but is not part of the UK or of the European Union.However, the UK Government is constitutionally responsible for itsdefense and international representation.
JordanFollowing World War I and the dissolution of the OttomanEmpire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan fromPalestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independencein 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country'slong-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, hesuccessfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a largeinternal Palestinian population. Jordan lost the West Bank to Israelin the 1967 war and barely managed to defeat Palestinian rebels whoattempted to overthrow the monarchy in 1970. King HUSSEIN in 1988permanently relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank. In 1989,he reinstituted parliamentary elections and initiated a gradualpolitical liberalization; political parties were legalized in 1992.In 1994, he signed a peace treaty with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, theson of King HUSSEIN, assumed the throne following his father's deathin February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated his power andundertaken an aggressive economic reform program. Jordan acceded tothe World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to participate inthe European Free Trade Association in 2001. In 2003, Jordanstaunchly supported the Coalition ouster of Saddam in Iraq andfollowing the outbreak of insurgent violence in Iraq, absorbedthousands of displaced Iraqis. Municipal elections were held in July2007 under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councilswere reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were heldin November 2010 and saw independent pro-government candidates winthe vast majority of seats.
KazakhstanEthnic Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribeswho migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely unitedas a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18thcentury, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizenswere encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some otherdeported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enablednon-ethnic Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 drovemany of these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is largerthan those of all the other Central Asian states largely due to thecountry's vast natural resources. Current issues include: developinga cohesive national identity; expanding the development of thecountry's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;diversifying the economy outside the oil, gas, and mining sectors;enhancing Kazakhstan's economic competitiveness; developing amultiparty parliament and advancing political and social reform; andstrengthening relations with neighboring states and other foreignpowers.
KenyaFounding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTAled Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, whenPresident Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutionalsuccession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) madeitself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal andexternal pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. Theethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from powerin elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence andfraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of theKenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 followingfair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidateof the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National RainbowCoalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumedthe presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruptionplatform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over theconstitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANUto form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popularreferendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA andunleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 peopledied. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharingaccord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored positionof prime minister.
KiribatiThe Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in thePacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sitesof major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisonsin 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name ofKiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship withKiribati.
Korea, NorthAn independent kingdom for much of its long history,Korea was occupied by Japan beginning in 1905 following theRusso-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed theentire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with thenorthern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist control. Afterfailing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backedRepublic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, NorthKorea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted apolicy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as acheck against outside influence. The DPRK demonized the US as theultimate threat to its social system through state-fundedpropaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policiesaround the core ideological objective of eventual unification ofKorea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIMJong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until theelder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagementand resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has reliedheavily on international aid to feed its population. North Korea'shistory of regional military provocations, proliferation ofmilitary-related items, long-range missile development, WMD programsincluding tests of nuclear devices in 2006 and 2009, and massiveconventional armed forces are of major concern to the internationalcommunity.
Korea, SouthAn independent Korean state or collection of states hasexisted almost continuously for several millennia. Between itsinitial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessorKorean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a singleindependent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it wasannexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence followingJapan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of theKorean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed inthe north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops andUN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend SouthKorea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. Anarmistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along ademilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, SouthKorea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income risingto roughly 17 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sambecame South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years ofmilitary rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning moderndemocracy. President LEE Myung-bak has pursued a policy of globalengagement since taking office in February 2008, highlighted bySeoul's hosting of the G-20 summit in November 2010. Serioustensions with North Korea have punctuated inter-Korean relations inrecent years, including the North's sinking of the South Koreanwarship Cheonan in March 2010 and its artillery attack on SouthKorean soldiers and citizens in November 2010.
KosovoEthnic Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo inthe 7th century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbianrealm until the early 13th century. During the medieval period,Kosovo became the center of a Serbian Empire and saw theconstruction of many important Serb religious sites, including manyarchitecturally significant Serbian Orthodox monasteries. The defeatof Serbian forces at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 led to fivecenturies of Ottoman rule during which large numbers of Turks andAlbanians moved to Kosovo. By the end of the 19th century, Albaniansreplaced the Serbs as the dominant ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbiareacquired control over Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire during theFirst Balkan War of 1912. Kosovo became an autonomous province ofSerbia with status almost equivalent to that of a republic under the1974 Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.Despite legislative concessions, Albanian nationalism increased inthe 1980s, which led to riots and calls for Kosovo's independence.At the same time, Serb nationalist leaders, such as SlobodanMILOSEVIC, exploited Kosovo Serb claims of maltreatment to securevotes from supporters, many of whom viewed Kosovo as their culturalheartland. Under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia instituted a newconstitution in 1989 that revoked Kosovo's status as an autonomousprovince of Serbia. Kosovo Albanian leaders responded in 1991 byorganizing a referendum that declared Kosovo independent. UnderMILOSEVIC, Serbia carried out repressive measures against theAlbanians in the early 1990s as the unofficial Kosovo government,led by Ibrahim RUGOVA, used passive resistance in an attempt to tryto gain international assistance and recognition of an independentKosovo. Albanians dissatisfied with RUGOVA's passive strategy in the1990s created the Kosovo Liberation Army and launched an insurgency.Starting in 1998, Serbian military, police, and paramilitary forcesconducted a counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacresand massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians. Approximately 800,000Albanians were forced from their homes in Kosovo during this time.International attempts to mediate the conflict failed, andMILOSEVIC's rejection of a proposed settlement led to a three-monthNATO military campaign against Serbia beginning in March 1999 thatforced Serbia to agree to withdraw its military and police forcesfrom Kosovo. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) placedKosovo under a transitional administration, the UN InterimAdministration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination ofKosovo's future status. A UN-led process began in late 2005 todetermine Kosovo's final status. The negotiations ran in stagesbetween 2006 and 2007, but ended without agreement between Belgradeand Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declaredKosovo independent. Since then, over sixty countries have recognizedKosovo, and it has joined the International Monetary Fund and WorldBank. Serbia continues to reject Kosovo's independence and itsubsequently sought an advisory opinion from the International Courtof Justice (ICJ) on the legality under international law of Kosovo'sindependence declaration. In July 2010 the ICJ ruled that Kosovo'sdeclaration of independence did not violate international law.
KuwaitBritain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the rulingKuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Followingseveral weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began aground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in fourdays. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructuredamaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled sincereturning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislaturethat in recent years has become increasingly assertive. The countrywitnessed the historic election in May 2009 of four women to itsNational Assembly.
KyrgyzstanA Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty andproud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed toRussia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the TsaristEmpire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz populationwas killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achievedindependence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwidedemonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster ofPresident Askar AKAEV, who had run the country since 1990.Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were wonoverwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. Over thenext few years, the new president manipulated the parliament toaccrue new powers for himself. In July 2009, after months ofharassment against his opponents and media critics, BAKIEV wonre-election in a presidential campaign that the internationalcommunity deemed flawed. In April 2010, nationwide protests led tothe resignation and expulsion of BAKIEV. He was replaced byPresident Roza OTUNBAEVA who will serve as president until 31December 2011 according to a presidential decree issued 19 May 2010.Presidential elections are scheduled to be held in October 2011.Continuing concerns include: endemic corruption, poor interethnicrelations, and terrorism.
LaosModern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of LanXang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia andThailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuriesof gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th centurywhen it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treatyof 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, theCommunist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending asix-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regimeclosely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual, limited return to privateenterprise and the liberalization of foreign investment laws beganin 1988. Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997. In late 2009,Thailand returned to Laos about 3,000 Hmong residing in refugeecamps.
LatviaThe name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, oneof four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of theLatvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The regionsubsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, andfinally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognizedby the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished itsindependence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of theRussian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern toMoscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Lebanon Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The French separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920, and granted this area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990) devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater voice in the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war, Lebanon has conducted several successful elections. Most militias have been reduced or disbanded, with the exception of Hizballah, designated by the US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, and Palestinian militant groups. During Lebanon's civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000 and the passage in September 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its interference in Lebanese affairs - encouraged some Lebanese groups to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination of former Prime Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 22 others in February 2005 led to massive demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence ("the Cedar Revolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its military forces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its first legislative elections since the end of the civil war free of foreign interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Sa'ad HARIRI, the slain prime minister's son. In July 2006, Hizballah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers leading to a 34-day conflict with Israel in which approximately 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed. UNSCR 1701 ended the war in August 2006, and Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) deployed throughout the country for the first time in decades, charged with securing Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling and maintaining a weapons-free zone in south Lebanon with the help of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The LAF in May-September 2007 battled Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in the Nahr al-Barid Palestinian refugee camp, winning a decisive victory, but destroying the camp and displacing 30,000 Palestinian residents. Lebanese politicians in November 2007 were unable to agree on a successor to Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as president, creating a political vacuum until the election of LAF Commander Gen. Michel SULAYMAN in May 2008 and the formation of a new unity government in July 2008. Legislative elections in June 2009 again produced victory for the bloc led by Sa'ad HARIRI, but a period of prolonged negotiation over the composition of the cabinet ensued. A national unity government was finally formed in November 2009 and approved by the National Assembly the following month. In January 2010, Lebanon assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2010-11 term.