LesothoBasutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho uponindependence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruledfor the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, butreturned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years ofmilitary rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutinyfollowing a contentious election prompted a brief but bloodyintervention by South African and Botswana military forces under theaegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequentconstitutional reforms restored relative political stability.Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the NationalAssembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested andaggrieved parties continue to dispute how the electoral law wasapplied to award proportional seats in the Assembly.
LiberiaSettlement of freed slaves from the US in what is todayLiberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able toestablish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, didmuch to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,social, and political gaps between the descendents of the originalsettlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a militarycoup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. InDecember 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE'sregime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself waskilled. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for electionsthat brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. AnAugust 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted theresignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimescharges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone'scivil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSONSIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains astrong presence throughout the country, but the security situationis still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social andeconomic structure of this war-torn country continues.
LibyaThe Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area aroundTripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 whendefeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration andachieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own politicalsystem, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination ofsocialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and issupposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in aunique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himselfas a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds duringthe 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end ofMarxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engagedin military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gainaccess to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadianpolitics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began torebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspendedin April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libyaaccepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs todevelop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations withWestern nations since then. He has received various Western Europeanleaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when hetraveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya'sdesignation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Councilfor the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed abilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensateclaimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the handsof the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelledisco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the USGovernment received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement todistribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectivelynormalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countriesthen exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January2009. Libya in May 2010 was elected to its first three-year seat onthe UN Human Rights Council, prompting protests from internationalnon-governmental organizations and human rights campaigners.
LiechtensteinThe Principality of Liechtenstein was establishedwithin the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French andRussian troops during the Napoleonic wars, it became a sovereignstate in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when theConfederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it wasclosely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by thatconflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetaryunion with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtensteinremained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstandingeconomic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatoryoversight resulted in concerns about the use of financialinstitutions for money laundering. However, Liechtensteinimplemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual LegalAssistance Treaty with the US that went into effect in 2003.
LithuaniaLithuanian lands were united under MINDAUGAS in 1236; overthe next century, through alliances and conquest, Lithuania extendedits territory to include most of present-day Belarus and Ukraine. Bythe end of the 14th century Lithuania was the largest state inEurope. An alliance with Poland in 1386 led the two countries into aunion through the person of a common ruler. In 1569, Lithuania andPoland formally united into a single dual state, thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This entity survived until 1795 whenits remnants were partitioned by surrounding countries. Lithuaniaregained its independence following World War I but was annexed bythe USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US and manyother countries. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first of theSoviet republics to declare its independence, but Moscow did notrecognize this proclamation until September of 1991 (following theabortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops withdrew in 1993.Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy for integration intoWestern European institutions; it joined both NATO and the EU in thespring of 2004.
LuxembourgFounded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more thanhalf of its territory to Belgium in 1839 but gained a larger measureof autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun byGermany in both world wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when itentered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO thefollowing year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six foundingcountries of the European Economic Community (later the EuropeanUnion), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
MacauColonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was thefirst European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreementsigned by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became theMacau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republicof China on 20 December 1999. In this agreement, China promisedthat, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China'ssocialist economic system would not be practiced in Macau, and thatMacau would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters exceptforeign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
MacedoniaMacedonia gained its independence peacefully fromYugoslavia in 1991. Greece's objection to the new state's use ofwhat it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed internationalrecognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifteda 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalizerelations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by itsconstitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiationscontinue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economicinequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won thesupport of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and ledto the internationally-brokered Ohrid Framework Agreement, whichended the fighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing therights of minorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement andstimulating economic growth and development continue to bechallenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on bothfronts over the past several years.
MadagascarFormerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became aFrench colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were heldending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the secondpresidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidentialelection was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA andMarc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANAthe winner. RAVALOMANANA achieved a second term following alandslide victory in the generally free and fair presidentialelections of 2006. In early 2009, protests over increasingrestrictions on opposition press and activities resulted inRAVALOMANANA stepping down and the presidency was conferred to themayor of Antananarivo, Andry RAJOELINA. Following negotiations inJuly and August of 2009, a power-sharing agreement with a 15-monthtransitional period was established, but has not yet beenimplemented.
MalawiEstablished in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasalandbecame the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decadesof one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the countryheld multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitutionthat came into full effect the following year. Current PresidentBingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt bythe previous president to amend the constitution to permit anotherterm, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor andsubsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen economicimprovement but because of political deadlock in the legislature,his minority party has been unable to pass significant legislation,and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Population growth,increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, and thespread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi. MUTHARIKA wasreelected to a second term in May 2009.
MalaysiaDuring the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britainestablished colonies and protectorates in the area of currentMalaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed theFederation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia wasformed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and theEast Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast ofBorneo joined the Federation. The first several years of thecountry's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesianconfrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, andSingapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependenceon exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,and tourism.
MaldivesThe Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch andthen under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, threeyears after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominatedthe islands' political scene for 30 years, elected to six successiveterms by single-party referendums. Following riots in the capitalMale in August 2004, the president and his government pledged toembark upon democratic reforms including a more representativepolitical system and expanded political freedoms. Progress wassluggish, however, and many promised reforms were slow to berealized. Nonetheless, political parties were legalized in 2005. InJune 2008, a constituent assembly - termed the "Special Majlis" -finalized a new constitution, which was ratified by the president inAugust. The first-ever presidential elections under amulti-candidate, multi-party system were held in October 2008.GAYOOM was defeated in a runoff poll by Mohamed NASHEED, a politicalactivist who had been jailed several years earlier by the formerregime. Challenges facing the new president include strengtheningdemocracy and combating poverty and drug abuse. Maldives officialshave been prominent participants in international climate changetalks due to the islands' low elevation and the threat fromsea-level rise.
MaliThe Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of Francein 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only afew months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamedMali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by amilitary coup - led by the current president Amadou TOURE - enablingMali's emergence as one of the strongest democracies on thecontinent. President Alpha KONARE won Mali's first democraticpresidential election in 1992 and was reelected in 1997. In keepingwith Mali's two-term constitutional limit, KONARE stepped down in2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE, who was subsequently electedto a second term in 2007. The elections were widely judged to befree and fair.
MaltaGreat Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.The island staunchly supported the UK through both world wars andremained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. Adecade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, theisland has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, afinancial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EUmember in May 2004 and began using the euro as currency in 2008.
Marshall IslandsAfter almost four decades under US administrationas the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the PacificIslands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under aCompact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as aresult of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missiledefense network.
MauritaniaIndependent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed thesouthern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in1976 but relinquished it after three years of raids by the Polisarioguerrilla front seeking independence for the territory. Maaouya OuldSid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984 and ruled Mauritaniawith a heavy hand for more than two decades. A series ofpresidential elections that he held were widely seen as flawed. Abloodless coup in August 2005 deposed President TAYA and ushered ina military council that oversaw a transition to democratic rule.Independent candidate Sidi Ould Cheikh ABDALLAHI was inaugurated inApril 2007 as Mauritania's first freely and fairly electedpresident. His term ended prematurely in August 2008 when a militaryjunta led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel AZIZ deposed him and usheredin a military council government. AZIZ was subsequently electedpresident in July 2009. The country continues to experience ethnictensions among its black population (Afro-Mauritanians) and whiteand black Moor (Arab-Berber) communities, and is having to confronta growing terrorism threat by al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb(AQIM).
MauritiusAlthough known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in the16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch - who named it inhonor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU - in the 17th century. The Frenchassumed control in 1715, developing the island into an importantnaval base overseeing Indian Ocean trade, and establishing aplantation economy of sugar cane. The British captured the island in1810, during the Napoleonic Wars. Mauritius remained a strategicallyimportant British naval base, and later an air station, playing animportant role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoyoperations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence.Independence from the UK was attained in 1968. A stable democracywith regular free elections and a positive human rights record, thecountry has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earnedone of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather,declining sugar prices, and declining textile and apparelproduction, have slowed economic growth, leading to some protestsover standards of living in the Creole community.
MayotteMayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands ofthe Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelagothat voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and foregoindependence. In March 2009, Mayotte voted overwhelmingly to becomeFrance's 101st department - and fifth overseas department - a changescheduled to become official in 2011.
MexicoThe site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico cameunder Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independenceearly in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recessionin over half a century. The global financial crisis beginning inlate 2008 caused another massive economic downturn the followingyear. As the economy recovers, ongoing economic and social concernsinclude low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of thepopulation, inequitable income distribution, and few advancementopportunities for the largely Amerindian population in theimpoverished southern states. The elections held in 2000 marked thefirst time since the 1910 Mexican Revolution that an oppositioncandidate - Vicente FOX of the National Action Party (PAN) -defeated the party in government, the Institutional RevolutionaryParty (PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidateFelipe CALDERON. In January 2009, Mexico assumed a nonpermanent seaton the UN Security Council for the 2009-10 term.
Micronesia, Federated States ofIn 1979 the Federated States ofMicronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted aconstitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact ofFree Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, andoverdependence on US aid.
MoldovaPart of Romania during the interwar period, Moldova wasincorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II.Although the country has been independent from the USSR since 1991,Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territory east of theDniester River supporting the Slavic majority population, mostlyUkrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a "Transnistria"republic. One of the poorest nations in Europe, Moldova became thefirst former Soviet state to elect a Communist, Vladimir VORONIN, asits president in 2001. VORONIN served as Moldova's president untilhe resigned in September 2009, following the opposition's gain of anarrow majority in July parliamentary elections and the CommunistParty's (PCRM) subsequent inability to attract the three-fifths ofparliamentary votes required to elect a president. Moldova's fouropposition parties formed a new coalition, the Alliance for EuropeanIntegration (AEI), which acted as Moldova's governing coalitionuntil parliamentary elections were held in November 2010 and a newgoverning coalition could be formed. Moldova experienced significantpolitical uncertainty in 2009 and 2010, holding three generalelections (in April 2009, July 2009, and November 2010) and fourpresidential ballots in parliament, all of which failed to secure apresident.
MonacoThe Genoese built a fortress on the site of present dayMonaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family first seizedtemporary control in 1297, and again in 1331, but were not able topermanently secure their holding until 1419. Economic developmentwas spurred in the late 19th century with a railroad linkup toFrance and the opening of a casino. Since then, the principality'smild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling facilities have madeMonaco world famous as a tourist and recreation center.
MongoliaThe Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when underChinggis KHAAN they established a huge Eurasian empire throughconquest. After his death the empire was divided into severalpowerful Mongol states, but these broke apart in the 14th century.The Mongols eventually retired to their original steppe homelandsand in the late 17th century came under Chinese rule. Mongolia wonits independence in 1921 with Soviet backing and a Communist regimewas installed in 1924. The modern country of Mongolia, however,represents only part of the Mongols' historical homeland; moreethnic Mongolians live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region inthe People's Republic of China than in Mongolia. Following apeaceful democratic revolution, the ex-Communist Mongolian People'sRevolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990 and 1992, but wasdefeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) in the 1996parliamentary election. The MPRP won an overwhelming majority in the2000 parliamentary election, but the party lost seats in the 2004election and shared power with democratic coalition parties from2004-08. The MPRP regained a solid majority in the 2008parliamentary elections but nevertheless formed a coalitiongovernment with the Democratic Party. In 2010 the MPRP voted toretake the name of the Mongolian People's Party (MPP), a name itused in the early 1920s. The prime minister and most cabinet membersare MPP members.
MontenegroThe use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th centurywhen the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality ofZeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain itsindependence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19thcenturies, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishopprinces; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituentrepublic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When thelatter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first asthe Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looserunion of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked itsright under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro tohold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote forsevering ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June2006.
MontserratEnglish and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settledon Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived threedecades later. The British and French fought for possession of theisland for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed asa British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economywas converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the populationfled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcanothat began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activitysince, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.
MoroccoIn 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of NorthAfrica, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. Inthe 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under AhmadAL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated agolden age. The Alaouite dynasty, to which the current Moroccanroyal family belongs, established a sultanate in Morocco beginningin the 17th century. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco andushered in a half century of trade rivalry among European powersthat saw Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the Frenchimposed a protectorate over the country. A protracted independencestruggle with France ended successfully in 1956. Theinternationalized city of Tangier and most Spanish possessions wereturned over to the new country that same year. Sultan MOHAMMED V,the current monarch's grandfather, organized the new state as aconstitutional monarchy and in 1957 assumed the title of King.Morocco annexed Western Sahara during the late 1970s, but finalresolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved.Gradual political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishmentof a bicameral legislature, which first met in 1997. Under KingMOHAMMED VI - who in 1999 succeeded his father to the throne - humanrights have improved. Morocco enjoys a moderately free press, butthe government occasionally takes action against journalists whoreport on three broad subjects considered to be taboo: the monarchy,Islam, and the status of Western Sahara. Despite the continuingreforms, ultimate authority remains in the hands of the monarch.
MozambiqueAlmost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to aclose with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration, economicdependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civilwar hindered the country's development until the mid 1990's. Theruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) partyformally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution thefollowing year provided for multiparty elections and a free marketeconomy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebelMozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in1992. In December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transitionas Joaquim CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. Hiselected successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, promised to continue thesound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
NamibiaSouth Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africaduring World War I and administered it as a mandate until afterWorld War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the MarxistSouth-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla grouplaunched a war of independence for the area that became Namibia, butit was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end itsadministration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entireregion. Namibia has been governed by SWAPO since the country wonindependence in 1990. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president inNovember 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who ledthe country during its first 14 years of self rule. POHAMBA wasreelected in November 2009.
NauruThe exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear since theirlanguage does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island wasannexed by Germany in 1888. Its phosphate deposits began to be minedearly in the 20th century by a German-British consortium. Nauru wasoccupied by Australian forces in World War I and subsequently becamea League of Nations mandate. After the Second World War - and abrutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UN trust territory. Itachieved independence in 1968 and joined the UN in 1999 as theworld's smallest independent republic.
Navassa IslandThis uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. Thelighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administrationof Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Departmentof the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the islanddescribed it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; thefollowing year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annualscientific expeditions have continued.
NepalIn 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system ofrule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system ofgovernment. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracywithin the framework of a constitutional monarchy. An insurgency ledby Maoist extremists broke out in 1996. The ensuing ten-year civilwar between insurgents and government forces witnessed thedissolution of the cabinet and parliament and assumption of absolutepower by the king. Several weeks of mass protests in April 2006 werefollowed by several months of peace negotiations between the Maoistsand government officials, and culminated in a November 2006 peaceaccord and the promulgation of an interim constitution. Following anation-wide election in April 2008, the newly formed ConstituentAssembly declared Nepal a federal democratic republic and abolishedthe monarchy at its first meeting the following month. TheConstituent Assembly elected the country's first president in July.The Maoists, who received a plurality of votes in the ConstituentAssembly election, formed a coalition government in August 2008, butresigned in May 2009 after the president overruled a decision tofire the chief of the army staff. The Communist Party ofNepal-United Marxist-Leninist and the Nepali Congress party thenformed a new coalition government with several smaller parties. InJune 2010, the prime minister resigned but, as of December 2010,continued to lead a caretaker government while the parties debatewho should lead the next government. Disagreements among thepolitical parties over issues such as the future of former Maoistcombatants has hindered the drafting of a new constitution — due inMay 2011 — and the formal conclusion of the peace process.
NetherlandsThe Dutch United Provinces declared their independencefrom Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leadingseafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies aroundthe world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of theNetherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed aseparate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. Amodern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a largeexporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding memberof NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in theintroduction of the euro in 1999. In October 2010, the formerNetherlands Antilles was dissolved and the three smallest islands -Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba - became special municipalities inthe Netherlands administrative structure. The larger islands of SintMaarten and Curacao joined the Netherlands and Aruba as constituentcountries forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
New CaledoniaSettled by both Britain and France during the firsthalf of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended inthe 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years willtransfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility fromFrance to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France toconduct a referendum between 2014 and 2019 to decide whether NewCaledonia should assume full sovereignty and independence.
New ZealandThe Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to QueenVictoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, theBritish began the first organized colonial settlement. A series ofland wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the nativepeoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independentdominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense allianceslapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought toaddress longstanding Maori grievances.
NicaraguaThe Pacific coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanishcolony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence fromSpain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independentrepublic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the firsthalf of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the regionin subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmentalmanipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 andresulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the MarxistSandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftistrebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinistacontra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,1996, and 2001, saw the Sandinistas defeated, but voting in 2006announced the return of former Sandinista President Daniel ORTEGASaavedra. The 2008 municipal elections were characterized bywidespread irregularities. Nicaragua's infrastructure and economy -hard hit by the earlier civil war and by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 -are slowly being rebuilt, but democratic institutions face newchallenges under the ORTEGA administration.
NigerNiger became independent from France in 1960 and experiencedsingle-party and military rule until 1991, when Gen. Ali SAIBOU wasforced by public pressure to allow multiparty elections, whichresulted in a democratic government in 1993. Political infightingbrought the government to a standstill and in 1996 led to a coup byCol. Ibrahim BARE. In 1999, BARE was killed in a counter coup bymilitary officers who restored democratic rule and held electionsthat brought Mamadou TANDJA to power in December of that year.TANDJA was reelected in 2004 and in 2009 spearheaded aconstitutional amendment that would allow him to extend his term aspresident. In February 2010, a military coup deposed TANDJA,immediately suspended the constitution and dissolved the Cabinet,and promised that elections would be held following a transitionalperiod of unspecified duration. Niger is one of the poorestcountries in the world with minimal government services andinsufficient funds to develop its resource base. The largelyagrarian and subsistence-based economy is frequently disrupted byextended droughts common to the Sahel region of Africa. Apredominately Tuareg ethnic group emerged in February 2007, theNigerien Movement for Justice (MNJ), and attacked several militarytargets in Niger's northern region throughout 2007 and 2008.Successful government offensives in 2009 limited the rebels'operational capabilities.
NigeriaBritish influence and control over what would become Nigeriaand Africa's most populous country grew through the 19th century. Aseries of constitutions after World War II granted Nigeria greaterautonomy; independence came in 1960. Following nearly 16 years ofmilitary rule, a new constitution was adopted in 1999, and apeaceful transition to civilian government was completed. Thegovernment continues to face the daunting task of reforming apetroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered throughcorruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. Inaddition, Nigeria continues to experience longstanding ethnic andreligious tensions. Although both the 2003 and 2007 presidentialelections were marred by significant irregularities and violence,Nigeria is currently experiencing its longest period of civilianrule since independence. The general elections of April 2007 markedthe first civilian-to-civilian transfer of power in the country'shistory. In January 2010, Nigeria assumed a nonpermanent seat on theUN Security Council for the 2010-11 term.
NiueNiue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguisticdifferences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the restof the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200in 1966 to an estimated 1,398 in 2009) with substantial emigrationto New Zealand 2,400 km to the southwest.
Norfolk IslandTwo British attempts at establishing the island as apenal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants ofthe Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
Northern Mariana IslandsUnder US administration as part of the UNTrust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern MarianaIslands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead toforge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial statusbegan in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in politicalunion with the US was approved in 1975, and came into force on 24March 1976. A new government and constitution went into effect in1978.
NorwayTwo centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered offfollowing the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the nextseveral decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union withDenmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegiansresisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a newconstitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to let Norwaykeep its constitution in return for accepting the union under aSwedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led toa 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norwayremained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to itsshipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of WorldWar II, but was nonetheless occupied for five years by Nazi Germany(1940-45). In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became amember of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in thelate 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus ison containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planningfor the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda heldin 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
OmanThe inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered onIndian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, a newly establishedsultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendshiptreaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on Britishpolitical and military advisors increased, but it never became aBritish colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al-Said overthrew therestrictive rule of his father; he has ruled as sultan ever since.His extensive modernization program has opened the country to theoutside world while preserving the longstanding close ties with theUK. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought tomaintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
Pacific OceanThe Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's fiveoceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, SouthernOcean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterwaysinclude the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, andTorres Straits. The decision by the International HydrographicOrganization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, theSouthern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60degrees south.
PakistanThe Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in theworld and dating back at least 5,000 years, spread over much of whatis presently Pakistan. During the second millennium B.C., remnantsof this culture fused with the migrating Indo-Aryan peoples. Thearea underwent successive invasions in subsequent centuries from thePersians, Greeks, Scythians, Arabs (who brought Islam), Afghans, andTurks. The Mughal Empire flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries;the British came to dominate the region in the 18th century. Theseparation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim state ofPakistan (with West and East sections) and largely Hindu India wasnever satisfactorily resolved, and India and Pakistan fought twowars - in 1947-48 and 1965 - over the disputed Kashmir territory. Athird war between these countries in 1971 - in which Indiacapitalized on Islamabad's marginalization of Bengalis in Pakistanipolitics - resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation ofBangladesh. In response to Indian nuclear weapons testing, Pakistanconducted its own tests in 1998. India-Pakistan relations have beenrocky since the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, but both countries aretaking small steps to put relations back on track. In February 2008,Pakistan held parliamentary elections and in September 2008, afterthe resignation of former President MUSHARRAF, elected Asif AliZARDARI to the presidency. Pakistani government and military leadersare struggling to control domestic insurgents, many of whom arelocated in the tribal areas adjacent to the border with Afghanistan.
PalauAfter three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of thePacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of theCaroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join theFederated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association withthe US was approved in 1986 but not ratified until 1993. It enteredinto force the following year when the islands gained independence.
PanamaExplored and settled by the Spanish in the 16th century,Panama broke with Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Colombia,Ecuador, and Venezuela - named the Republic of Gran Colombia. Whenthe latter dissolved in 1830, Panama remained part of Colombia. WithUS backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and promptly signeda treaty with the US allowing for the construction of a canal and USsovereignty over a strip of land on either side of the structure(the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by the US ArmyCorps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement wassigned for the complete transfer of the Canal from the US to Panamaby the end of the century. Certain portions of the Zone andincreasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in thesubsequent decades. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA wasdeposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting theCanal, and remaining US military bases were transferred to Panama bythe end of 1999. In October 2006, Panamanians approved an ambitiousplan (estimated to cost $5.3 billion) to expand the Canal. Theproject, which began in 2007 and could double the Canal's capacity,is expected to be completed in 2014-15.
Papua New GuineaThe eastern half of the island of New Guinea -second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred toAustralia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during WorldWar I and continued to administer the combined areas untilindependence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the islandof Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel IslandsThe Paracel Islands are surrounded by productivefishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station onPattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troopsseized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.China built a military installation on Woody Island with an airfieldand artificial harbor. The islands also are claimed by Taiwan andVietnam.
ParaguayParaguay achieved its independence from Spain in 1811. Inthe disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) - betweenParaguay and Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay - Paraguay losttwo-thirds of all adult males and much of its territory. The countrystagnated economically for the next half century. Following theChaco War of 1932-35 with Bolivia, Paraguay gained a large part ofthe Chaco lowland region. The 35-year military dictatorship ofAlfredo STROESSNER ended in 1989, and, despite a marked increase inpolitical infighting in recent years, Paraguay has held relativelyfree and regular presidential elections since then.
PeruAncient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andeancivilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire wascaptured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independencewas declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democraticleadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growthof a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in theeconomy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarianmeasures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mountingdissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. Acaretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO Manrique as the new head ofgovernment - Peru's first democratically elected president of NativeAmerican ethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the returnof Alan GARCIA Perez who, after a disappointing presidential termfrom 1985 to 1990, has overseen a robust macroeconomic performance.
PhilippinesThe Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony duringthe 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following theSpanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became aself-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president andwas tasked with preparing the country for independence after a10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japaneseoccupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos foughttogether during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 theRepublic of the Philippines attained its independence. A 20-yearrule by Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power"movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installedCorazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by severalcoup attempts that prevented a return to full political stabilityand economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992.His administration was marked by increased stability and by progresson economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military baseson the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998. He wassucceeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption chargesbroke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2") demandedhis resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year term aspresident in May 2004. Her presidency was marred by severalcorruption allegations but the Philippine economy was one of the fewto avoid contraction following the 2008 global financial crisis,expanding each year of her administration. Benigno AQUINO III waselected to a six-year term as president in May 2010. The PhilippineGovernment faces threats from several groups on the US Government'sForeign Terrorist Organization list. Manila has waged a decades-longstruggle against ethnic Moro insurgencies in the southernPhilippines, which has led to a peace accord with the Moro NationalLiberation Front and on-again/off-again peace talks with the MoroIslamic Liberation Front. The decades-long Maoist-inspired NewPeoples' Army insurgency also operates through much of the country.
Pitcairn IslandsPitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by theBritish and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and theirTahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to becomea British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige ofthat empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to NewZealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 toless than 50 today.
PolandPoland is an ancient nation that was conceived near themiddle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16thcentury. During the following century, the strengthening of thegentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series ofagreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austriapartitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained itsindependence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the SovietUnion in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state followingthe war, but its government was comparatively tolerant andprogressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of theindependent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became apolitical force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections andthe presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990senabled the country to transform its economy into one of the mostrobust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingeringchallenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidatedinfrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered amajor defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed toelect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the newleaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reducethe Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and theEuropean Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasinglyactive member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
PortugalFollowing its heyday as a global maritime power during the15th and 16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and statuswith the destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupationduring the Napoleonic Wars, and the independence of its wealthiestcolony of Brazil in 1822. A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy;for most of the next six decades, repressive governments ran thecountry. In 1974, a left-wing military coup installed broaddemocratic reforms. The following year, Portugal grantedindependence to all of its African colonies. Portugal is a foundingmember of NATO and entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986. In January2011, Portugal assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN SecurityCouncil for the 2011-12 term.
Puerto RicoPopulated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, theisland was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonialrule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated andAfrican slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as aresult of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted UScitizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internalself government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voterschose not to alter the existing political status.
QatarRuled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatartransformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly forpearling into an independent state with significant oil and naturalgas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatarieconomy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleumrevenues by the Amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani, overthrew him in abloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstandingborder disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. As of 2007, oiland natural gas revenues had enabled Qatar to attain thesecond-highest per capita income in the world.
RomaniaThe principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuriesunder the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured theirautonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adoptedthe new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of itsindependence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I andacquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following theconflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers andparticipated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three yearslater, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. Thepost-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. Thedecades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressiveand draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown andexecuted in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the governmentuntil 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in2004 and the EU in 2007.
RussiaFounded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, wasable to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15thcenturies) and to gradually conquer and absorb surroundingprincipalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynastycontinued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the BalticSea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19thcentury, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to theRevolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliamentand other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian armyin World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of theRussian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperialhousehold. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soonafter and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53)strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the SovietUnion at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy andsociety stagnated in the following decades until General SecretaryMikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) andperestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism,but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independentrepublics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democraticambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state whoselegitimacy is buttressed, in part, by carefully managed nationalelections, former President PUTIN's genuine popularity, and theprudent management of Russia's windfall energy wealth. Russia hasseverely disabled a Chechen rebel movement, although violence stilloccurs throughout the North Caucasus.
RwandaIn 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, themajority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, andsome 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. Thechildren of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the RwandanPatriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, alongwith several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnictensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated theHutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled toneighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, mostof the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but several thousandremained in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC;the former Zaire) and formed an extremist insurgency bent onretaking Rwanda, much as the RPF tried in 1990. Rwanda held itsfirst local elections in 1999 and its first post-genocidepresidential and legislative elections in 2003. Rwanda in 2009staged a joint military operation with the Congolese Army in DRC torout out the Hutu extremist insurgency there and Kigali and Kinshasarestored diplomatic relations. Rwanda also joined the Commonwealthin late 2009.
Saint BarthelemyDiscovered in 1493 by Christopher COLUMBUS whonamed it for his brother Bartolomeo, Saint Barthelemy was firstsettled by the French in 1648. In 1784, the French sold the islandto Sweden, who renamed the largest town Gustavia, after the SwedishKing GUSTAV III, and made it a free port; the island prospered as atrade and supply center during the colonial wars of the 18thcentury. France repurchased the island in 1878 and placed it underthe administration of Guadeloupe. Saint Barthelemy retained its freeport status along with various Swedish appellations such as Swedishstreet and town names, and the three-crown symbol on the coat ofarms. In 2003, the populace of the island voted to secede fromGuadeloupe and in 2007, the island became a French overseascollectivity.
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da CunhaSaint Helena is aBritish Overseas Territory consisting of Saint Helena and AscensionIslands, and the island group of Tristan da Cunha.Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17thcentury. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's exilefrom 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a port ofcall declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Duringthe Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boer prisonerswere confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discoveredand named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned theisland in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena. Itserved as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West AfricaSquadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiraltycontrol until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct anairfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africaand anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960sthe island became an important space tracking station for the US. In1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forcesduring the Falklands War. It remains a critical refueling point inthe air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands ofTristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan daCunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it wasgarrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescueNapoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have beendesignated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases a site for ameteorological station on Gough Island.
Saint Kitts and NevisCarib Indians occupied the islands forhundreds of years before the British began settlement in 1623. Theislands became an associated state of the UK with full internalautonomy in 1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed tosecede in 1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983.In 1998, a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from SaintKitts fell short of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continuesin its efforts to separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint LuciaThe island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,was contested between England and France throughout the 17th andearly 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finallyceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on itsplantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government wasgranted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint MartinAlthough sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 andclaimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook theisland in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. TheSpanish finally relinquished Saint Martin to the French and Dutch,who divided it amongst themselves in 1648. Friction between the twosides caused the border to frequently fluctuate over the next twocenturies, with the French eventually holding the greater portion ofthe island (about 57%). The cultivation of sugar cane introducedslavery to the island in the late 18th century; the practice was notabolished until 1848. The island became a free port in 1939; thetourism industry was dramatically expanded during the 1970s and1980s. In 2003, the populace of Saint Martin voted to secede fromGuadeloupe and in 2007, the northern portion of the island became aFrench overseas collectivity.
Saint Pierre and MiquelonFirst settled by the French in the early17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige ofFrance's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesResistance by native Caribsprevented colonization on Saint Vincent until 1719. Disputed betweenFrance and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, theisland was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, SaintVincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of theFederation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 andindependence in 1979.
SamoaNew Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoaat the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administerthe islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablishindependence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"from its name in 1997.
San MarinoThe third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy Seeand Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldestrepublic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christianstonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy isaligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in therepublic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and PrincipeDiscovered and claimed by Portugal in the late15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffeeand cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slavelabor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Whileindependence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were notinstituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first freeelections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between thevarious political parties precipitated repeated changes inleadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recentdiscovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increasedattention to the small island nation.
Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home toIslam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's officialtitle is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudistate was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al SAUD(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the ArabianPeninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abdal-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabiaaccepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees whileallowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for theliberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence offoreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became asource of tension between the royal family and the public until alloperational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terroristattacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaignagainst domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH hascontinued the cautious reform program begun when he was crownprince. To promote increased political participation, the governmentheld elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for halfthe members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, KingABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining membersof the advisory municipal councils. The king instituted anInter-Faith Dialogue initiative in 2008 to encourage religioustolerance on a global level; in February 2009, he reshuffled thecabinet, which led to more moderates holding ministerial andjudicial positions, and appointed the first female to the cabinet.The country remains a leading producer of oil and natural gas andholds more than 20% of the world's proven oil reserves. Thegovernment continues to pursue economic reform and diversification,particularly since Saudi Arabia's accession to the WTO in December2005, and promotes foreign investment in the kingdom. A burgeoningpopulation, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent onpetroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
SenegalThe French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan weremerged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federationin 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joinedwith The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in1982. The envisaged integration of the two countries was nevercarried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement ofDemocratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-levelseparatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, andseveral peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies inAfrica. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years untilcurrent President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He wasreelected in February 2007 and has amended Senegal's constitutionover a dozen times to increase executive power and to weaken theopposition, part of the President's increasingly autocraticgoverning style. Senegal has a long history of participating ininternational peacekeeping and regional mediation.
Serbia The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political movement headed by Josip "TITO" Broz (Partisans) took full control of Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were defeated in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the Republic of Serbia and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian domination led to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. In 1991, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992 and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led various military campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its - ultimately unsuccessful - campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC kept tight control over Serbia and eventually became president of the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic Albanian insurgency in the formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC government's rejection of a proposed international settlement led to NATO's bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999, to the withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June 1999, and to the stationing of a NATO-led force in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure environment for the region's ethnic communities. FRY elections in late 2000 led to the ouster of MILOSEVIC and the installation of democratic government. MILOSEVIC was arrested in 2001 and sent to be tried in The Hague for crimes against humanity; he died in March 2006 before the completion of his trial. In 2001, the country's suspension from the UN was lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a federal level parliament. Widespread violence predominantly targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo in March 2004 caused the international community to open negotiations on the future status of Kosovo in January 2006. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its right to secede from the federation and - following a successful referendum - it declared itself an independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days later, Serbia declared that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia and Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in October 2006 and adopted the following month. In February 2008, after nearly two years of inconclusive negotiations, the UN-administered province of Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia - an action Serbia refuses to recognize. At Serbia's request, the UN General Assembly (UNGA) in October 2008 sought an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on whether Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence was in accordance with international law. In a ruling considered unfavorable to Serbia, the ICJ issued an advisory opinion in July 2010 stating that international law did not prohibit declarations of independence. In late 2010, Serbia agreed to an EU-drafted UNGA Resolution acknowledging the ICJ's decision and calling for a new round of talks between Serbia and Kosovo.