GOLD-LEAF.

GOLD-LEAF.For the purpose of gilding very thin leaves of gold are required, so thin, that although gold is expensive, yet gilded articles (as picture-frames) are very far from being so. To produce this gold-leaf is the business of the gold-beater. He first obtains the gold in a state of purity from the refiner, in the form of small grains, which, mixed with a small quantity of borax and alloy, are put into an earthen pot called a crucible (coated beforehand with clay to keep it from cracking), and then placed in a furnace which is raised to a white heat. The gold, when melted, is poured into an iron mould made warm and greased in the inside; this when cold forms an “ingot,” which weighs two ounces, and is three-quarters of an inch square and not quite half-an-inch thick. This ingot is now sent to the “flattening mills,” where it is passed between sets of steel rollers until it is rolled out into a sort of riband an inch wide and about twelve feet long (at this degree of thinness a square inch will weigh six-and-a-half grains). It is now cut into 150 pieces, each an inch square, which are packed between pieces of vellum, four inches each way, and surrounded by a sort of bag of the same material, the whole being then subjected to the blows of a heavy iron hammer (weighing about fourteen pounds) upon a block of solid stone, till the plates of gold are beaten out nearly as large as the vellum, when they are taken out and each cut into four pieces. These quarters are treated as before, using gold-beater’s “skin” instead of vellum (this skin is prepared from the intestines of the ox, and a set of these, consisting of several hundreds, is called a “mould”), and the gold again extended under the hammer to the size of the mould. The process is repeated in the same manner a third time, after which the leaves of gold are taken out, cut square on a cushion of leather, lifted carefully by means of a sort of tongs made of wood, and placed in the book. They are now between 600 and 700 times thinner than before the beating commenced, and it would take about 280,000 of these leaves to make the thickness of an inch. The leaves are from three to three-and-a-half inches square, and are packed in books of paper having the surface of the leaves rubbed with red chalk, to prevent them from adhering to the gold; each book contains twenty-five leaves of gold.The different colors of gold-leaf, such as “pale gold,” “deep gold,” or “red gold,” are produced by a small alloy of copper or silver, the former giving a deeper and the latter a paler tinge to the pure gold. A certain amount of alloy is always mixed with the pure metal, otherwise it would adhere to the mould, and would not work so well.

For the purpose of gilding very thin leaves of gold are required, so thin, that although gold is expensive, yet gilded articles (as picture-frames) are very far from being so. To produce this gold-leaf is the business of the gold-beater. He first obtains the gold in a state of purity from the refiner, in the form of small grains, which, mixed with a small quantity of borax and alloy, are put into an earthen pot called a crucible (coated beforehand with clay to keep it from cracking), and then placed in a furnace which is raised to a white heat. The gold, when melted, is poured into an iron mould made warm and greased in the inside; this when cold forms an “ingot,” which weighs two ounces, and is three-quarters of an inch square and not quite half-an-inch thick. This ingot is now sent to the “flattening mills,” where it is passed between sets of steel rollers until it is rolled out into a sort of riband an inch wide and about twelve feet long (at this degree of thinness a square inch will weigh six-and-a-half grains). It is now cut into 150 pieces, each an inch square, which are packed between pieces of vellum, four inches each way, and surrounded by a sort of bag of the same material, the whole being then subjected to the blows of a heavy iron hammer (weighing about fourteen pounds) upon a block of solid stone, till the plates of gold are beaten out nearly as large as the vellum, when they are taken out and each cut into four pieces. These quarters are treated as before, using gold-beater’s “skin” instead of vellum (this skin is prepared from the intestines of the ox, and a set of these, consisting of several hundreds, is called a “mould”), and the gold again extended under the hammer to the size of the mould. The process is repeated in the same manner a third time, after which the leaves of gold are taken out, cut square on a cushion of leather, lifted carefully by means of a sort of tongs made of wood, and placed in the book. They are now between 600 and 700 times thinner than before the beating commenced, and it would take about 280,000 of these leaves to make the thickness of an inch. The leaves are from three to three-and-a-half inches square, and are packed in books of paper having the surface of the leaves rubbed with red chalk, to prevent them from adhering to the gold; each book contains twenty-five leaves of gold.

The different colors of gold-leaf, such as “pale gold,” “deep gold,” or “red gold,” are produced by a small alloy of copper or silver, the former giving a deeper and the latter a paler tinge to the pure gold. A certain amount of alloy is always mixed with the pure metal, otherwise it would adhere to the mould, and would not work so well.

SHOT.SHOT TOWER.SECTION OF SHOT-TOWER.SIEVE FOR MAKING SHOT.Shot are made either of iron or lead. All shot for great guns or cannon are made of iron, but for small-arms leaden balls are used, which are cast to fit the bore of the weapon. For sporting purposes small shot are made, of different sizes; they consist of globules of lead with a small proportion of arsenic mixed with it—the object of mixing arsenic is to make the shot divide better, as it has been found by experience that lead alone does not divide so well—this mixture, while in a fluid state, is poured through a colander or sieve made of iron and having the bottom perforated with small holes, to suit the size of the shot to be made. These colanders are placed at the top of a high building like a tower, and the melted metal runs through the perforations in fine streams and separates into single drops as it falls. At the bottom of the building the shots are received in vessels of water, to cool them. In these vessels all the little globules are not exactly of the same size, although the holes in the colanders regulate this to a certain extent, moreover they are not all round; they have, therefore, to be sorted, which is done by placing the shot by handfuls upon a board slightly tilted, so that the round ones roll to the bottom and are received in a box, those that are crooked, &c., lag behind on the board, and are put aside to be re-melted. The shot in the box have next to be sorted as to size; this is done by means of two sieves; the holes of one sieve are a little larger than the size of the shot required, and this retains therefore all that are too large, the next has holes a little less than the shot, and this retains the right size and lets all the shot that are too small pass through; by these simple means the shot are separated into many sizes, which are numbered. The shot have now to be finished, which is done by turning them, mixed with a little black-lead, in a sort of barrel, which gives them a beautiful black shining surface, and rubs off any roughness.

SHOT TOWER.

SECTION OF SHOT-TOWER.

SIEVE FOR MAKING SHOT.

Shot are made either of iron or lead. All shot for great guns or cannon are made of iron, but for small-arms leaden balls are used, which are cast to fit the bore of the weapon. For sporting purposes small shot are made, of different sizes; they consist of globules of lead with a small proportion of arsenic mixed with it—the object of mixing arsenic is to make the shot divide better, as it has been found by experience that lead alone does not divide so well—this mixture, while in a fluid state, is poured through a colander or sieve made of iron and having the bottom perforated with small holes, to suit the size of the shot to be made. These colanders are placed at the top of a high building like a tower, and the melted metal runs through the perforations in fine streams and separates into single drops as it falls. At the bottom of the building the shots are received in vessels of water, to cool them. In these vessels all the little globules are not exactly of the same size, although the holes in the colanders regulate this to a certain extent, moreover they are not all round; they have, therefore, to be sorted, which is done by placing the shot by handfuls upon a board slightly tilted, so that the round ones roll to the bottom and are received in a box, those that are crooked, &c., lag behind on the board, and are put aside to be re-melted. The shot in the box have next to be sorted as to size; this is done by means of two sieves; the holes of one sieve are a little larger than the size of the shot required, and this retains therefore all that are too large, the next has holes a little less than the shot, and this retains the right size and lets all the shot that are too small pass through; by these simple means the shot are separated into many sizes, which are numbered. The shot have now to be finished, which is done by turning them, mixed with a little black-lead, in a sort of barrel, which gives them a beautiful black shining surface, and rubs off any roughness.

FILES.FILE CUTTING.Files are among the most useful of tools for those who work in metals, and in many other substances, as ivory, or hard woods. A file consists of a bar of steel of various shapes, such as flat, square, three-cornered, round, and half-round; on the surface of this bar of steel small furrows are formed, with rough projections between them, and these are again, in most kinds of files, crossed with others. The mode of making a file is as follows:—A bar of wrought or cast steel is cut off of the requisite length and of the proper figure, and forged on an anvil to the required shape—that is to say, rather tapering at the top and brought to a point (called the “tang”) at the bottom, so that it may be driven into a wooden handle. The file has now to be cut. To do this requires great manual dexterity. A man sits before a bench, and passes a strap over each end of the file so as to steady it, and these are kept down with the feet. A small chisel of hard steel is held in the left hand between the thumb and finger and struck with a short-handled heavy hammer, the effect is to cut a notch, with an elevation at each side called a “burr;” the small chisel is slipped up to this “burr,” and struck again, and so on till the whole file is cut, and this with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow it. When the file is thus notched from end to end, it has to be hardened, which is done by making it red-hot and suddenly plunging it into cold water, which makes it so hard that it will scratch glass and cut away any other metal.FILE.RASP.For softer substances, such as wood, a kind of file is often used called a “rasp,” which, instead of having furrows cut on it, is struck into little dints by means of a three-cornered piece of hard steel, which, as it enters the file, throws up a projection also.For filing bone and ivory, a kind of file is used with very large notches, not crossed by others, the edge of each of which acts like a plane-iron or chisel, and takes off shavings from the bone.

FILE CUTTING.

Files are among the most useful of tools for those who work in metals, and in many other substances, as ivory, or hard woods. A file consists of a bar of steel of various shapes, such as flat, square, three-cornered, round, and half-round; on the surface of this bar of steel small furrows are formed, with rough projections between them, and these are again, in most kinds of files, crossed with others. The mode of making a file is as follows:—A bar of wrought or cast steel is cut off of the requisite length and of the proper figure, and forged on an anvil to the required shape—that is to say, rather tapering at the top and brought to a point (called the “tang”) at the bottom, so that it may be driven into a wooden handle. The file has now to be cut. To do this requires great manual dexterity. A man sits before a bench, and passes a strap over each end of the file so as to steady it, and these are kept down with the feet. A small chisel of hard steel is held in the left hand between the thumb and finger and struck with a short-handled heavy hammer, the effect is to cut a notch, with an elevation at each side called a “burr;” the small chisel is slipped up to this “burr,” and struck again, and so on till the whole file is cut, and this with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow it. When the file is thus notched from end to end, it has to be hardened, which is done by making it red-hot and suddenly plunging it into cold water, which makes it so hard that it will scratch glass and cut away any other metal.

FILE.RASP.

FILE.

RASP.

For softer substances, such as wood, a kind of file is often used called a “rasp,” which, instead of having furrows cut on it, is struck into little dints by means of a three-cornered piece of hard steel, which, as it enters the file, throws up a projection also.

For filing bone and ivory, a kind of file is used with very large notches, not crossed by others, the edge of each of which acts like a plane-iron or chisel, and takes off shavings from the bone.

TYPE.TYPE CASTING.The casting of types for printing is for the most part done by hand, and singly, and it is one of those arts in which extreme dexterity (only to be acquired by incessant practice) enables the founder to accomplish an amount of labour which would seem to any one not witnessing the process impossible. To cast each piece of type it is necessary to dip a little ladle into a pot of melted metal, to fill the mould, give it a sudden jerk with the left hand so as to make the melted metal go well into the little mould, open the mould and take the type out, shut up the mould and fasten it, and yet a skilful workman can perform these operations five hundred times in an hour—that is to say, rather more than eight times in a minute—producing a type each time; this has afterwards to be finished off by others. The metal of which type is made consists of lead and antimony—the antimony hardens it and makes it take a sharper impression. The letters are first cut in steel, and from these “dies” the moulds are made in brass, by stamping, and in these the types are cast.Stereotype consists of plates of metal taken, by casting, from a forme of type set up for the purpose; an impression in plaster of Paris is first taken, and from this the metal impression is cast, so that the original forme of type may be “distributed” or taken to pieces, and again used, while the stereotyped impression can be preserved for any future printing.

TYPE CASTING.

The casting of types for printing is for the most part done by hand, and singly, and it is one of those arts in which extreme dexterity (only to be acquired by incessant practice) enables the founder to accomplish an amount of labour which would seem to any one not witnessing the process impossible. To cast each piece of type it is necessary to dip a little ladle into a pot of melted metal, to fill the mould, give it a sudden jerk with the left hand so as to make the melted metal go well into the little mould, open the mould and take the type out, shut up the mould and fasten it, and yet a skilful workman can perform these operations five hundred times in an hour—that is to say, rather more than eight times in a minute—producing a type each time; this has afterwards to be finished off by others. The metal of which type is made consists of lead and antimony—the antimony hardens it and makes it take a sharper impression. The letters are first cut in steel, and from these “dies” the moulds are made in brass, by stamping, and in these the types are cast.

Stereotype consists of plates of metal taken, by casting, from a forme of type set up for the purpose; an impression in plaster of Paris is first taken, and from this the metal impression is cast, so that the original forme of type may be “distributed” or taken to pieces, and again used, while the stereotyped impression can be preserved for any future printing.

LUCIFER-MATCHES.FILLING THE BOXES.These convenient matches, which have completely superseded the old apparatus of flint, steel, and tinder-box, may be looked upon as one of the improvements derived from chemistry, for phosphorus—the necessary ingredient—till lately sold at half-a-crown an ounce; such a price would, of course, prevent its being used for so general a purpose as match-making. But when chemistry devised means of preparing it on a large scale, and at a low price, then its application was soon perceived.CUTTING THE MATCHES.FRAME.Some years ago a kind of match was used, made of chlorate of potash and sulphuret of antimony, and ignited by drawing through a folded piece of glass-paper. Another sort was also for a time in use called “Prometheans,” but far too expensive for general use. They consisted of strips of paper rolled up, with a little glass cylinder full of sulphuric acid sealed up in the end of each, surrounded by chlorate of potash in powder; the end of the match had to be crushed by a small pair of nippers, and the glass being broken, the sulphuric acid came in contact with the chlorate of potash, causing it to take fire.FILLING THE FRAME.DIPPING THE MATCHES.For making lucifer-matches the wood is sometimes split by hand, and sometimes by machinery. For those the wood of which is rounded, a peculiar apparatus is used; it consists of a plate having small steel cylinders let into it, so that their cutting edges are raised above the plate, and the wood is struck upon this, and not only divided, but each piece forced through the cylinders and so rounded. When cut, the wood is dipped in bundles into melted sulphur, and afterwards into a composition variously made, but usually consisting of phosphorus ground up with gum arabic and water, colored either with red-lead or Prussian blue, and in some cases chlorate of potash is added.This composition is spread out on a board to about the tenth of an inch in thickness, and the matches which have been dipped in sulphur are packed into a frame to the number of about 3000, and dipped by pressing them on the board spread with the composition, so that a little is attached to the ends of each match. This is a most unwholesome and dangerous employment, and water is always at hand, in case of fire, which is chiefly to be feared in the process of separating them and filling the boxes when the composition has dried.

FILLING THE BOXES.

These convenient matches, which have completely superseded the old apparatus of flint, steel, and tinder-box, may be looked upon as one of the improvements derived from chemistry, for phosphorus—the necessary ingredient—till lately sold at half-a-crown an ounce; such a price would, of course, prevent its being used for so general a purpose as match-making. But when chemistry devised means of preparing it on a large scale, and at a low price, then its application was soon perceived.

CUTTING THE MATCHES.

FRAME.

Some years ago a kind of match was used, made of chlorate of potash and sulphuret of antimony, and ignited by drawing through a folded piece of glass-paper. Another sort was also for a time in use called “Prometheans,” but far too expensive for general use. They consisted of strips of paper rolled up, with a little glass cylinder full of sulphuric acid sealed up in the end of each, surrounded by chlorate of potash in powder; the end of the match had to be crushed by a small pair of nippers, and the glass being broken, the sulphuric acid came in contact with the chlorate of potash, causing it to take fire.

FILLING THE FRAME.DIPPING THE MATCHES.

FILLING THE FRAME.

DIPPING THE MATCHES.

For making lucifer-matches the wood is sometimes split by hand, and sometimes by machinery. For those the wood of which is rounded, a peculiar apparatus is used; it consists of a plate having small steel cylinders let into it, so that their cutting edges are raised above the plate, and the wood is struck upon this, and not only divided, but each piece forced through the cylinders and so rounded. When cut, the wood is dipped in bundles into melted sulphur, and afterwards into a composition variously made, but usually consisting of phosphorus ground up with gum arabic and water, colored either with red-lead or Prussian blue, and in some cases chlorate of potash is added.This composition is spread out on a board to about the tenth of an inch in thickness, and the matches which have been dipped in sulphur are packed into a frame to the number of about 3000, and dipped by pressing them on the board spread with the composition, so that a little is attached to the ends of each match. This is a most unwholesome and dangerous employment, and water is always at hand, in case of fire, which is chiefly to be feared in the process of separating them and filling the boxes when the composition has dried.

CANDLES.CANDLE MANUFACTORY.CUTTING THE WICKS.Candles are made of either wax, spermaceti, stearine, or tallow, or some compound or modification of these; but of whatever they may be made, they are formed either by dipping or casting, and hence the names “dips” and “moulds.”HORSE’S HEAD.COOLING FRAME.When dips are to be made, a quantity of wicks of spun cotton are prepared by a machine, and doubled so as to form a loop at the top, through which a stick is passed. A number of wicks are arranged in a line on each stick, and several sticks placed side by side on a frame, which is attached to one end of a balance beam (called by the workmen the “Horse’s Head”), with weights at the other end, according to the weight of the candles to be made. The frame, with the wicks upon it, is suspended over a cistern of melted tallow (kept warm by a small fire or flue), into which it is lowered, so that the wicks dip into the tallow; this is repeated two or three times, till a coating of tallow is formed on the wicks, which are then placed aside to cool while others are served in the same way, and so on, over and over again, till each frame weighs enough to exactly counterpoise the weight at the other end of the beam.CANDLE-MOULDS.Mould candles are made by pouring melted tallow into a wooden trough in the bottom of which pewter moulds, of the size of the candles required, are fixed in such a way that they open into the trough by the ends which correspond to the bottoms of the candles to be cast in them. The other end of the mould is brought to a point, with a small hole in it, through which the wick is passed and fastened to a stick running along the moulds; and as the moulds are placed in two lines, two sticks are sufficient for the trough. Melted tallow or spermaceti is poured into the trough, and when cold the superfluous quantity removed, and the candles drawn out of the moulds.Wax candles are made by pouring melted wax down the wick till sufficient has adhered to it, then rolling the candle on a marble slab till it is even, and afterwards polishing with a cloth.

CANDLE MANUFACTORY.

CUTTING THE WICKS.

Candles are made of either wax, spermaceti, stearine, or tallow, or some compound or modification of these; but of whatever they may be made, they are formed either by dipping or casting, and hence the names “dips” and “moulds.”

HORSE’S HEAD.

COOLING FRAME.

When dips are to be made, a quantity of wicks of spun cotton are prepared by a machine, and doubled so as to form a loop at the top, through which a stick is passed. A number of wicks are arranged in a line on each stick, and several sticks placed side by side on a frame, which is attached to one end of a balance beam (called by the workmen the “Horse’s Head”), with weights at the other end, according to the weight of the candles to be made. The frame, with the wicks upon it, is suspended over a cistern of melted tallow (kept warm by a small fire or flue), into which it is lowered, so that the wicks dip into the tallow; this is repeated two or three times, till a coating of tallow is formed on the wicks, which are then placed aside to cool while others are served in the same way, and so on, over and over again, till each frame weighs enough to exactly counterpoise the weight at the other end of the beam.

CANDLE-MOULDS.

Mould candles are made by pouring melted tallow into a wooden trough in the bottom of which pewter moulds, of the size of the candles required, are fixed in such a way that they open into the trough by the ends which correspond to the bottoms of the candles to be cast in them. The other end of the mould is brought to a point, with a small hole in it, through which the wick is passed and fastened to a stick running along the moulds; and as the moulds are placed in two lines, two sticks are sufficient for the trough. Melted tallow or spermaceti is poured into the trough, and when cold the superfluous quantity removed, and the candles drawn out of the moulds.

Wax candles are made by pouring melted wax down the wick till sufficient has adhered to it, then rolling the candle on a marble slab till it is even, and afterwards polishing with a cloth.

ROPE.SPINNING THE YARN.SPINNING-WHEEL.Is a combination of the fibres of hemp or other material, so arranged as to form a tenacious cord or band, retaining, as far as possible, their collective strength. The first process in rope-making consists in twisting the hemp into thick threads, called rope-yarns. This, which resembles ordinary spinning, is commonly performed by hand, in a rope-ground or rope-walk, an enclosed level piece of ground, about six hundred feet in length, at one end of which a spinning-wheel is set up, that gives motion by a band to several small rollers or “whirls,” each of them furnished with a hook on the end of its axis next the walk. The rope spinner carries a bundle of hemp about three feet long round his waist, with the fibres all laid even, and having their ends in front of him, and from these he pulls out sufficient for the thickness of the “yarn” he is spinning, and after slightly twisting it with his fingers, attaches it to the hook of a “whirl,” which is set in motion by the wheel, and as the fibres are twisted he walks backward, gradually adding more and more, a little at a time, so as to keep the yarn of the same thickness throughout. When the spinner has traversed the whole length of the rope-walk, he stops, and another spinner detaches the yarn from the whirl, and it is then wound on a reel or bobbin. The yarns being spun, they are next “tarred” (if they are to be much exposed to wet, as for the rigging of ships), which is done by drawing them through a kettle full of melted tar, being wound off from one reel on to another, and the superfluous tar wiped away by means of tow (rough hemp) fixed in a hole through which they are drawn.HAWSER-LAID ROPE.CABLE-LAID ROPE.What is called “laying” the rope consists in twisting a certain number of yarns together, so as to form a strand, and these strands into a rope. Large ropes are chiefly of two kinds, called respectively “hawser-laid” and “cable-laid,” the latter including only the very largest ropes. “Hawser-laid” ropes consist of a certain number of yarns (according to the size of the rope) twisted into a strand, and then three of these strands twisted together. The “cable-laid” rope is composed of nine strands, that is to say, three strands each composed of three others, and these composed of yarns, so that three “hawser-laid” ropes, twisted together, would make one “cable-laid” rope.ROPE-MAKING BY MACHINERY.Laying the ropes and twisting the yarns into strands are both accomplished by the same process. The yarns are attached—in sufficient quantity for the strands—to three hooks, each turning in the same direction, while the other ends are collected together and turned in the opposite direction; the three hooks twist the yarns into strands, and a hook at the other end twists the strands into rope.Of course, machinery of various descriptions has been applied to rope-making, and ropes are frequently made entirely by machinery with great rapidity. The annexed cut represents one mode of rope-making by machinery, in which the yarn is shown being twisted into cord or rope from the reels or bobbins on which it was wound after spinning.

SPINNING THE YARN.

SPINNING-WHEEL.

Is a combination of the fibres of hemp or other material, so arranged as to form a tenacious cord or band, retaining, as far as possible, their collective strength. The first process in rope-making consists in twisting the hemp into thick threads, called rope-yarns. This, which resembles ordinary spinning, is commonly performed by hand, in a rope-ground or rope-walk, an enclosed level piece of ground, about six hundred feet in length, at one end of which a spinning-wheel is set up, that gives motion by a band to several small rollers or “whirls,” each of them furnished with a hook on the end of its axis next the walk. The rope spinner carries a bundle of hemp about three feet long round his waist, with the fibres all laid even, and having their ends in front of him, and from these he pulls out sufficient for the thickness of the “yarn” he is spinning, and after slightly twisting it with his fingers, attaches it to the hook of a “whirl,” which is set in motion by the wheel, and as the fibres are twisted he walks backward, gradually adding more and more, a little at a time, so as to keep the yarn of the same thickness throughout. When the spinner has traversed the whole length of the rope-walk, he stops, and another spinner detaches the yarn from the whirl, and it is then wound on a reel or bobbin. The yarns being spun, they are next “tarred” (if they are to be much exposed to wet, as for the rigging of ships), which is done by drawing them through a kettle full of melted tar, being wound off from one reel on to another, and the superfluous tar wiped away by means of tow (rough hemp) fixed in a hole through which they are drawn.

HAWSER-LAID ROPE.CABLE-LAID ROPE.

HAWSER-LAID ROPE.

CABLE-LAID ROPE.

What is called “laying” the rope consists in twisting a certain number of yarns together, so as to form a strand, and these strands into a rope. Large ropes are chiefly of two kinds, called respectively “hawser-laid” and “cable-laid,” the latter including only the very largest ropes. “Hawser-laid” ropes consist of a certain number of yarns (according to the size of the rope) twisted into a strand, and then three of these strands twisted together. The “cable-laid” rope is composed of nine strands, that is to say, three strands each composed of three others, and these composed of yarns, so that three “hawser-laid” ropes, twisted together, would make one “cable-laid” rope.

ROPE-MAKING BY MACHINERY.

Laying the ropes and twisting the yarns into strands are both accomplished by the same process. The yarns are attached—in sufficient quantity for the strands—to three hooks, each turning in the same direction, while the other ends are collected together and turned in the opposite direction; the three hooks twist the yarns into strands, and a hook at the other end twists the strands into rope.

Of course, machinery of various descriptions has been applied to rope-making, and ropes are frequently made entirely by machinery with great rapidity. The annexed cut represents one mode of rope-making by machinery, in which the yarn is shown being twisted into cord or rope from the reels or bobbins on which it was wound after spinning.

WIRE.COARSE WIRE DRAWING.(‡ Metal Ingot, Sheet, Strips.)FIG.1.(‡ Large Rollers.)FIG.2.(‡ Cutting Rollers.)FIG.3.(‡ Close-Up Of Cutting Rollers.)FIG.4.In the manufacture of wire, the metal from which it is to be made is first cast or wrought into an ingot (A,fig. 1); it is then passed between rollers (fig. 2) which flatten it into a sheet (B,fig. 1), which is next carried between other rollers (fig. 3) having their surfaces so cut that the projections on one of them fit into the hollows of the other, forming so many cutting edges or shears (fig. 4), from which the sheet of metal comes forth atA,fig. 3, cut into strips or square rods (C,fig. 1). These rods are then drawn with great force through a plate of hardened steel having a series of holes, gradually diminishing in size, bored through it, which is called the “draw-plate;” the wire (of whatever metal it be) has to be heated red-hot from time to time, to soften or “anneal” it, for the compression produced by the drawing so hardens it that it becomes brittle. A pair of nippers holds the end of the wire, and these are moved along a sort of bench by a “rack and pinion” (fig. 5). When all has passed the first hole, it is drawn through the second, and so on to the size required. When the wire is pretty fine, it is attached to a “cylinder,” which on turning round winds off the wire and at the same time draws it through the plate, as shown in the engraving, the wire being made to pass over a small charcoal fire previous to entering the draw-plate.(‡ Rack And Pinion.)FIG.5.FINE WIRE DRAWING.Different metals have different powers of “ductility,” that is to say, some can be drawn much finer than others. Dr. Turner says, “The only metals remarkable in this respect are gold, silver, platinum, iron, and copper. Walliston devised a method by which gold wire may be obtained so fine that its diameter shall be only the 5000th part of an inch, and 550 feet of it are required to weigh one grain; he obtained a platinum wire so small that its diameter did not exceed the 30,000th of an inch. It is singular that the ductility and malleability of the same metal are not always in proportion to each other. Iron, for example, cannot be made into thin leaves, but it may be drawn into very small wires.”(‡ Wire Gauge.)FIG.6.The sizes of wires are ascertained by a small instrument called a “gauge,” which is a plate of steel with an opening diminishing to a point in it, and marks on the sides corresponding to the distance the wire will pass down the notch (fig. 6).

COARSE WIRE DRAWING.

(‡ Metal Ingot, Sheet, Strips.)FIG.1.

FIG.1.

(‡ Large Rollers.)FIG.2.

FIG.2.

(‡ Cutting Rollers.)FIG.3.(‡ Close-Up Of Cutting Rollers.)FIG.4.

(‡ Cutting Rollers.)FIG.3.

FIG.3.

(‡ Close-Up Of Cutting Rollers.)FIG.4.

FIG.4.

In the manufacture of wire, the metal from which it is to be made is first cast or wrought into an ingot (A,fig. 1); it is then passed between rollers (fig. 2) which flatten it into a sheet (B,fig. 1), which is next carried between other rollers (fig. 3) having their surfaces so cut that the projections on one of them fit into the hollows of the other, forming so many cutting edges or shears (fig. 4), from which the sheet of metal comes forth atA,fig. 3, cut into strips or square rods (C,fig. 1). These rods are then drawn with great force through a plate of hardened steel having a series of holes, gradually diminishing in size, bored through it, which is called the “draw-plate;” the wire (of whatever metal it be) has to be heated red-hot from time to time, to soften or “anneal” it, for the compression produced by the drawing so hardens it that it becomes brittle. A pair of nippers holds the end of the wire, and these are moved along a sort of bench by a “rack and pinion” (fig. 5). When all has passed the first hole, it is drawn through the second, and so on to the size required. When the wire is pretty fine, it is attached to a “cylinder,” which on turning round winds off the wire and at the same time draws it through the plate, as shown in the engraving, the wire being made to pass over a small charcoal fire previous to entering the draw-plate.

(‡ Rack And Pinion.)FIG.5.

FIG.5.

FINE WIRE DRAWING.

Different metals have different powers of “ductility,” that is to say, some can be drawn much finer than others. Dr. Turner says, “The only metals remarkable in this respect are gold, silver, platinum, iron, and copper. Walliston devised a method by which gold wire may be obtained so fine that its diameter shall be only the 5000th part of an inch, and 550 feet of it are required to weigh one grain; he obtained a platinum wire so small that its diameter did not exceed the 30,000th of an inch. It is singular that the ductility and malleability of the same metal are not always in proportion to each other. Iron, for example, cannot be made into thin leaves, but it may be drawn into very small wires.”

(‡ Wire Gauge.)FIG.6.

FIG.6.

The sizes of wires are ascertained by a small instrument called a “gauge,” which is a plate of steel with an opening diminishing to a point in it, and marks on the sides corresponding to the distance the wire will pass down the notch (fig. 6).

CUTLERY.(‡ Knife Blade.)FIG.1.Table cutlery is made in the following way. The blade is first rudely fashioned from a flat bar of steel by the hammer and anvil, and this is then welded to a bar of soft iron half-an-inch square, and cut off, leaving sufficient to form the “shoulder” or “bolster,”A, and the “tang,”B,fig. 1, which is first made by the hammer and then beaten into a sort of mould or die. The blade is finished as far as can be done with the hammer, made red-hot, and thrown into cold water, which hardens the steel, and then “tempered” to a full blue color (see “Steel”) after which it is fit for grinding. Razors and penknife-blades are made of fine steel, and are forged and hardened as above, but the tempering is effected by arranging them in rows with their backs downwards on a plate of hot iron till the color appears on their surface indicating the temper they have received, which for razors is a pale straw color.Cutlery is ground upon stones of different sizes, according to the kind of article; for saws, and table-knives, which are to be ground to a flat surface, very large stones are used, while razors, which have a curved surface, and penknives, whose blades are very narrow, are ground upon very small stones. These stones are driven by machinery with great rapidity, and are arranged over a trough of water, so that their lower parts dip into it, by which plan the stone is kept wet; if it were used dry, the steel would get too hot to hold, and the temper of it be injured. The article to be ground is held at the top of the stone. When ground, the goods are “glazed” by means of a wooden wheel the edge of which is smeared with emery-powder, and finally, if they are to be polished (which is only in the case of the finest steel instruments), they are held to the edge of a wooden wheel covered with buff-leather, and charged with “crocus”—this crocus is a red oxide of iron much used for polishing all sorts of things, as it is both fine, free from grit, and sufficiently hard.(‡ Balance-Handle Knife.)FIG.2.What are called “balance-handle” table-knives are those which when laid on the table, will rest with the blade elevated so as not to touch the cloth (fig. 2). The object sought in this arrangement, is to keep the cloth from being soiled, and the manner of attaining it is simply by making the shoulder project a little and running a small quantity of lead into the hole of the handle before the “tang” of the knife is introduced. The blade and handle or “haft” are united by means of rosin, which is put in powder into the hollow of the handle, and the tang, being made hot, is forced in, melting the rosin, and fixing when cool.

(‡ Knife Blade.)FIG.1.

FIG.1.

Table cutlery is made in the following way. The blade is first rudely fashioned from a flat bar of steel by the hammer and anvil, and this is then welded to a bar of soft iron half-an-inch square, and cut off, leaving sufficient to form the “shoulder” or “bolster,”A, and the “tang,”B,fig. 1, which is first made by the hammer and then beaten into a sort of mould or die. The blade is finished as far as can be done with the hammer, made red-hot, and thrown into cold water, which hardens the steel, and then “tempered” to a full blue color (see “Steel”) after which it is fit for grinding. Razors and penknife-blades are made of fine steel, and are forged and hardened as above, but the tempering is effected by arranging them in rows with their backs downwards on a plate of hot iron till the color appears on their surface indicating the temper they have received, which for razors is a pale straw color.

Cutlery is ground upon stones of different sizes, according to the kind of article; for saws, and table-knives, which are to be ground to a flat surface, very large stones are used, while razors, which have a curved surface, and penknives, whose blades are very narrow, are ground upon very small stones. These stones are driven by machinery with great rapidity, and are arranged over a trough of water, so that their lower parts dip into it, by which plan the stone is kept wet; if it were used dry, the steel would get too hot to hold, and the temper of it be injured. The article to be ground is held at the top of the stone. When ground, the goods are “glazed” by means of a wooden wheel the edge of which is smeared with emery-powder, and finally, if they are to be polished (which is only in the case of the finest steel instruments), they are held to the edge of a wooden wheel covered with buff-leather, and charged with “crocus”—this crocus is a red oxide of iron much used for polishing all sorts of things, as it is both fine, free from grit, and sufficiently hard.

(‡ Balance-Handle Knife.)FIG.2.

FIG.2.

What are called “balance-handle” table-knives are those which when laid on the table, will rest with the blade elevated so as not to touch the cloth (fig. 2). The object sought in this arrangement, is to keep the cloth from being soiled, and the manner of attaining it is simply by making the shoulder project a little and running a small quantity of lead into the hole of the handle before the “tang” of the knife is introduced. The blade and handle or “haft” are united by means of rosin, which is put in powder into the hollow of the handle, and the tang, being made hot, is forced in, melting the rosin, and fixing when cool.

NAILS.CUTTING THE METAL INTO SLIPS.(‡ Nail With Shoulder.)FIG.1.(‡ Machined Brads.)FIG.5.(‡ Tack.)FIG.2.(‡ Clasp Nail.)FIG.3.(‡ Brads.)FIG.4.Nails are made both by hand and machinery, the former being called “wrought,” and the latter “cut” nails. For making nails by hand, a hammer and an anvil only are used. The “nailor,” having put several rods of iron of the required size into the fire to get hot, that he may use one after the other, and so lose no time, takes one out and with the hammer beats it to a point, leaving a little shoulder (fig. 1). He then places it (at the part where the dotted line is in the figure) on a wedge fixed to the anvil, and with a blow of the hammer divides it; it is taken up by tongs, dropped into a hole in the anvil, and the shoulder beaten flat; this is called a “tack” (fig. 2), for a “clasp nail” the head is made of a different form by a particular way of striking it (fig. 3), and the form of the hole in the anvil determines whether they shall be square or round; wrought “brads” have the form offig. 4. These are the principal forms of nails, but many others are made by soldering shanks to cast heads, as coffin-nails, and some (chiefly used by gardeners and plasterers for driving into brickwork) are made of cast-iron. Machine-made nails are cut by compression from a sheet of iron. Brads are cut out, simply, as infig. 5, which uses up the whole of the iron without any waste, and requires no finishing; but other forms of nails are cut first into simple wedges, and have the heads finished afterwards either by the blows of a hammer or by compression.CUTTING BRADS.Most nails are made flat or chisel-shaped at the point, that they may not split the wood. In driving a nail with a flat point, the length of the point should be placed across the grain of the wood, and then it will hardly ever split it, but if otherwise, the nail, acting as a wedge, opens the grain and splits the wood.

CUTTING THE METAL INTO SLIPS.

(‡ Nail With Shoulder.)FIG.1.(‡ Machined Brads.)FIG.5.

(‡ Nail With Shoulder.)FIG.1.

FIG.1.

(‡ Machined Brads.)FIG.5.

FIG.5.

(‡ Tack.)FIG.2.(‡ Clasp Nail.)FIG.3.(‡ Brads.)FIG.4.

(‡ Tack.)FIG.2.

FIG.2.

(‡ Clasp Nail.)FIG.3.

FIG.3.

(‡ Brads.)FIG.4.

FIG.4.

Nails are made both by hand and machinery, the former being called “wrought,” and the latter “cut” nails. For making nails by hand, a hammer and an anvil only are used. The “nailor,” having put several rods of iron of the required size into the fire to get hot, that he may use one after the other, and so lose no time, takes one out and with the hammer beats it to a point, leaving a little shoulder (fig. 1). He then places it (at the part where the dotted line is in the figure) on a wedge fixed to the anvil, and with a blow of the hammer divides it; it is taken up by tongs, dropped into a hole in the anvil, and the shoulder beaten flat; this is called a “tack” (fig. 2), for a “clasp nail” the head is made of a different form by a particular way of striking it (fig. 3), and the form of the hole in the anvil determines whether they shall be square or round; wrought “brads” have the form offig. 4. These are the principal forms of nails, but many others are made by soldering shanks to cast heads, as coffin-nails, and some (chiefly used by gardeners and plasterers for driving into brickwork) are made of cast-iron. Machine-made nails are cut by compression from a sheet of iron. Brads are cut out, simply, as infig. 5, which uses up the whole of the iron without any waste, and requires no finishing; but other forms of nails are cut first into simple wedges, and have the heads finished afterwards either by the blows of a hammer or by compression.

CUTTING BRADS.

Most nails are made flat or chisel-shaped at the point, that they may not split the wood. In driving a nail with a flat point, the length of the point should be placed across the grain of the wood, and then it will hardly ever split it, but if otherwise, the nail, acting as a wedge, opens the grain and splits the wood.

SCREWS.(‡ Screw Mould.)The screws used by carpenters, smiths, and others, for fastening wood or metal-work together, are generally made by machinery. A piece of wire of the required thickness and length is first cut off, which is then placed in a hole or mould, with its upper orifice “countersunk” as in the annexed cut, and the head of the screw is formed by beating the upper part of the piece of wire into the counter-sinking of the mould. It is then called a “blank,” and a number of these blanks are dropped into holes bored round the periphery of a wheel which revolves slowly against a small circular saw driven with great rapidity, and cutting a “thread” or slit in the head of each blank in turn as it comes into contact with it; the wheel continuing to revolve, each screw when it gets to the bottom drops out, so that the holes when they again arrive upwards are ready to receive fresh blanks. The worm, if cut by hand, is made by means of a die of hard steel, having a hollow screw cut in it, which is screwed slowly by a backward and forward movement on to the blank, cutting it into a “worm;” when this is done by machinery, the die is held fast while the screw is worked by a rotatory movement into it. The best screws for wood are slightly tapered, which enables them to be driven much more easily, while they hold equally fast. Large screws for mechanical purposes are cut by a “lathe,” the bar revolving whilst a cutter is held to it, and moved onwards by a pattern screw. Small screws for various purposes can be easily cut by means of a “screw-plate,” having holes of graduated sizes cut inside into hollow screws, which is placed on the end of the wire, and gently turned round till it is sufficiently cut.

(‡ Screw Mould.)

The screws used by carpenters, smiths, and others, for fastening wood or metal-work together, are generally made by machinery. A piece of wire of the required thickness and length is first cut off, which is then placed in a hole or mould, with its upper orifice “countersunk” as in the annexed cut, and the head of the screw is formed by beating the upper part of the piece of wire into the counter-sinking of the mould. It is then called a “blank,” and a number of these blanks are dropped into holes bored round the periphery of a wheel which revolves slowly against a small circular saw driven with great rapidity, and cutting a “thread” or slit in the head of each blank in turn as it comes into contact with it; the wheel continuing to revolve, each screw when it gets to the bottom drops out, so that the holes when they again arrive upwards are ready to receive fresh blanks. The worm, if cut by hand, is made by means of a die of hard steel, having a hollow screw cut in it, which is screwed slowly by a backward and forward movement on to the blank, cutting it into a “worm;” when this is done by machinery, the die is held fast while the screw is worked by a rotatory movement into it. The best screws for wood are slightly tapered, which enables them to be driven much more easily, while they hold equally fast. Large screws for mechanical purposes are cut by a “lathe,” the bar revolving whilst a cutter is held to it, and moved onwards by a pattern screw. Small screws for various purposes can be easily cut by means of a “screw-plate,” having holes of graduated sizes cut inside into hollow screws, which is placed on the end of the wire, and gently turned round till it is sufficiently cut.

PINS.PIN-MAKING MACHINE.COIL FOR THE HEADS.Pins are made from brass wire drawn out in the usual manner (see “Wire-drawing”). It is first straightened and then cut off into lengths sufficient for two pins; these are pointed at each end by holding them to a wheel, about two or three dozen at a time, turning them all round at once by means of the thumb and fingers. The wheel is not made of stone, but of steel, having the edge cut into fine notches like a file (see “File-cutting”). After the wires are pointed at each end, they are cut in the middle. The heads are made by coiling some brass wire round another piece of wire exactly the size of the pins for which they are intended, and with a sort of chisel cutting off two of these coils at a time. The accompanying figure represents the coil to be cut up into a string of heads, and one of them separate. These are fixed on to the pointed wires by a machine acting by means of a lever, by which they are compressed into the right shape and at the same time made to hold on tightly. The pins are then cleaned by boiling in some weak acid or a solution of tartar, and have next to be “tinned” or “whitened,” which is done by placing them in layers with grain-tin and cream of tartar, and boiling them for some time till they are coated with the tin; thus they are truly “electro-plated,” although at the time when this process was invented no knowledge of electro-plating existed, and the theory of the process was not understood. The pins are afterwards cleaned and brightened by shaking them in leather bags with bran, which is afterwards blown away by a blowing-machine; the pins are then placed in papers (folded by a sort of crimping-machine), which are put into a kind of vice, having a number of notches cut in it corresponding to the number of pins to be stuck in one row, and into these notches and through the paper ridges the pins are rapidly passed by children.In some manufactories pins are made entirely by machinery, and these are the “solid-headed pins,” or pins which have the head formed out of the same piece of wire as the body, which is chiefly effected by compression, and in order that this may be readily done, the wires are previously softened by heat, which is one of the principal objections to their general use, as, in consequence of this softening, they bend too readily.

PIN-MAKING MACHINE.

COIL FOR THE HEADS.

Pins are made from brass wire drawn out in the usual manner (see “Wire-drawing”). It is first straightened and then cut off into lengths sufficient for two pins; these are pointed at each end by holding them to a wheel, about two or three dozen at a time, turning them all round at once by means of the thumb and fingers. The wheel is not made of stone, but of steel, having the edge cut into fine notches like a file (see “File-cutting”). After the wires are pointed at each end, they are cut in the middle. The heads are made by coiling some brass wire round another piece of wire exactly the size of the pins for which they are intended, and with a sort of chisel cutting off two of these coils at a time. The accompanying figure represents the coil to be cut up into a string of heads, and one of them separate. These are fixed on to the pointed wires by a machine acting by means of a lever, by which they are compressed into the right shape and at the same time made to hold on tightly. The pins are then cleaned by boiling in some weak acid or a solution of tartar, and have next to be “tinned” or “whitened,” which is done by placing them in layers with grain-tin and cream of tartar, and boiling them for some time till they are coated with the tin; thus they are truly “electro-plated,” although at the time when this process was invented no knowledge of electro-plating existed, and the theory of the process was not understood. The pins are afterwards cleaned and brightened by shaking them in leather bags with bran, which is afterwards blown away by a blowing-machine; the pins are then placed in papers (folded by a sort of crimping-machine), which are put into a kind of vice, having a number of notches cut in it corresponding to the number of pins to be stuck in one row, and into these notches and through the paper ridges the pins are rapidly passed by children.

In some manufactories pins are made entirely by machinery, and these are the “solid-headed pins,” or pins which have the head formed out of the same piece of wire as the body, which is chiefly effected by compression, and in order that this may be readily done, the wires are previously softened by heat, which is one of the principal objections to their general use, as, in consequence of this softening, they bend too readily.

NEEDLES.DRILLING THE EYES.The manufacture of needles is one of those arts in which manual dexterity is acquired by minute subdivision of labour, each artisan performing only a small part of the process, but so often, that the most wonderful rapidity and accuracy are obtained, insomuch that although each needle has to pass through nearly 150 hands (together with expensive machinery) before finishing, yet they may be bought at an astonishingly low price.(‡ Straightening Plate.)The following is an outline of the process of manufacture. The wire is first selected, of the best steel and of a proper size, then wound round a cylinder some fifty times, and the coil is cut in two places opposite to each other through all the wires. These wires are placed together in bundles several feet long, each containing about a hundred wires, which are then cut up into lengths sufficient for two needles by a pair of shears worked by powerful machinery. As the wires are crooked, they have to be straightened, which is done by packing them in bundles and enclosing them in two iron rings so that they may be rolled forcibly backwards and forwards between steel plates with grooves cut in them to receive the projecting rings, and this straightens them thoroughly. The wires are next ground to a point at each end by holding them, a dozen or two at a time, against a revolving stone, to which they are pressed with a piece of leather, at the same time turning or twirling them between the thumb and fingers; when pointed, they are cut in two by a gauge which divides them in the middle, and the blunt ends are spread out in the form of a fan on a small anvil by the thumb and finger of the left hand, several at one time, and flattened by the blow of a small hammer. This flattening makes the ends too hard for piercing, so that they have to be softened by being made red-hot and slowly cooled; they are then pierced by children, who lay each needle on a piece of lead and with a small punch and hammer strike out the eye, but in nearly all cases the eye is drilled, in which case the wire is held for an instant to the point of a small drill turned by machinery. The groove which leads to the eye is made either by the stroke of a small file or by compression, and the end is next rounded off. In some needles the eyes and grooves are made by punching two in the middle of a wire, which is afterwards divided. The needles are tempered, by placing some thousands of them on an iron plate which is made red-hot, and then throwing them suddenly into a vessel of cold water; they are by this means made too hard, and have again to be slightly heated to give the proper degree of temper and toughness (see “Steel”), which is done by putting them in boiling oil. They have next to be polished, and this is the most tedious part of their manufacture. The needles, to the number of about a hundred thousand, are packed, together with oil and emery-powder, in a strong sort of bag, so that they all lie side by side, and several of these bags or bundles are rolled backwards and forwards between wooden beams in such a way that every needle rubs against others, and the friction thus produced grinds them bright and smooth. After a time they are taken out, and the black paste formed by the emery-powder, oil, and steel, is cleaned off by putting them into saw-dust, and turning them in a barrel fixed in a frame for the purpose; the saw-dust and dirt are then blown away by a blowing-machine, and the needles again undergo the same process several times, using finer emery-powder each time, so as to polish them; after which they are scoured with soap and water and wiped dry by rolling them in dry wash-leather. They are now perfectly bright, every roughness rubbed off, and a finish being finally given to the points by hand on a hone which turns round, they are packed, twenty-five in each paper, for sale.

DRILLING THE EYES.

The manufacture of needles is one of those arts in which manual dexterity is acquired by minute subdivision of labour, each artisan performing only a small part of the process, but so often, that the most wonderful rapidity and accuracy are obtained, insomuch that although each needle has to pass through nearly 150 hands (together with expensive machinery) before finishing, yet they may be bought at an astonishingly low price.

(‡ Straightening Plate.)

The following is an outline of the process of manufacture. The wire is first selected, of the best steel and of a proper size, then wound round a cylinder some fifty times, and the coil is cut in two places opposite to each other through all the wires. These wires are placed together in bundles several feet long, each containing about a hundred wires, which are then cut up into lengths sufficient for two needles by a pair of shears worked by powerful machinery. As the wires are crooked, they have to be straightened, which is done by packing them in bundles and enclosing them in two iron rings so that they may be rolled forcibly backwards and forwards between steel plates with grooves cut in them to receive the projecting rings, and this straightens them thoroughly. The wires are next ground to a point at each end by holding them, a dozen or two at a time, against a revolving stone, to which they are pressed with a piece of leather, at the same time turning or twirling them between the thumb and fingers; when pointed, they are cut in two by a gauge which divides them in the middle, and the blunt ends are spread out in the form of a fan on a small anvil by the thumb and finger of the left hand, several at one time, and flattened by the blow of a small hammer. This flattening makes the ends too hard for piercing, so that they have to be softened by being made red-hot and slowly cooled; they are then pierced by children, who lay each needle on a piece of lead and with a small punch and hammer strike out the eye, but in nearly all cases the eye is drilled, in which case the wire is held for an instant to the point of a small drill turned by machinery. The groove which leads to the eye is made either by the stroke of a small file or by compression, and the end is next rounded off. In some needles the eyes and grooves are made by punching two in the middle of a wire, which is afterwards divided. The needles are tempered, by placing some thousands of them on an iron plate which is made red-hot, and then throwing them suddenly into a vessel of cold water; they are by this means made too hard, and have again to be slightly heated to give the proper degree of temper and toughness (see “Steel”), which is done by putting them in boiling oil. They have next to be polished, and this is the most tedious part of their manufacture. The needles, to the number of about a hundred thousand, are packed, together with oil and emery-powder, in a strong sort of bag, so that they all lie side by side, and several of these bags or bundles are rolled backwards and forwards between wooden beams in such a way that every needle rubs against others, and the friction thus produced grinds them bright and smooth. After a time they are taken out, and the black paste formed by the emery-powder, oil, and steel, is cleaned off by putting them into saw-dust, and turning them in a barrel fixed in a frame for the purpose; the saw-dust and dirt are then blown away by a blowing-machine, and the needles again undergo the same process several times, using finer emery-powder each time, so as to polish them; after which they are scoured with soap and water and wiped dry by rolling them in dry wash-leather. They are now perfectly bright, every roughness rubbed off, and a finish being finally given to the points by hand on a hone which turns round, they are packed, twenty-five in each paper, for sale.

TUBING.Tubes of lead and brass are cast in short and thick pieces, and then drawn through holes in a draw-plate, similarly to wire, but having a rod or “mandril” passed through the length of the tube to keep the hollow of the right calibre.TUBE DRAWING.Iron tubing for gas and water pipes, if more than about two inches in diameter, is cast; but smaller, or “service-pipes,” are made of wrought iron plate rolled on a mandril, and welded at the edges by being drawn at a white heat through a draw-plate.

Tubes of lead and brass are cast in short and thick pieces, and then drawn through holes in a draw-plate, similarly to wire, but having a rod or “mandril” passed through the length of the tube to keep the hollow of the right calibre.

TUBE DRAWING.

Iron tubing for gas and water pipes, if more than about two inches in diameter, is cast; but smaller, or “service-pipes,” are made of wrought iron plate rolled on a mandril, and welded at the edges by being drawn at a white heat through a draw-plate.

STEEL PENS.SPLITTING THE PEN.STAMPING THE PEN FROM THE STEEL.BENDING THE PEN.Steel pens, which have almost superseded quill pens, are made in great quantities, and, like needles and pins, can only be produced at a sufficiently low price to meet the requirements of the people, by those who have erected buildings and fitted up machinery so as to make the process sufficiently rapid to be cheap. The steel is first selected of the proper quality, and rolled out into sheets of the thickness required and of breadth sufficient for the length of the pens to be made; these are punched out of the proper shape by a punch worked by a screw, which cuts out a piece at every blow, and also the perforation which terminates the split. The maker’s name or any other device is stamped on this flat piece of steel, called a “blank,” which is then coiled up into the shape required (whether a “barrel” pen or a “nib”) by a sort of press, worked by a girl, as seen in the engraving, and the split made by a machine, also engraved. In both these machines the screw is worked with the left hand, while the right is engaged in placing the pens under it and pushing out the pen with the finger after it is bent or slit, these operations, from constant practice, being performed with great rapidity. The pens have next to be tempered, by being made red-hot and then thrown into water or oil, and are afterwards polished by putting them into a barrel with fine sand, which is turned round by a windlass for several hours. The nibs or points are then finished at a stone which turns round, and a varnish of a brown color—made by dissolving shellac and asphaltum in naptha—is given to the surface to keep them from rusting. Sometimes the surface is “blued,” which is done by heating the pens on an iron plate till the blue color appears (see “Steel”).Pens are sometimes made of other metals besides steel, as brass, or zinc, and sometimes of gold. Those made of gold are, of course, too expensive for general use, but as they are never corroded by the ink, they last a very long time, and can always be cleaned by washing; and as the whole wear is at the point, this is tipped with an alloy which is exceedingly hard.

SPLITTING THE PEN.

STAMPING THE PEN FROM THE STEEL.

BENDING THE PEN.

Steel pens, which have almost superseded quill pens, are made in great quantities, and, like needles and pins, can only be produced at a sufficiently low price to meet the requirements of the people, by those who have erected buildings and fitted up machinery so as to make the process sufficiently rapid to be cheap. The steel is first selected of the proper quality, and rolled out into sheets of the thickness required and of breadth sufficient for the length of the pens to be made; these are punched out of the proper shape by a punch worked by a screw, which cuts out a piece at every blow, and also the perforation which terminates the split. The maker’s name or any other device is stamped on this flat piece of steel, called a “blank,” which is then coiled up into the shape required (whether a “barrel” pen or a “nib”) by a sort of press, worked by a girl, as seen in the engraving, and the split made by a machine, also engraved. In both these machines the screw is worked with the left hand, while the right is engaged in placing the pens under it and pushing out the pen with the finger after it is bent or slit, these operations, from constant practice, being performed with great rapidity. The pens have next to be tempered, by being made red-hot and then thrown into water or oil, and are afterwards polished by putting them into a barrel with fine sand, which is turned round by a windlass for several hours. The nibs or points are then finished at a stone which turns round, and a varnish of a brown color—made by dissolving shellac and asphaltum in naptha—is given to the surface to keep them from rusting. Sometimes the surface is “blued,” which is done by heating the pens on an iron plate till the blue color appears (see “Steel”).

Pens are sometimes made of other metals besides steel, as brass, or zinc, and sometimes of gold. Those made of gold are, of course, too expensive for general use, but as they are never corroded by the ink, they last a very long time, and can always be cleaned by washing; and as the whole wear is at the point, this is tipped with an alloy which is exceedingly hard.

ARTS AND TRADE PROCESSES.WOOD AND PLATE ENGRAVING.WOOD ENGRAVING.Engraving consists principally of two kinds, that in which the design is made to project, and that in which it is cut in or indented; the first kind is used in wood engraving, and in engraving metallic or wooden blocks and cylinders for calico printing, the other is called “plate engraving,” and is used to produce copper, steel, and zinc plates for printing.In wood engraving a block of box wood is used, or several pieces are screwed or tongued together in order to make a block of the required size, for the box wood must be cut across the grain, therefore large blocks are not easily procured. These blocks are about an inch in thickness, so that they may range with type and be printed with it, they are made perfectly smooth on the face, which is rubbed with a little flake-white and Bath brick, to give it a whitish and slightly roughened surface. On this prepared surface the design is drawn with a black-lead pencil, and the block is then put into the hands of the engraver, who cuts away—to the depth of about one-twentieth of an inch—all those parts which have not been blackened by the pencil, leaving every line and dot of the drawing projecting, and this serves as a sort of stamp or type, to print from. (See “Printing.”) In this way the illustrations to the present work are produced.In plate engraving the design is copied from the original and cut into the plate in a manner quite opposite to that of engraving on wood; for every line intended to be printed, instead of projecting, is cut in with a sharp edge, so that they may be filled with ink, instead of being covered, as in wood engraving. When the design is formed entirely by lines, it is called “line engraving,” and when formed by dots, it is said to be “stippled,” and these two kinds are often combined in the same plate. There is a process for engraving plates, called “etching,” by which the lines or dots on the plate are not made by cutting, but are corroded or eaten in by the chemical action of nitric acid; and few plates are now produced by the graver alone, the design being first etched and afterwards finished off by the graver, but some are produced by etching alone, whence they are called “etchings.” The process of etching is as follows:—The surface of the plate is made smooth and bright, then heated, and afterwards coated with a mixture of asphaltum, wax, and mastic—called “etching-ground”—a ball of which is tied up in a piece of silk, rubbed over the hot plate, and dabbed with a dabber till a smooth layer or coating is formed all over it; it is “smoked” over the flame of a candle, to blacken it, and the result is a smooth black varnish, which covers the surface of the plate, and is capable of resisting the action of nitric acid. On this surface the design is drawn with an “etching-point,” a steel instrument which cuts or scratches quite through the etching-ground, exposing the surface of the copper at the bottom of each scratch. When the design is finished—in hues or dots, according to the style required—a ridge or border of wax is made all round the plate so as to form it into a sort of shallow tray, and into this the nitric acid, mixed with a little water, is poured, and carefully watched till in the judgment of the engraver it has bitten into the plate sufficiently for the fainter parts of the design. The acid is then poured off, and the plate washed and dried, after which the parts intended to remain most lightly etched are stopped out with varnish, and the acid again poured on, to corrode the lines left exposed to its action more deeply. This is repeated two or three times, according to the nature of the design, when the plate is again heated, to melt the etching-ground, and the whole is cleaned off with turpentine. The plate may now be used to print from, or it may be further finished by the “graver,” “burnisher,” or “dry point,” which is simply a point of steel used to make very fine and faint scratches instead of cuts, for the graver cuts out the piece of copper, while the dry point merely indents it.There is another kind of plate engraving, called “mezzo-tinto.” This is done by first covering the whole plate with a rough granulated surface—called a “mezzo-tint ground,”—by means of a sort of notched chisel, called a “cradle” or “grounding-tool,” which is rocked to and fro over the surface in every possible direction, till the whole is covered with minute dots; so that if it were then used to print from, it would produce an even dark surface. On this ground the engraver works with a “scraper,” scraping gradually away all those parts which are to appear as lights in the finished picture, and the more the ground is scraped away the lighter will be the tint, till, finally, those parts which are to be quite white are scraped smooth and burnished, so that they shall hold no ink at all. In this way the engraver proceeds till his design is finished, trying the effect from time to time. This kind of engraving is often combined with etching, producing greater sharpness of outline than mezzo-tint alone.

WOOD ENGRAVING.

Engraving consists principally of two kinds, that in which the design is made to project, and that in which it is cut in or indented; the first kind is used in wood engraving, and in engraving metallic or wooden blocks and cylinders for calico printing, the other is called “plate engraving,” and is used to produce copper, steel, and zinc plates for printing.

In wood engraving a block of box wood is used, or several pieces are screwed or tongued together in order to make a block of the required size, for the box wood must be cut across the grain, therefore large blocks are not easily procured. These blocks are about an inch in thickness, so that they may range with type and be printed with it, they are made perfectly smooth on the face, which is rubbed with a little flake-white and Bath brick, to give it a whitish and slightly roughened surface. On this prepared surface the design is drawn with a black-lead pencil, and the block is then put into the hands of the engraver, who cuts away—to the depth of about one-twentieth of an inch—all those parts which have not been blackened by the pencil, leaving every line and dot of the drawing projecting, and this serves as a sort of stamp or type, to print from. (See “Printing.”) In this way the illustrations to the present work are produced.

In plate engraving the design is copied from the original and cut into the plate in a manner quite opposite to that of engraving on wood; for every line intended to be printed, instead of projecting, is cut in with a sharp edge, so that they may be filled with ink, instead of being covered, as in wood engraving. When the design is formed entirely by lines, it is called “line engraving,” and when formed by dots, it is said to be “stippled,” and these two kinds are often combined in the same plate. There is a process for engraving plates, called “etching,” by which the lines or dots on the plate are not made by cutting, but are corroded or eaten in by the chemical action of nitric acid; and few plates are now produced by the graver alone, the design being first etched and afterwards finished off by the graver, but some are produced by etching alone, whence they are called “etchings.” The process of etching is as follows:—The surface of the plate is made smooth and bright, then heated, and afterwards coated with a mixture of asphaltum, wax, and mastic—called “etching-ground”—a ball of which is tied up in a piece of silk, rubbed over the hot plate, and dabbed with a dabber till a smooth layer or coating is formed all over it; it is “smoked” over the flame of a candle, to blacken it, and the result is a smooth black varnish, which covers the surface of the plate, and is capable of resisting the action of nitric acid. On this surface the design is drawn with an “etching-point,” a steel instrument which cuts or scratches quite through the etching-ground, exposing the surface of the copper at the bottom of each scratch. When the design is finished—in hues or dots, according to the style required—a ridge or border of wax is made all round the plate so as to form it into a sort of shallow tray, and into this the nitric acid, mixed with a little water, is poured, and carefully watched till in the judgment of the engraver it has bitten into the plate sufficiently for the fainter parts of the design. The acid is then poured off, and the plate washed and dried, after which the parts intended to remain most lightly etched are stopped out with varnish, and the acid again poured on, to corrode the lines left exposed to its action more deeply. This is repeated two or three times, according to the nature of the design, when the plate is again heated, to melt the etching-ground, and the whole is cleaned off with turpentine. The plate may now be used to print from, or it may be further finished by the “graver,” “burnisher,” or “dry point,” which is simply a point of steel used to make very fine and faint scratches instead of cuts, for the graver cuts out the piece of copper, while the dry point merely indents it.

There is another kind of plate engraving, called “mezzo-tinto.” This is done by first covering the whole plate with a rough granulated surface—called a “mezzo-tint ground,”—by means of a sort of notched chisel, called a “cradle” or “grounding-tool,” which is rocked to and fro over the surface in every possible direction, till the whole is covered with minute dots; so that if it were then used to print from, it would produce an even dark surface. On this ground the engraver works with a “scraper,” scraping gradually away all those parts which are to appear as lights in the finished picture, and the more the ground is scraped away the lighter will be the tint, till, finally, those parts which are to be quite white are scraped smooth and burnished, so that they shall hold no ink at all. In this way the engraver proceeds till his design is finished, trying the effect from time to time. This kind of engraving is often combined with etching, producing greater sharpness of outline than mezzo-tint alone.

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