Diamond Mine in the Brazils—Mines of Peru—Volcanic Eruptions of Mud and Salt—Pitch Wells—Visit to a Coal-Pit.
Diamond Mine in the Brazils—Mines of Peru—Volcanic Eruptions of Mud and Salt—Pitch Wells—Visit to a Coal-Pit.
Description of aDiamond Mineon the river Tigitonhonha, in the Brazilian territory; by Mr. Mawe.
“I could not (says the writer) resist the favourable opportunity now offered me of gratifying the curiosity which had so long occupied my mind, by visiting the diamond mines, in company with the principal officer in the administration of them, who was therefore qualified to furnish me with the amplest information. A fine horse was waiting for me at the door, and I rode up to the house of the governor, who introduced me to his amiable lady, daughters, and family, with whom I had the honour to take breakfast. Several officers of the diamond establishment arrived on horseback to accompany us, their presence being required on this occasion.
“Having arrived at the place, I remained here five days, during which I was occupied in viewing and examining various parts of the works, of which I shall here attempt to give a general description.
“The river Tigitonhonha is formed by a number of streams, and is as wide as the Thames at Windsor, and in general from three to nine feet deep. The part now in working is a curve or elbow, from which the current is diverted into a canal cut across the tongue of land round which it winds, the riverbeing stopped, just below the head of the canal, by an embankment formed of several thousand bags of sand. This is a work of considerable magnitude, and requires the co-operation of all the negroes to complete it; for the river being wide and not very shallow, and also occasionally subject to overflow, they have to make the embankment so strong as to resist the pressure of the water, admitting it to rise four or five feet.
“The deeper parts of the channel of the river are laid dry by means of large caissons or chain-pumps, worked by a water-wheel. The mud is then carried off, and the cascalhao is dug up, and removed to a convenient place for washing. This labour was, until lately, performed by the negroes, who carried the cascalhao in gamellas on their heads; but Mr. Camara has formed two inclined planes, about one hundred yards in length, along which carts are drawn by a large water-wheel, divided into two parts, the ladles or buckets of which are so constructed, that the rotary motion may be altered by changing the current of water from one side to the other; this wheel, by means of a rope made of untanned hides, works two carts, one of which descends empty on one inclined plane, while the other, loaded with cascalhao, is drawn to the top of the other, where it falls into a cradle, empties itself, and descends in its turn. At a work called Canjeca, formerly of great importance, about a mile up the river on the opposite side, there are three cylindrical engines for drawing the cascalhao, like those used in the mining country of Derbyshire, and also railways over some uneven ground. This was the first and only machinery of consequence, which I saw in the diamond district, and there appear many obstacles to the general introduction of it. Timber, when wanted of large size, has to be fetched a distance of one hundred miles, at a very heavy expense; there are few persons competent to the construction of machines, and the workmen dislike to make them, fearing that this is only part of a general plan for suspending manual labour.
“The stratum of cascalhao consists of the same materials with that in the gold district. On many parts, by the edge of the river, are large conglomerate masses of rounded pebbles cemented by oxide of iron, which sometimes envelop gold and diamonds. They calculate on getting as much cascalhao in the dry season, as will occupy all their hands during the months which are more subject to rain. When carried from the bed of the river whence it is dug, it is laid in heaps, containing apparently from five to fifteen tons each.
“Water is conveyed from a distance, and is distributed to the various parts of the works by means of aqueducts, constructed with great ingenuity and skill. The method of washingfor diamonds at this place, is as follows:—A shed is erected in the form of a parallelogram, twenty-five or thirty yards long, and about fifteen wide, consisting of upright posts, which support a roof thatched with long grass. Down the middle of the area of this shed, a current of water is conveyed through a canal, covered with strong planks, on which the cascalhao is laid two or three feet thick. On the other side of the area is a flooring of planks, from four to five yards long, imbedded in clay, extending the whole length of the shed, and having a slope, from the canal, of three or four inches to a yard. This flooring is divided into about twenty compartments or troughs, each about three feet wide, by means of planks placed on their edge. The upper ends of all these troughs (here called canoes) communicate with the canal, and are so formed that water is admitted into them between two planks that are about an inch separate. Through this opening the current falls about six inches into the trough, and may be directed to any part of it, or stopped, at pleasure, by means of a small quantity of clay. For instance, sometimes water is required only from one corner of the aperture, then the remaining part is stopped; sometimes it is wanted from the centre, then the extremes are stopped; and sometimes only a gentle rill is wanted, then the clay is applied accordingly. Along the lower ends of the troughs a small channel is dug, to carry off the water. On the heap of cascalhao, at equal distances, are placed three high chairs, for the officers or overseers. After they are seated, the negroes enter the troughs, each provided with a rake of a peculiar form, and short handle, with which he rakes into the trough about fifty or eighty pounds weight of cascalhao. The water being then let in upon it, the cascalhao is spread abroad, and continually raked up to the head of the trough, so as to be kept in constant motion. This operation being performed for the space of a quarter of an hour, the water then begins to run clearer; having washed the earthy particles away, the gravel-like matter is raked up to the end of the trough; after the current flows away quite clear, the largest stones are thrown out, and afterwards those of inferior size, then the whole is examined with great care for diamonds. When a negro finds one, he immediately stands upright and claps his hands, then extends them, holding the gem between his fore finger and thumb; an overseer receives it from him, and deposits it in a gamella or bowl, suspended from the centre of the structure, half full of water. In this vessel all the diamonds found in the course of the day, are placed, and at the close of work are taken out, and delivered to the principal officer, who, after they have been weighed, registers the particulars in a book kept for that purpose. When a negro is so fortunate as to find a diamondof the weight of 17½ carats, much ceremony immediately takes place; he is crowned with a wreath of flowers, and carried in procession to the administrator, who gives him his freedom, by paying his owner for it. He also receives a present of new clothes, and is permitted to work on his own account. When a stone of eight or ten carats is found, the negro receives two new shirts, a complete new suit, with a hat, and a handsome knife. For smaller stones of trivial amount, proportionate premiums are given. During my stay at Tejuco, a stone of 16½ carats was found: it was pleasing to see the anxious desire manifested by the officers that it might prove heavy enough to entitle the poor negro to his freedom; and when, on being delivered and weighed, it proved only a carat short of the requisite weight, all seemed to sympathize in his disappointment.
“Many precautions are taken to prevent the negroes from embezzling diamonds. Although they work in a bent position, and consequently never know whether the overseers are watching them or not, yet it is easy for them to omit gathering any which they see, and to place them in a corner of the trough for the purpose of secreting them at leisure hours; to prevent which they are frequently changed while the operation is going on. A word of command being given by the overseers, they instantly move into each others’ troughs, so that no opportunity of collusion can take place. If a negro be suspected of having swallowed a diamond, he is confined in a strong room until the fact can be ascertained. Formerly, the punishment inflicted upon a negro for smuggling diamonds, was confiscation of his person to the state: but it being thought too hard for the owner to suffer for the offence of his servant, the penalty has been commuted for personal imprisonment and chastisement. This is a much lighter punishment than that which their owners, or any white man, would suffer for a similar offence.
“There is no particular regulation respecting the dress of the negroes: they work in the clothes most suitable to the nature of their employment, generally in a waistcoat and a pair of drawers, and not naked, as some travellers have stated. Their hours of labour are from a little before sunrise until sunset, half an hour being allowed for breakfast, and two hours at noon. While washing, they change their posture as often as they please, which is very necessary, as the work requires them to place their feet on the edges of the trough, and to stoop considerably. This posture is particularly prejudicial to young growing negroes, as it renders them in-kneed. Four or five times during the day, they all rest, when snuff, of which they are very fond, is given to them.
“The negroes are formed into working parties, called troops,containing 200 each, under the direction of an administrator and inferior officers. Each troop has a clergyman and a surgeon to attend it. With respect to the subsistence of the negroes, although the present governor has in some degree improved it, by allowing a daily portion of fresh beef, which was not allowed by his predecessors, yet I am sorry to observe that it is still poor and scanty; and that in other respects they are more hardly dealt with than those of any other establishment which I visited: notwithstanding this, the owners are all anxious to get their negroes into the service, doubtless from sinister motives.
“The officers are liberally paid, and live in a style of considerable elegance, which a stranger would not be led to expect in so remote a place. Our tables were daily covered with a profusion of excellent viands, served up on fine Wedgewood ware, and the state of their household generally corresponded with this essential part of it. They were ever ready to assist me in my examination of the works, and freely gave me all the necessary information respecting them.
“Having detailed the process of washing for diamonds, I proceed to a general description of the situation in which they are found. The flat pieces of ground on each side the river are equally rich throughout their extent, and hence the officers are enabled to calculate the value of an unworked place, by comparison with the amount found on working with the part adjoining. These known places are left in reserve, and trial is made of more uncertain grounds. The following observation I often heard from the intendant: ‘That piece of ground (speaking of an unworked flat by the side of the river) will yield me ten thousand carats of diamonds, whenever we shall be required to get them in the regular course of working, or when, on any particular occasion, an order from government arrives, demanding an extraordinary and immediate supply.’
“The substances accompanying diamonds, and considered good indications of them, are bright bean-like iron ore, a slaty flint-like substance, approaching Lydian stone, of fine texture, black oxide of iron in great quantities, rounded bits of blue quartz, yellow crystals, and other materials entirely different from anything known to be produced in the adjacent mountains. Diamonds are by no means peculiar to the beds of rivers or deep ravines; they have been found in cavities and watercourses on the summits of the most lofty mountains. I had some conversation with the officers, respecting the matrix of the diamond, not a vestige of which could I trace. They informed me, that they often found diamonds cemented in pudding-stone, accompanied with grains of gold, but that they always broke them out, as they could not enter them in the treasury, or weigh them with matter adhering to them.I obtained a mass of pudding-stone, apparently of very recent formation, cemented by ferruginous matter enveloping many grains of gold; and likewise a few pounds weight of the cascalhao in its unwashed state. This river, and other streams in its vicinity, have been in washing many years, and have produced great quantities of diamonds, which have ever been reputed of the finest quality. They vary in size: some are so small that four or five are required to weigh one grain, consequently sixteen or twenty to the carat: there are seldom found more than two or three stones of from seventeen to twenty carats in the course of a year, and not once in two years is there found throughout the whole washings a stone of thirty carats. During the five days I was here, they were not very successful; the whole quantity found amounted only to forty, the largest of which was only four carats, and of a light green colour.
“From the great quantity of debris, or worked cascalhao, in every part near the river, it is reasonable to calculate that the works have been in operation above forty years; of course there must arrive a period at which they will be exhausted, but there are grounds in the neighbourhood, particularly in the Cerro de St. Antonio, and in the country now inhabited by the Indians, which will probably afford these gems in equal abundance.”
The Mines of Peru.—There are great numbers of very rich mines which the waters of the ocean have invaded. The disposition of the ground, which from the summit of the Cordilleras goes continually shelving to the South Sea, renders such events more common at Peru than in other places. This has been in some instances remedied. Joseph Salcedo, about 1660, discovered, near Puna, the mine of Laycacoto. It was so rich that they often cut the silver with a chisel. It was at last overflowed with water; but in 1740, Diego de Bacua associated with others to divert the springs. The labours which this difficult undertaking required, were not finished till 1754. The mine yields as much as it did at first. But mines still richer have been discovered; such as that of Potosi, which was found in the same country where the Incas worked that of Parco. An Indian, named Hualpa, in 1545, pursuing some deer, in order to climb certain steep rocks, had hold of a bush, the roots of which loosened from the earth, and brought to view an ingot of silver. The indian had recourse to it for his own use. The change in his fortunes was remarked by one of his countrymen, and he discovered to him the secret. The two friends could not keep their counsel and enjoy their good fortune. They quarrelled; on which the indiscreet confidant discovered the whole to his masterVillaroel, a Spaniard. Upon this the mine was worked, and a great number of others were found in its vicinity, the principal of which are in the northern part of the mountain, and their direction is from north to south. The fame of Potosi soon spread abroad; and there was quickly built at the foot of the mountain a town, consisting of 60,000 Indians, and 10,000 Spaniards. The sterility of the soil did not prevent its being immediately peopled. Corn, fruit, flocks, American stuffs, and European luxuries, arrived from every quarter. In 1738 these mines produced annually near £978,000, without reckoning the silver which was not registered, and what had been carried off by fraud. From that time the produce has been so much diminished, that not above one-eighth part of the coin which was formerly struck, is now made. At all the mines of Peru, the Spaniards, in purifying their gold and silver, use mercury, with which they are supplied from Guanca Velica. The common opinion is, that this mine was discovered in 1564. The trade of mercury was then free; it became an exclusive trade in 1571. At this period all the mines of mercury were shut; and that of Guanca Velica alone was worked; the property of which the king reserved to himself. It is not found to diminish. The mine is dug in the very large mountain of Potosi, sixty leagues from Lima. In its profound abyss are seen streets, squares, and a chapel, where the mysteries of religion on all festivals are celebrated. Millions of flambeaus are continually kept to enlighten it. The mine of Guanca Velica generally affects those who work in it with convulsions; and the other mines, which are not less unhealthy, are all worked by the Peruvians. These unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice are crowded all together, and plunged naked into these abysses, the greatest part of which are deep, and all excessively cold. Tyranny has invented this refinement in cruelty, to render it impossible for any thing to escape its restless vigilance. If there are any wretches who long survive such barbarity, it is the use of cocoa that preserves them.
We shall incorporate in this chapter, the following interesting account ofVolcanic Eruptions of Mud and Salt, in the Island of Java; by T. S. Goad, Esq. of the Honourable Company’s Bengal Civil Service.
“Having received (says the writer) an extraordinary account of a natural phenomenon in the plains of Grobogan, fifty pals (or miles) north-east of Solo, a party, of which I was one, set off from Solo on the eighth of September, 1815, to examine it.
“On approaching the village of Kuhoo, we saw, between two trees in a plain, an appearance like the surf breaking overrocks, with a strong spray falling to leeward. The spot was completely surrounded by huts, for the manufacture of salt, and at a distance looked like a large village. Alighting, we went to the Bludugs, as the Javanese call them. They are situated in the village of Kuhoo, and by Europeans are called by that name. We found them to be on an elevated plain of mud, about two miles in circumference, in the centre of which immense bodies of salt mud were thrown up, to the height of from ten to fifteen feet, in the form of large globes, which, bursting, emitted volumes of dense white smoke. These large globes or bubbles, of which there were two, continued throwing up, and bursting seven or eight times in a minute At times they throw up two or three tons of mud. We got to leeward of the smoke, and found it to smell like the washing of a gun-barrel.
“As the globes burst, they threw the mud out from the centre with a pretty loud noise, occasioned by the falling of the mud upon that which surrounded it, and of which the plain is composed. It was difficult and dangerous to approach the large globes or bubbles, as the ground was all a quagmire, except where the surface of the mud had become hardened by the sun; upon this we approached cautiously to within fifty yards of the largest bubble, or mud pudding, as it might very properly be called, for it was of the consistency of a custard-pudding, and of very considerable diameter: here and there, where the foot accidentally rested on a spot not sufficiently hardened, it sunk, to the no small distress of the walker.
“We also got close to a small globe or bubble, (the plain being full of them of different sizes,) and observed it closely for some time. It appeared to heave and swell, and when the internal air had raised it to some height, it burst, and fell down in concentric circles, in which shape it remained quiet until a sufficient quantity of air was again formed internally, to raise and burst another bubble. This continued at intervals from about one-half to two minutes. From various other parts of the quagmire round the large globes or bubbles, there were occasionally small quantities of mud shot up like rockets to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and accompanied by smoke. This was in parts where the mud was of too stiff a consistency to rise in globes or bubbles. The mud at all the places we came near was cold on the surface, but we were told it was warm beneath. The water which drains from the mud is collected by the Javanese, and by being exposed in the hollows of split bamboos to the rays of the sun, deposits crystals of salt. The salt thus made is reserved exclusively for the Emperor of Solo. In dry weather it yields thirtydudjins, of one hundredcattieseach, every month; but in wet or cloudy weather, less.
“In the afternoon we rode to a place in a forest, called Ramsam, to view a salt lake, a mud hillock, and various boiling, or rather bubbling, pools. The lake was about half a mile in circumference, of a dirty looking water, boiling up all over in gurgling bodies, but more particularly in the centre, which appeared like a strong spring; the water was quite cold, and tasted bitter, salt, and sour, and had an offensive smell. About thirty yards from the lake stood the mud hillock, which was about fifteen feet high from the level of the earth. The diameter of its base was about twenty-five yards, its top about eight feet, and in form an exact cone. The top is open, and the interior keeps constantly working, and heaving up mud in globular forms, like the Bludugs. The hillock is entirely formed of mud which has flowed out of the top; every rise of the mud was accompanied by a rumbling noise from the bottom of the hillock, which was distinctly heard for some seconds before the bubbles burst. The outside of the hillock was quite firm. We stood on the edge of the opening and sounded it, and found it to be eleven fathoms deep. The mud was more liquid than at the Bludugs, and no smoke was emitted from the lake, hillock, or pools.
“Close to the foot of the hillock was a small pool of the same water as the lake, which appeared exactly like a pot of water boiling violently; it was shallow, except in the centre, into which we thrust a stick twelve feet long, but found no bottom. The hole not being perpendicular, we could not sound it with a line.
“About 200 yards from the lake, were several large pools or springs, two of which were eight or ten feet in diameter. They were like the small pool, but boiled more violently, and smelt excessively. The ground around them was hot to the feet, and the air which issued from them quite hot, so that it was most probably inflammable; but we did not ascertain this. We heard the boiling at the distance of thirty yards from the pools, resembling in noise a waterfall. The pools did not overflow; of course the bubbling was occasioned by the rising of air alone. The water of one of the pools appeared to contain a mixture of earth and lime, and, from the taste, to be combined with alkali. The water of the Bludugs and the lake is used medicinally by the Javanese, and cattle drinking of the water are poisoned.”
Now follows an account ofPitch-Wells; from Dr. Holland’s Travels in the Ionian Isles, &c.—“The pitch-wells of Zante are a natural phenomenon, which may be regarded as among the antiquities of the isle; since they were known and described as early as the time of Herodotus, and are mentioned since by Pausanias, Pliny, and other authors. Theyare situated about ten miles from the city, and near the shore of the bay, on the southern side of the island. We visited this spot, which is called Chieri, a day or two after our arrival in Zante. A small tract of marshy ground, stretching down to the sea, and surrounded on other sides by low eminences of limestone, or a bituminous shale, is the immediate situation of the springs; they are found in three or four different places of the morass, appearing as small pools, the sides and bottom of which are thickly lined with petroleum, in a viscid state, and, by agitation, easily raised in large flakes to the surface. The most remarkable of these pools is one of a circular form, about fifty feet in circumference, and a few feet in depth, in which the petroleum has accumulated to a considerable quantity. The water of the spring, which is doubtless the means of conveying the mineral upwards to the surface, forms a small stream from the pool, sensibly impregnated with bituminous matter, which it deposits in parts as it flows through the morass: the other pools are of similar character. The petroleum is collected generally once in the year; and the average quantity obtained from the springs is said to be about 100 barrels; it is chiefly used for the caulking of vessels, not being found to answer equally well for cordage.”
We close this chapter with Mrs. Wakefield’s account of herVisitto aCoal-Pit.—“Near the town of Newcastle, in the county of Northumberland, are vast beds of coal, which lie far beneath the surface of the earth: they are often found at the depth of 100 feet. Our visit to one of them was rather a droll adventure. The first ceremony was, to put on a kind of frock that covered us all over, to prevent spoiling our clothes. We were then shewn a prodigious steam-engine at work, at the mouth of the pit, in order to drain off the water; and close to it, a ventilator for purifying the air in the pit. Our guides now seated us on a piece of board, slung in a rope like the seat of a swing, and hooked to an iron chain, which was let gently down the suffocating hole by the assistance of six horses. I must confess, I did not like this mode of travelling: my spirits were, however, rather cheered when I reached the solid bottom, and saw my friend at my side. He congratulated me on my safe arrival; and pointed to a huge fire, burning for the purpose of keeping the air in proper temperature. Gaining courage by a nearer examination, I walked about the chambers with as much ease as if they had been the apartments of a dwelling-house. The coal is hollowed out in spaces of four yards wide, between which are left pillars of coal to support the roof, ten yards broad, and twenty deep. After exploring a dozen or two of these little apartments, our curiosity was satisfied, as there was nothing more to be seenbut a repetition of the same objects to a vast extent. A number of horses live here for years together, and seem to enjoy themselves very comfortably: they are employed to draw the coal from the subterraneous passages to the bottom of the opening of the pit. The machine which raises the coal to the surface of the earth, is worked by stout horses. The coal is brought in strong baskets, made of osier; they contain each 12 cwt. and while one ascends, the other descends. A man receives these baskets as they arrive at the top, and places them on a dray, having hooked an empty basket on, instead of the full one. Before he drives the dray to a shed at a little distance, where he empties his load, the dust passes through holes prepared to receive it; while the large coals roll down the declivity in heaps, where they are loaded in waggons, and carried to wharfs on the river side, to be put on board the vessels that wait to convey them to distant parts. The waggons, very heavily laden, run without horses to the water side, along a road ingeniously formed in a sloping direction, with grooves to fit the waggon wheels, and make them go more readily. The dust, which is too small for common fires, is put into a kiln well heated, and when it is burnt, the particles unite, and run into large cakes or masses: in that state it is called coke, and this substance is used in many manufactories, where a strong heat is required.
“There are also coal-mines in several other parts of England. Near Whitehaven, in the county of Cumberland, are some that extend half a mile under the sea. The collieries employ a great number of hardy sailors, who, in their frequent coasting-voyages, are accustomed to face all the dangers of a sea-life. In time of war they contribute to man our navy; and, from their courage and skill, form a very valuable part of the crews.”
CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE SEA.
General Observations respecting the Sea, or Ocean—Particular Curiosities of the Sea—On the Saltness of the Sea—On the Tides—Waves stilled by Oil.
General Observations respecting the Sea, or Ocean—Particular Curiosities of the Sea—On the Saltness of the Sea—On the Tides—Waves stilled by Oil.
General Observations Respecting the Sea, or Ocean.
The sea, or ocean, is that vast tract of water which encompasses the whole earth. What proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the land, is not precisely known, though it is said to be somewhat more than two-thirds. As the waters of the earth must necessarily rise to the surface thereof, it being specifically lighter than the earth, it was necessary there should be large cavities therein, as receptacles to contain them, otherwise they would have overspread all the surface of the earth, and so have rendered it utterly uninhabitable for terrestrial animals: it is well known, that the centre of the earth is the common centre of gravity, and that the nature of fluids is such, that they equally yield to equal powers; hence it follows, that where the power of attraction is every where the same at equal distances from the centre, the superficial parts of the water will every where conform themselves to this attractive power, at an equidistant situation from the centre, and, it is evident, will form the surface of a sphere, so far as they extend. The reason then that the sea seems higher than the land, results from the fallacy of vision, whereby all objects, whether on the land or sea, appear higher as they become more distant: and the reason will be plain to those who are acquainted with optics; for it is well known, that the denser any medium is, through which we behold objects, the greater is the refraction, or the more their images appear above the horizontal level; while the greater the quantity of medium through which the rays pass, the more they will be bent from their first direction: on both these accounts, the appearances of things at a great distance, both on the land and the sea, will be somewhat above the horizon, and the more so as they are the more remote.
With regard to the depth or profundity of the sea, Varenius affirms, that it is in some places unfathomable, in otherplaces very various, being from fifty yards to four and a half English miles, in some places deeper, and that the depth is much less in bays than in oceans. In general, the depths of the sea bear a great analogy to the height of mountains on the land, so far as discoveries have hitherto extended. It is a general rule among sailors, and is found to hold true in many instances, that the more the shores of any place are steep and high, forming perpendicular cliffs, the deeper the sea is below; and that, on the contrary, level shores denote shallow waters. Thus, the deepest part of the Mediterranean is generally allowed to be under the heights of Malta. And the observation of the strata of earth and other fossils, on and near the shores, may serve to form a good judgment as to the materials to be found in the bottom of the sea; for the veins of salt and bitumen doubtless run on in the same order as we see them on the shore. If we may reason from analogy, the strata of rocks, that serve as a foundation for hills and elevated places on shore, serve also, in the same continued chain, to support the immense quantity of water in the basin of the sea.
The coral fisheries have given occasion to observe, that there are many, and those very large caverns or hollows in the bottom of the sea, especially where it is rocky, and that the like caverns are sometimes found in the perpendicular rocks which form the steep sides of those fisheries. These caverns are often of great depth as well as extent, and have sometimes wide mouths, and sometimes only narrow entrances, into large and spacious hollows.
The bottom of the sea is covered with a variety of materials, such as could not be imagined by any but those who have examined into them, especially in deep water, where the surface only is disturbed by tides and storms; the lower part, and consequently its bed at the bottom, remaining, for ages perhaps, undisturbed. The soundings, when the plummet first touches the ground, on approaching the shores, give some idea of this. The bottom of the plummet is hollowed, and in that hollow there is placed a lump of tallow, which is the first part that touches the ground; and the soft nature of the fat receives into it some part of those substances which it meets with at the bottom: the substances thus brought up, are sometimes pure sand, sometimes a kind of sand made of the fragments of shells beaten to a sort of powder, sometimes they are composed of a like powder to the several sorts of corals, and sometimes they are composed of fragments of rocks; but besides these appearances, which are natural enough, and are what might well be expected, it brings up substances which are of the most beautiful colours.
Dr. Donati, in an Italian work, containing an essay on anatural history of the Adriatic Sea, has related many curious observations on this subject: having carefully examined the soil and productions of the various countries that surround the Adriatic Sea, and compared them with those which he took up from the bottom of the sea, he found that there was very little difference between the former and the latter. At the bottom of the water there are mountains, plains, valleys, and caverns, similar to those upon land. The soil consists of different strata, placed one upon another, and mostly parallel and correspondent to those of the rocks, islands, and neighbouring continents. They contain stones of different sorts, minerals, metals, various petrified bodies, pumice stones, and lavas formed by volcanoes. One of the objects which most excited his attention, was a crust, which he discovered under the water, composed of crustaceous and testaceous bodies, with beds of polypes of different kinds, confusedly blended with earth, sand, and gravel: the different marine bodies, which form this crust, are found at the depth of a foot or more, entirely petrified, and reduced into marble; these, he supposes, are the natural beds of the sea, and not made so by means of volcanoes and earthquakes, as some have conjectured. On this account, he imagines that the bottom of the sea is constantly rising higher and higher, with which other obvious causes of increase concur; and from this rising of the bottom of the sea, that of its level or surface naturally results; in proof of which, this writer recites a great number of facts.
M. Dassie has been at great pains to prove, that the sea has a general motion, independently of winds and tides, and that it is of more consequence in navigation than is generally supposed. He affirms, that this motion is from east to west; inclining towards the north, when the sun has passed the equinoctial northward, during the time he is passing through the northern signs; but the contrary way, after the sun has passed the said equinoctial southward: adding, that when this general motion is changed, the diurnal flux is changed also; whence it happens, that in several places the tides come in during one part of the year, and go out during the other, as on the coasts of Norway, in the Indies at Goa, Cochin-china, &c. where, while the sun is in the summer signs, the sea runs to the shore; and when in the winter signs, runs from it. On the most southern coasts of Tonquin and China, for the six summer months, the diurnal course runs from the north with the ocean; but the sun having repassed the line toward the south, the course declines also southward.
There are two principal reasons why the sea does not increase by means of rivers, &c. falling every where into it. The first is, because waters return from the sea by subterraneancavities and aqueducts, through various parts of the earth. Secondly, because the quantity of vapours raised from the sea, and falling on the land, only cause a circulation, but no increase of water. It has been found, by calculation, that in a summer’s day there may be raised in vapours, from the Mediterranean Sea, 5,280,000,000 tons of water, and yet this sea receiveth not, from all its nine great rivers, above 1,827,000,000 tons per day, which is but a third part of what is exhausted in vapours.
The ascent of the sea for the formation of springs, by a subterranean circulation of its water to their sources, has been a great objection, with many, against the system which ascribes their origin to the ocean; but Dr. Plot has observed, that there are many ways by which the water may ascend above its own level: 1. By the means of subterranean heat. 2. By filtration. 3. By the unequal height of several seas. 4. By the distance of the centre of magnitude from the centre of gravity in the terraqueous globe; the superficies of the Pacific Sea being said to be further from the centre of gravity than the top of the highest hill on the adverse part of the globe. And, 5. By the help of storms. The sea water actually ascends above its own level, and finds its way into wells, whose bottoms lie higher than the surface of the sea at high-water mark.
We shall now enter more particularly onThe Curiosities of the Sea.—For the following observations we are principally indebted to Sturm.
“Instead of regarding the sea as an object of terror, let us consider the wonders and the benefits which it presents to us. It must be granted that when the waves swell into mountains, and the tempest roars, its aspect is terrific; and we must be hardy indeed, not to consider it as a most formidable element in such times of awful visitation, when ships, breaking from their anchor, or driven from their course, rush before the winds that beat upon them with ungovernable fury, till, dismasted, and their rigging shivered in fragments, they sink, overwhelmed with a weight of waters, or strike some sand-bank, or shelving rock, and are at once dashed to pieces. Sometimes whirlpools, or vast masses of water with a violently circular motion, whirl the unfortunate vessel that fate urges into their vortex, with irresistible force, till the helpless victim sinks an easy prey to the tremendous gulf, and the cries of the unfortunate wretches are lost in the roar of the waves: these whirlpools are occasioned by rocks in the ocean, and the meeting of numerous currents and eddies. Not less dangerous are the waterspouts, that the wind raises from the sea to the clouds; they hover in the air high above the ocean,and the wind whirls them round with violence. They often burst with a great crash, and occasion much mischief; for if they fall upon a vessel, they destroy its rigging, and sometimes sink it to the bottom.
“But it would be highly unjust and ungrateful, only to consider the losses occasioned by the sea, without reflecting upon the magnificent and stupendous works of God, and that goodness which even visits the unfathomable depths of the ocean. The first thing that strikes us, upon the investigation of sea water, is its saltness; a pound of the water containing about two ounces of salt. Sea salt appears lighter than that we commonly use, and yet it is not attracted by the air, nor lessened by the continual influx of fresh water; the cause of this is unknown. If this peculiar quality arose from mountains of salt contained in the sea, it would be salter in some places than in others, of which we have no proof. But whatever is the occasion of this saline property of the sea, it is absolutely necessary to accomplish certain ends. It is that which preserves such a vast body of water from corruption, and renders it capable of supporting a greater weight. The colour of sea water is also deserving of attention: it is not every where alike, which perhaps arises in part from its reflecting the colour of the bottom and that of the sky. It often appears dark and black in deep abysses, white and foaming during a storm, silvery, and gilded with reflections of the most beautiful hue, when the last rays of the setting sun play upon the unruffled surface: the colour of the sea, in addition to these, varies, from numberless insects, marine plants, and the combination of the different substances which the rivers and torrents carry with them into the ocean. When it is calm, and not a breeze skims over its bosom, it sometimes glitters with the most brilliant stars; and the track of a ship cleaving the waves has often a luminous appearance, like a river of fire.
“The creatures which inhabit the sea excite our surprise and admiration; we there discover a new world, and the number of beings which compose it is prodigious. Aquatic animals are not so numerous in their species as the land animals; but they surpass them in size and duration. The elephant and ostrich yield in bulk to the whale, the largest fish of the ocean, its length being often from sixty to seventy feet; and no land animal can vie with it in longevity, for it lives as long as the oak. If we may rely upon certain accounts, there are creatures in the ocean, far exceeding the size of the whale; as the animal called kraken, said to exist in the northern seas, and whose circumference is half a German league. Who is able to number the different species of animals which people the seas? or who can determine their form, structure, size, andproperties? How infinitely great is that God who has created the sea! will be the conclusion of all who investigate the subject, and it is not without the wisest reasons that the Creator has made the ocean and the seas to occupy two-thirds of the whole globe. The seas were designed not only to form great reservoirs of water, but by means of their evaporation to be the sources of rain, snow, and various meteors. What wisdom is displayed in the connection which the seas have with each other, and in their continual motion! And it is not less wonderful that the bottom of the ocean is of the same nature as the surface of the earth. There are found in the sea, rocks, caverns, plains, springs, plants, and animals; and the islands are only the summits of a long chain of mountains. When we consider that the seas form a part of the globe the least investigated, we are disposed to believe that they contain many more wonders, which neither the senses nor the understanding of man can penetrate, while all acknowledge the adorable wisdom and power of the Most High. To Him then, who has established the monuments of his grandeur and the sceptre of his glory in the ocean, as upon the earth, be ascribed all admiration and praise!”
The following opinions of a late celebrated philosopher and divine,on the Saltness of the Sea, may not be unacceptable to our readers:—“There are few questions, (observes Bishop Watson,) respecting the natural history of our globe, which have been discussed with more attention, or decided with less satisfaction, than that concerning the primary cause of the saltness of the sea. The solution of it had perplexed the philosophers before the time of Aristotle; it surpassed his own great genius; and those of his followers, who have attempted to support his arguments, have been betrayed into very ill-grounded conclusions concerning it. Father Kircher, after having consulted three and thirty authors upon the subject, could not help remarking, that the fluctuations of the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions of men concerning the origin of its saline impregnation. The question does not seem capable of admitting an illustration from experiment; at least no experiments have hitherto been made for that purpose, and therefore we may be the less surprised at its remaining nearly as problematical in the present age, as it has been in the preceding. Had there, indeed, been any observation made three or four centuries ago, ascertaining the saltness of the sea at any particular time and place; we might, by similar observations at the same place and the same season, have been able to know whether the saltness at that particular place was an increasing, decreasing, or an invariable quantity; and this kind and degree ofknowledge would have served as a clue to direct us to a full investigation of this matter in general; but it is to be regretted, that no such observations have, till very lately, been made with any tolerable precision.—There are three principal opinions on this subject, which have been maintained by philosophers of modern date; some, observing that river water, almost in every part of the globe, is in a greater or less degree impregnated with sea salt, have thought that the sea has gradually acquired its present quality of salt from the long-continued influx of rivers.”
Other philosophers, observing that large beds of fossil salt are not unfrequent in any quarter of the globe; and conceiving, with great probability, the bottom of the sea to be analogous in its formation to the surface of the earth, have undertaken to derive its saltness from the beds of rock salt, which they have supposed to be situated at its bottom; and they are further of opinion, that without such a permanent saline principle, the sea would long since have become insipid from the fresh water poured into it by an infinity of rivers. Strange! that what, according to the fore-mentioned hypothesis, was thought sufficient to account for the saltness of the sea, should in this be esteemed instrumental in annihilating the saltness already supposed to exist.
Boyle unites, as it were, and takes the two preceding hypotheses, and imagines the saltness of the sea to be supplied, not only from rocks and other masses of salt, which at the beginning were, and in some countries may yet be found, either at the bottom of the sea, or at the sides, where the water can reach them, but also from the salt which the rivers, rains, and other waters, dissolve in their passage through divers parts of the earth, and at length carry with them into the sea. Buffon, and the generality of philosophers, acquiesce in the opinion of Boyle.—“After all, (says he,) it may be observed, that we are inquiring into the cause of a phenomenon, which it may be said had no secondary cause at all. It is taken for granted, in this disquisition, that the water which covered the globe in its chaotic state, was not impregnated with salt as at present, but quite fresh: now this is an opinion concerning a matter of fact, which can never be proved either way; and surely we extend our speculations very far, when we attempt to explain a phenomenon, primeval to, or coeval with, the formation of the earth.”
This sensible writer then states the different experiments which have been made to discover the saltness of the sea, round the shores of Britain; and proposes the following simple method of ascertaining it with tolerable certainty:—
“As it is not every person who can make himself expert in the use of common means of estimating the quantity of saltcontained in sea water, I will mention a method of doing it, which is so easy and simple, that every common sailor may understand and practise it; and which, at the same time, from the trials I have made of it, seems to be as exact a method as any that has yet been thought of.—Take a clean towel, or any other piece of cloth; dry it well before the sun or before the fire, then weigh it accurately, and note down its weight; dip it in the sea water, and, when taken out, wring it a little till it will not drip when hung up to dry; weigh it in this wet state, then dry it in the sun or at the fire, and when it is perfectly dry, weigh it again: the excess of the weight of the wetted cloth above its original weight, is the weight of the sea water imbibed by the cloth; and the excess of the weight of the cloth after being dried, above its original weight, is the specific gravity of the salt retained by the cloth; and by comparing this weight with the weight of the sea water imbibed by the cloth, we obtain the proportion of salt contained in that species of sea water.”
Whoever undertakes to ascertain the quantity of salt contained in sea water, either by this or any other method, would do well to observe the state of the weather preceding the time when the sea water is taken out of the sea; for the quantity of salt contained in the water near the surface, may be influenced, both by the antecedent moisture, and the antecedent heat of the atmosphere. And this leads to the consideration of a question proposed by Aristotle,—Why are the upper parts of the sea salter and warmer than the lower? Some philosophers, admitting the fact, have followed him in attempting to explain it; whilst others have thought themselves authorized by experiment to deny the truth of the position; and those, perhaps, will argue with the greatest justness, who shall affirm that it is neither generally to be admitted, nor generally to be rejected, but that the sea in some places, and under certain circumstances, is salter and warmer at the surface, than at any considerable depth beneath it, while in many others the reverse is true. The question consists of two parts, betwixt which, though there probably is a connection, yet it is not so necessary a one as to hinder us from considering each part by itself.
With regard to the use of this salt property of sea water, it is observed, that the saltness of the sea preserves its waters pure and sweet, which otherwise would corrupt, and emit a stench like a filthy lake, and consequently that none of the myriads of creatures which now live therein could exist. From thence also the sea water becomes much heavier, and therefore ships of greater size and burden are safely borne thereon. Salt water also does not freeze so soon as fresh water, hence the seas are more free for navigation.
We shall now make a few observations onThe Tides:—
Say, why should the collected mainItself within itself contain?Why to its caverns should it sometimes creeAnd with delighted silence sleepOn the lov’d bosom of its parent deep?Why should its num’rous waters stayIn comely discipline and fair array,Till winds and tides exert their high commands?Then prompt and ready to obey,Why do the rising surges spreadTheir op’ning ranks o’er earth’s submissive head,Marching through different paths to different lands?Prior.
The tides consist of two periodical motions of the waters of the sea, called the flux and reflux, or the flow and ebb. The cause of the tides is the attraction of the sun and moon, but chiefly of the latter; the waters of the immense ocean, forgetful, as it were, of their natural rest, move and roll in tides, obsequious to the strong attractive power of the moon, and weaker influence of the sun.
That the tides may have their full motion, the ocean in which they are produced ought to be extended from east to west 90°, or a quarter of a great circle of the earth, at least; because the places where the moon raises most, and most depresses the water, are at that distance from one another. Hence it appears, that it is only in the great oceans that such tides can be produced, and why, in the large Pacific ocean, they exceed those in the Atlantic. From this it is also obvious why the tides are not so great in the torrid zone, between Africa and America, where the ocean is narrower, as in the temperate zones on either side; and from this also, we may understand why the tides are so small in islands that are very far distant from the shore. It is manifest, that, in the Atlantic ocean, the water cannot rise on one shore, but by descending on the other; so that, on these shores, at an intermediate distance, it must continue at about a mean height between its elevation on the one, and descent on the other shore. As the tides pass over shoals, and run through streights into bays of the sea, their motion becomes more various, and their height depends on a great many circumstances. The tide that is produced in the western coast of Europe corresponds to the theory above described: thus, it is high water on the coast of Spain, Portugal, and the west of Ireland, about the third hour after the moon has passed the meridian; from thence it flows into the adjacent channels, as it finds the easiest passage. One current from it, for example, runs up by the south of England, and another comes in by the north of Scotland: they take a considerable time to move all this way, and it is high water sooner in the places towhich they first come; and the tides even begin to fall at those places, while the two currents are yet going on to others that are further in their course. As they return, they are not able to raise a tide; because the water runs faster off than it returns, till by a new tide propagated from the ocean, the return of the current is stopped, and the water begins to rise again. The tide takes twelve hours to come from the ocean to London bridge, so that, when it is high water there, a new tide is already come to its height in the ocean, and, in some intermediate place, it must be low water at the same time.
In channels, therefore, and narrow seas, the progress of the tides may be, in some respects, compared to the motion of the waves of the sea. It may be observed, that when the tide runs over shoals, and flows upon flat shores, the water is raised to a greater height than in the open and deep oceans that have steep banks; because the force of its motion cannot be broken upon these level shores, till the water rises to a greater height. If a place communicates with two oceans, (or two different ways with the same ocean, one of which is a readier and easier passage than the other,) two tides may arrive at that place in different times, which, interfering with each other, may produce a greater variety of phenomena.
An extraordinary instance of this kind is mentioned at Bathsha, a port in the kingdom of Tonquin in the East Indies, of northern latitude 20° 50′. The day in which the moon passes the equator, the water stagnates there without any motion: as the moon removes from the equator, the water begins to rise and fall once a day; and it is high water at the setting of the moon, and low water at her rising. This daily tide increases for about seven or eight days, and then decreases for as many days by the same degrees, till this motion ceases when the moon has returned to the equator. When she has passed the equator, and declines towards the south pole, the water rises and falls again, as before; but it is high water now at the rising, and low water at the setting, of the moon.
We shall close this chapter with an account of the remarkable fact ofWaves stilled by Oil.—This wonderful property, though well known to the ancients, as appears from the writings of Pliny, was for many ages either quite unnoticed, or treated as fabulous by succeeding philosophers, till Dr. Franklin again attracted the attention of the learned to this subject; though it appears, from some anecdotes, that seafaring people have always been acquainted with it. Mr. Pennant, in his British Zoology, vol. iv. under the articleSeal, takes notice, that when these animals are devouring a very oily fish, which they always do under water, the waves above are remarkably smooth; and by this the fishermen know where to find them. Sir Gilbert Lawson, who served long in the army at Gibraltar, assured Dr. Franklin, that the fishermen in that place are accustomed to pour a little oil on the sea, in order to still its motion, that they may be enabled to see the oysters lying at its bottom, which are there very large, and which they take up with a proper instrument. A similar practice is followed among fishermen in various other parts; and Dr. Franklin was informed by an old sea captain, that the fishermen of Lisbon, when about to return into the river, if they saw too great a surf upon the bar, would empty a bottle or two of oil into the sea, which would suppress the breakers, and allow them to pass freely. The Doctor having revolved in his mind all these pieces of information, became impatient to try the experiment himself. At last, having an opportunity of observing a large pond very rough with the wind, he dropped a small quantity of oil upon it. But having at first applied it on the lee side, the oil was driven back again upon the shore. He then went to the windward side, and poured on about a tea-spoonful of oil; this produced an instant calm over a space several yards square, which spread amazingly, and extended itself gradually till it came to the lee-side; making all that quarter of the pond, perhaps half an acre, as smooth as glass. This experiment was often repeated in different places, and was always attended with success.
CURIOSITIES RESPECTING THE SEA.—(Concluded.)
On the Perfection of Navigation.
The following account of the present wonderful perfection of navigation, is taken from a History of Voyages and Discoveries made in the North; translated from the German of John Reinhold Foster, LL.D.—
“Of all the arts and professions which have at any time attracted notice, none has ever appeared to be more astonishing and marvellous than that of navigation, in the state in which it is at present; an art which doubtless affords one of the most certain irrefragable proofs of the amazing powers of the human understanding. This cannot be made more evident, than when, taking a retrospective view of the tottering inartificial craft to which navigation owes its origin, we compare it to a noble and majestic edifice, containing 1000 men, together with their provisions, drink, furniture, wearing-apparel, and other necessaries, for many months, besides 100 pieces of heavy ordnance; and bearing all this vast apparatus safely, and as it were on the wings of the wind, across immense seas to the most distant shores. The following example may serve for the present to delineate at full length, as it were, the idea above alluded to. But first I must premise, that a huge unwieldy log of wood, with the greatest difficulty, and in the most uncouth manner, hollowed out in the inside, and somewhat pointed at both ends, and in this way set on a river for the purpose of transporting two or three persons belonging to one and the same family, across a piece of water a few feet deep, by the assistance of a pole pushed against the ground, cannot with any propriety be considered as the image of navigation in its first and earliest stage. For it seems evident to me, that people in the beginning only took three or four trunks of trees, and fastened them together, and then, by means of this kind of raft, got across such waters as were too deep for them to ford, and across which they could not well swim, with their children, and various kinds of goods which they might wish to preserve from being wet. The canoe, however, is a specimen of the art in a more advanced state, as this kind of craft is capable of having direction given to it, and even of so capital an improvement as that of having a sail added to it. For this reason I choose this vehicle for a standard, in preference to a mere raft, to which, imperfect as it is, it is so much superior.
“Let us, then, compare this with a large majestic floating edifice, the result of the ingenuity and labour of many hundreds of hands, and composed of a number of well-proportioned pieces, nicely fastened together by iron nails and bolts; and rendered so tight with tow and pitch, that no water can penetrate it. Now, in order to give motion and direction to this enormous machine, some astonishingly lofty pieces of timber have been fixed upright in it, and so many moveable cross pieces have been added to it, together with such a variety of pieces of strong linen cloth, for the purpose of catching the wind, and of receiving its impulse and propelling power, that the number of them amounts to upwards of thirty. For changingthe direction of the yards and sails, according to particular circumstances, it has also been requisite to add a vast quantity of cordage and tackling; and nevertheless, even all this would not be sufficient for the perfect direction and government of the vessel, if there were not fastened to the hinder part of it, by means of hinges and hooks, a moveable piece of wood, very small indeed, in proportion to the whole machine, but the least inclination of which to either side is sufficient to give immediately a different direction to this enormously large mass, and that even in a storm, so that two men may direct and govern this swimming island with the same, or with greater ease, than a single man can do a boat. But if, besides, we consider, that, in a vessel like this, not a single piece is put in at random, but that every part of it has its determinate measure and proportion, and is fixed precisely in that place which is the most advantageous for it; that, throughout every part of it, there is distributed an astonishing quantity of blocks, stays, and pulleys, for the purpose of diminishing the friction, and of accelerating the motion of these parts; that even the bellying and vaulted part of the fabric, together with its sharp termination underneath, are proportioned according to the nicest calculations, and the most accurately determined rules; that the length and the thickness of the masts, the size of the booms and yards, the length, width, and strength of the sails and tackling, are all in due proportion to each other, according to certain rules founded upon the principles of motion: when we consider all this, I say, our admiration increases more and more at this great masterpiece of human power and understanding.
“Still, however, there are wanting a few traits to complete this description. A man in health consumes, in the space of twenty-four hours, about eight pounds of victuals and drink: consequently, 8000lb. of provisions are required daily in such a ship. Now, let us suppose a ship to be fitted out for three months only, and we shall find that she must be laden with 720,000lb. of provisions. A large forty-two pounder weighs about 6100lb. if made of brass, and about 5500lb. if iron; and generally there are twenty-eight or thirty of these on board a ship of 100 guns, the weight of which, exclusive of that of their carriages, amounts to 183,000lb.—on the second deck, thirty twenty-four pounders, each of which weighs about 5100lb. and therefore altogether 153,000lb.—the weight of the twenty-six or twenty-eight twelve-pounders on the lower deck, amounts to about 75,400lb.—that of the fourteen six-pounders on the upper deck, to about 26,600lb.—besides which, on the round tops, there are even three-pounders and swivels. Now, if to this we add, that the complete charge of a forty-two pounder weighs about 64lb. and that at least upwards of 100charges are required for each gun, we shall find this to amount nearly to the same weight as the guns themselves. In addition to this, we must reflect, that every ship must have, by way of providing against exigencies, at least a second set of sails, cables, cordage, and tacklings, which altogether amount to a considerable weight. The stores, likewise, consisting of planks, pitch, and tow; the chests belonging to the officers and sailors; the surgeon’s stores, and various other articles requisite on a long voyage; as also the small arms, bayonets, swords, and pistols, are no inconsiderable load; to which we must finally add the weight of the crew, which is not very trifling: so that one of these large ships carries at least 2162 tons burden, or 4,324,000lb. and at the same time is steered and governed with as much ease as the smallest boat. Now, the consideration of these circumstances alone, is sufficient to excite the most serious reflections in a contemplative mind; and yet, if such a ship sailed along the coast only, and never lost sight of the shore, as the navigators of old used to do, we might still be tempted to look upon navigation as an easy and trifling business. But the finding the straightest and shortest way over an ocean of more than sixty or eighty degrees in longitude, and thirty or forty in latitude; or across a track from 4000 to 6000 miles in extent, by day and by night, in fair weather or in foul; as well when the sky is overcast as when it is clear, and often with no other guide than the compass, and the being able to determine the true position of the ship at sea, by the height of the sun, though this latter be enveloped in clouds, or to direct its course by the moon and stars with such exactness and precision, as not to make a mistake of the value of half a degree, or thirty miles; this at least shews the progress and great perfection of an art practised by a class of people, of whose understanding many conceited and supercilious landsmen have but a mean opinion, and whose plain and simple manners they frequently take the liberty of turning into ridicule, forgetting how much they are indebted to their skill and prowess.
“A violent storm of wind will make us tremble with fear, even in a strong well-built house, and in the midst of a populous city; yet we have seldom or never either seen or experienced the vast power of the enraged waves, when beat about by the winds, and dashed against each other till they seem transformed into froth and vapour, and the whole surface of the ocean presents to the eye a confused scene of immense watery mountains and bottomless precipices; and yet on such a sea as this the true seaman, provided he has but a good ship, rides with calm and unshaken courage, and thinks himself as safe in the midst of the ocean as in the best fortified castle.”
With gallant pomp and beauteous pride,The floating pile in harbour rode;Proud of her freight, the swelling tideReluctant left the vessel’s side,And rais’d it as it flow’d.The waves, with eastern breezes curl’d,Had silver’d half the liquid plain;The anchors weigh’d, the sails unfurl’d,Serenely mov’d the wooden world,And stretch’d along the main.