The king bade them deliver their message, and they {185} sat—for it was no formal sermon, but rather, as we should say, a meditation on the things of God—and "preached the word of life to him and all his gesiths who were present." Bede tells us the answer of the grave thoughtful Aethelbert—"They are certainly beautiful words and promises that you bring; but because they are new and unproved, I cannot give my assent to them and give up those things which I with all the English race have so long observed. But since you are strangers and have come a long way, so that—as I think I can see clearly—you might impart to us that which you believe to be true and most good, I do not wish you any harm, but rather will treat you kindly and see that you have all you need, and we will not hinder you from bringing over to the faith of your own religion all of our people that you can win." And so he gave them lodging in his own city, the metropolis, as Bede, as it were by prophecy, calls it, of Canterbury. [Sidenote: The litanies.] Towards Canterbury they went, still with litany and procession, and thus, Bede tells us, it is said they sang—still carrying the holy cross and the picture of the great King, our Lord Jesus Christ.—
"We beseech Thee, O Lord, according to all Thy mercy, that Thy wrath and Thine anger may be turned away from this city, and from Thy holy house; for we have sinned. Alleluia."
A tradition that lasted down to Bede's own day thus handed down their words. There is great interest in this picture of Christian worship in the heathen land, our own, that was to be won for Christ. It illustrates the worship of the land the missionaries came from, as well as serves as a pattern for the worship which the {186} English, under Augustine's guidance, should follow. What was this litany? Litanies at Rome were regulated by S. Gregory himself, and he was very likely only revising and setting in order a form of service already well known. But this very litany S. Augustine and his companions had most likely heard during their passage through Gaul. There the Rogation litanies had been over a hundred years in use; and these words form part of a Rogation litany used long after in Vienne, through which doubtless Augustine travelled. Thus the missionaries were using a part of the Gallican service-books, and not of the Roman; and the legation procession, which lasted so long in England, which still lingers in some places in the form of "beating the bounds," and which in late years has been here and there revived among us, comes to us with Augustine from Gaul, and not from Rome, where it was not yet in use. "Alleluia!" too, a strange ending to a penitential litany in modern ears, was the close of Gallican litanies at Rogationtide, as later in Christian England itself, and its use outside the Easter season was especially authorised by Gregory the Great. And if Augustine's own first public prayers were Gallican, so most probably was the use of the chapel of the Kentish Queen Bercta, who was daughter of the West Frankish king, and who had with her a Frankish bishop, Liudhard. But his own use would be the Roman, just as his own manner of chanting, long preserved at Canterbury, was after the manner of the Romans. And thus, with the strong sense of unity natural to a man trained in the school of the great Gregory, Augustine was startled at the contrast of customs when it came to him in practical guise. Why, {187} the faith being one, are there the different customs of different churches, and one manner of masses in the holy Roman church, another in that of the Gauls? So he asked the great teacher who had sent him. A wise answer came from the wise pope, disclaiming all peculiar authority or special sanctity for the use of Rome. "Things are not to be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of things." "Select, then," he advises, "from many churches, whatever you have found in Gaul, or in Rome, or in any other church, that is good; make a rite for the new church of the English, such as you think pious and best."
[Sidenote: English uses.]
All this, when Augustine's position is remembered, will be seen to show how far Rome then was from arrogating to herself any strange supremacy such as later days have brought. The first primate of the English was allowed freedom to make an English rite. But, on the other hand, we have no evidence that he did so. He preferred, we have every reason to believe, the Roman rite, with only here and there a few changes or additions. The Council of Clovesho, presided over by Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 747, followed in his steps, taking in regard to rites "the model which we have in writing from the Roman Church." But none the less later English service-books show very considerable Gallican influence. Celtic missionaries, and the connection four centuries later with Gaul and Burgundy, left traces in the way in which the service was performed; and England, up to the Reformation, like all other countries indeed, had some distinct customs of its own. Throughout the long history of conversion which spreads over the whole island, it is noteworthy {188} that preaching and the singing of litanies, as at the first coming of Augustine, are conspicuous in the methods of the saints who won England to Christ.
[Sidenote: The Eucharist in the sixth century.]
What then was the service of the Holy Communion, as S. Augustine celebrated it, and our English forefathers first came to know it? If, as we suppose, it was the Roman, it would proceed thus. First an antiphon, which came to be called an introit, or psalm of entrance, with a verse having special reference to the lesson of the day or season, was sung, as the priest, wearing a long white surplice or alb and a chasuble (the robe worn alike by lay and by clerical officials), entered with two deacons, wearing probably similar garments. In the Gallican rite, as in the eastern, there followed the singing of the "Trisagion": and in both Gallican and Roman the "Kyrie Eleeson," as in our own office to-day, though we now add to it a special prayer for grace to keep the Commandments. Then in the Roman rite was sung the "Gloria in Excelsis," while in the Gallican the "Benedictus" took its place. This was introductory. Now came the collect, the prayer when all the people were gathered together. Then the Lesson from the Old Testament, the Epistle, and the Gospel. Between the Old Testament Lesson and the Epistle was sung the "Gradual," a psalm sung from the steps of the ambo or pulpit, but gradually the use of Rome was followed all over Europe, and the Old Testament reading was omitted altogether. After the Epistle was sung "Alleluia" or the psalm called the Tract. Then the Gospel was sung, introduced with special solemnity. The deacon mounted the pulpit, seven candles being carried before him, and the choir {189} chanting "Glory be to Thee, O Lord." After the deacon had read the Gospel, a sermon was generally preached, but the Creed was at this time not said. A short common prayer followed (in the Gallican rite a litany), and then the mass of the catechumens was over, and those who were unbaptized or unworthy to remain at that time for the consecration departed from the church, a custom which has survived in England under changed conditions.
Then, when the faithful only remained, the offertory was sung, and the bread and wine and water were offered (the ceremonial was different and much longer in the Gallican rite, and included the kiss of peace). S. Augustine, if he followed the Roman use, would offer the bread and wine himself, with the laity assisting: the Gallican use was to prepare the elements beforehand, and now bring them into church in procession. The priest then washed his hands and said privately a collect, while in the Gallican rite he read from the diptychs, or tablets of the church, the names of those departed who were to be especially commemorated.
Then followed the prayer called the Preface, and the singing of "Holy, Holy, Holy." After this, in the Gallican rite, came a special prayer, and then, as still in the Mozarabic, followed the recital of our Lord's institution of the Sacrament, as in the English Prayer-book now; but the Roman rite had also prayers for the Church, for the living and dead, and both united in the prayer (calledparaklesis) that the elements might receive consecration from God, which was the consecration itself until much later. Then the dead and living were again prayed for, and the fruits of the earth were dedicated by prayer.
{190}
The Lord's Prayer, by the order of S. Gregory himself, concluded this part of the service, which came to be known as the Canon, the invariable part of the Mass. In the Roman rite the kiss of peace followed, the faithful kissing each other according to the ancient custom. Then the priest broke the bread, and said the Lord's Prayer alone till the last clause. Then he placed a piece of the bread in the cup, and received the Sacrament himself, afterwards giving it in one kind to the clergy and laity, while the deacon followed with the chalice. Before the Communion it was a custom taken from Gaul, which lasted in England up to the Reformation, that the Bishop, if present, should bless the people. A hymn was sung during the communion of the people; the ancient "Draw nigh and take the Body of the Lord" remains still to us from a Celtic source for use at this time. The service ended with a "Let us pray" and collect after Communion, closely followed by the second of the alternative post-communion prayers now in our English office. Immediately after this prayer the deacon said "Ite, missa est" ("Go: it is the dismissal").
In the English services to-day, while much is changed, and the language is our own, we can still trace very much that has been used continuously since the day when S. Augustine first said the whole office of the Church on British soil.
Much more might be said; but this may suffice to illustrate the interest and importance which belong to sacraments and liturgical rites in the ages of which we speak.
[1] Edmund Bishop, "The Genesis of the Roman Rite," inEssays on Ceremonial, 1904.
{191}
[Sidenote: The end of the age.]
As we draw to the close of the long period which, through the conversion of the barbarian races and the growth of a central power in the Church at Rome, so profoundly influenced the future of the world, we are met by some outstanding facts which mark an epoch of crisis and of reformation. They are—the widening breach in matters religious, as earlier in matters political, between East and West; the influences which served to strengthen the theory of the papal monarchy even at the time of its greatest practical weakness; and the strength of the Empire under the Saxon Ottos as a power to unite Western Europe and to reform the Western Church.
[Sidenote: The papacy of Nicolas I., 858-67.]
Nicolas, who was elected in 858, was a great pope. He asserted the moral force of Christianity in a way in which his predecessors very frequently followed him, by vindicating the indissolubility of the marriage tie. Chlothochar, King of Lotharingia, separated from his wife Theudberga, bringing against her foul charges, which a council of clergy at Aachen accepted. Nicolas intervened: again and again he endeavoured to control the Frankish clergy and rescind the divorce; but it was {192} only in 863 by a council at Rome, where the archbishops of Cologne and Trier were present, that he was able to proceed to extremities. He excommunicated those two prelates, and deposed them with all those who had assisted them: he warned Hincmar of Rheims of what he had done. The emperor Louis, Chlothochar's brother, marched on Rome and captured the city; but there, through illness it appears, he completely submitted to the pope. Nicolas enforced his decision on the Frankish king, the Frankish bishops, on Hincmar, the great archbishop of Rheims himself. In a letter he developed the theory that the Empire owed its confirmation to the authority of the Apostolic See, and that the sword was conferred on the emperor by the pope, the vicar of S. Peter. Truly it was said of this pope by one who wrote a century after his death, "Since the days of Gregory to our own sat no prelate on the throne of S. Peter to be compared to Nicolas. He tamed kings and tyrants and ruled the world like a monarch: to holy bishops he was mild and gentle: to the wicked and unconverted a terror; so that truly may we say that in him arose a new Elijah."
Of equal though different importance was the action of the papacy in regard to the East. What is known as the Photian schism is the divergence between the churches of Constantinople and Rome, which became critical during the pontificate of Nicolas I.
[Sidenote: The Photian schism.]
Photius, a man of great learning and experience, a scholar and theologian of the familiar Greek type, was elected Patriarch of Constantinople on Christmas Day, 857. At the time when Michael III. determined on his appointment he was not even ordained: in six days he {193} received the different orders and was made patriarch. But his election was uncanonical. Ignatius the patriarch, who was still living, was deposed because of his censures of the emperor's evil life. Photius announced his election to Pope Nicolas, but Ignatius refused to surrender his rights; both parties excommunicated each other; and the emperor mocked at both. But he also asked the pope to send legates to a council which should restore order to the Church. The Council met in 861. It confirmed Photius in his office, and the papal legates assented. Nicolas refused to accept the decision and took upon him to annul it, to depose Photius, to declare the orders conferred by him invalid, and to announce his decision to the other patriarchs and to the metropolitans and bishops who owed obedience to Constantinople. Neither the emperor nor Photius would submit; and in 867 Photius issued, in a council at Constantinople, an encyclical letter, in which he repudiated the papal claim of jurisdiction (which was complicated by assertions of supremacy over the Bulgarian Church), and denounced a number of tenets held by Westerns, [Sidenote: The Philioque controversy.] and most notably the addition of the wordFilioqueto the Nicene Creed, as asserting the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son. He ended by excommunicating the pope.
In the year 867 Nicolas died, Michael was deposed, Photius followed him into retirement, Basil the Macedonian ascended the throne, and Ignatius was restored to the patriarchate. A council was held in 869 at which papal legates attended, which approved these acts, and which is counted by the Roman Church as {194} the Eighth Oecumenical Council. This Council confirmed the Church's decision as to image-worship. Ignatius held his throne till his death in 877, when Photius was reinstated. His return was signalised by a new agreement with Rome, in which Pope John VIII. repudiated the insertion of the Filioque, and declared that it was inserted by men whose daring was due to madness, and who were transgressors against the Divine Word. Another council at Constantinople (879-80) confirmed the reinstatement, declared Photius to be lawful patriarch, and anathematised the Council of 869. This is reckoned by the Greeks as the Eighth Oecumenical Council. [Sidenote: End of the schism.] Then the schism was for the time healed. It made no difference that a new emperor, Leo VI., the Wise, deposed Photius again and appointed his own brother. The union remained formally throughout the tenth century. But though the eleventh century opened with a nominal agreement, it was not destined to endure. The points of severance must be dealt with in a later volume. It may here suffice to say that the position of the Greeks was rigidly conservative, of the popes aggressively authoritative.
It was an age of growing papal claims; and the claims had now found a new basis.
[Sidenote: The forged decretals.]
The promises, true and legendary, of Pippin, and the spurious donation of Constantine, had still further extension in the False Decretals. These were first used by Nicolas I., who was pope from 858 to 867. During his pontificate the collection of Church laws, with the canons of the Oecumenical Councils, the letters of the most important bishops and the like, with the ecclesiastical laws of the {195} emperors, which were practically becoming acorpus juris canonici, received a notable addition. The genuine decretals of the popes begin with Siricius (384-98); but there now (between 840 and 860) appeared fifty-nine more, professing to date from the second and third centuries, and also thirty-nine became interpolated among the genuine documents, which ranged from 386 to 731. These were put forth by a skilful forger as the collection of Isidore of Seville, and they were incorporated in the authentic collection made by him. A most remarkable series of documents was this, in every point supporting the claims now put forth by the Roman See to political as well as ecclesiastical supremacy, deciding questions of discipline and right such as were then vexed, and supplying a veritable armoury for the advocates of papal claims to rule everywhere, over all persons, and in all causes. The forged decretals, now known as the pseudo-Isidorian, had their origin among the Franks, and showed the aims and the needs of the Frankish reformers. They set forth three great objects—"freedom from the secular power, establishment of the ecclesiastical hierarchy with a firm discipline, and centralisation of organisation upon which all could depend." [1] They represented, in fact, a scheme of reform and the way in which a somewhat unscrupulous reformer imagined it could best be carried out. Probably the forged decretals were concocted at Rheims, or possibly at Mainz, and they were first used in a critical case in 866, when a bishop of Soissons, deposed by Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, appealed to the pope on the ground that the power of deposition by the decretals belonged to him alone. It is difficult {196} to believe that when Nicolas I. accepted them he was not aware that they were not the genuine writings of the popes whose work they professed to be: he can hardly have thought that Spain (where it was said that they had been discovered) was more likely to have kept papal documents safely than the Roman Chancery itself. Their importance was, however, not evident at first. In the ninth and tenth centuries comparatively little was made of them. It was in the eleventh and the centuries which followed that a gigantic edifice of papal assumption was to be built upon them by popes who were fired with a true zeal to reform the world, and who, not doubting their authenticity, found in them an instrument ready to their hands.
[Sidenote: The decay of the papacy.]
The weakness of the papacy in the tenth century was indeed such that no theory could give it respect in Europe. The weakness of the Church was heralded by that of the Empire. The Carling house expired in contempt almost as great as that which had fallen on the Merwings. In Gaul the Norman had won fair provinces on the coast; and the house of the Counts of Paris came in the tenth century to rule over the Franks. There the Church remained strong as the State decayed, and it was the great archbishopric of Rheims which gave the crown to the line of Hugh the Great. In Germany the dynasty of the Carlings became extinct. In Rome the power over the city fell into the hands of the local nobility; and the period was made infamous by the lives of Theodora and Marozia, who were the paramours of popes. The tale of the age of disgrace which marks the greater part of the tenth century is of no importance in the history of the Church. A succession of {197} popes, whom their contemporaries certainly did not believe to be infallible, followed each other in rapid procession. John X. alone (914-28) has any claim to greatness; but he, like the others, was deeply stained with the vices, political if not moral, of his age. It was not until the Saxon Otto came to Italy like a knight-errant to redress the wrongs of the Northern princes, and was crowned at Rome in 962, that the Church in Italy began to revive from its ashes. He deposed and set up popes; and he gave to the papacy something of the bracing ideals which the new life of Gaul and Germany inspired.
The moral weakness of the papacy, the political weakness of Italy, had founded the Empire anew, as it had been founded anew in 800. The revival of the Empire under Charles the Great, and again under Otto, was not due to political considerations only; it was due also to the force of religious ideas.
[Sidenote: The religious revival of the Empire under the Saxons.]
One great characteristic of the revived Empire in German hands was the important part played in its policy by missions, and, it must be added, missionary wars. It was said of Charles the Great by his eulogists that he converted Saxons and Vandals and Frisians by the Word and the sword: and this thought was embodied in a series of wars which have been somewhat fancifully compared to the Crusades of later days. Otto I. thrice invaded the land of the Slavs and made all the barbarians from the Oder to the Elbe admit his lordship. Six new bishoprics were founded as his sway spread, and the bishop of Magdeburg was raised to be "archbishop and metropolitan of the whole race of the Slavs beyond the Elbe which has {198} been, or still remains to be, converted to God." But though it was a real work of civilisation, a work which made for peace, that the German Caesars undertook, it was not a Crusade. A Crusade was a war to win back from the infidel what had once been the patrimony of the Crucified: the wars of the Ottos were directed to extend their own sway, and, as ever, the true work of the converting Church was not helped but hindered by the arms and enterprises of soldiers and statesmen. When the tribes revolted against the government of the Germans, they often disowned their Christianity and destroyed their churches. Under Otto III. the Empire did not recover what she had lost, and the province of Magdeburg remained for nearly half its extent in heathen hands. [Sidenote: Otto the Great's endowment in Germany.] The Church suffered from this association. Where the mission of S. Boniface had been purely spiritual, the work of his successors was often hampered by the ambition of the emperors. In the lands alike of Eastern and Western Franks the Church was often led to lean on the State, and the results, of slackness, corruption, weakness, were inevitable. The rich endowments which were poured upon the Church were not always wisely given or wisely used. The Caesars themselves showered gifts: Otto the Great surpassed all his predecessors in lavishness,[2] and his dynasty followed in his steps. But the honours and riches were given quite as much for political as for religious objects. In the bishops and abbats the sovereigns found the wisest servants, the most capable administrators. As among the West Franks under the {199} Merwings, so now among the East Franks, the great ecclesiastics were the supports of the monarchy, the real governors of the country. It was thus that they came to owe their position—if not their election always yet certainly their confirmation—to the imperial will. As in Rome the emperors were stretching forth a hand to control the elections to the papacy, so in Germany there was growing up at the end of the tenth century the practice of imperial control over the things of the Church. The policy of the Ottos and the reformation of the papacy were certain ultimately to lead to the contest concerning investitures. High clerical office had come too often to be bought and sold, and the churches were becoming mere appanages of the great principalities. It was wise of Otto I. to try to win from the dukes the power they had obtained: but it was not for the good of the Church that the power should be even in the imperial hands.
[Sidenote: Otto III. and the popes.]
Otto I. died in 973. He had begun the reformation of the papacy. His son and grandson succeeded him, Otto II. in 973, Otto III. in 983. In 996 died Pope John XV., a Roman whom the Frankish chronicler, Abbo of Fleury, declares to have been lustful of filthy lucre and venal in all his acts. To Otto the clergy, senate, and people of Rome submitted the election of his successor. He chose his own cousin Bruno, "a man of holiness, of wisdom, and of virtue,"—news, to quote the same saintly writer, more precious than gold and precious stones. His throne was insecure: the Roman noble Crescentius drove him from it, but he won his way back and overcame one who had been set up as an anti-pope. He died in 999.
{200}
At the close of the tenth century a pope and an emperor of great ideas stand forth from the blackness of an age when, according to the evidence of councils and of monastic chronicles alike, vice was rampant—"the more powerful oppress the weaker, and men are like fishes in the sea, which everywhere in turn devour one another"—and the bishops and clergy alike neglected their duties. Otto III. (983-1002), the offspring of the German who sat on the imperial throne and the daughter of the Caesars of the East, made himself a real ruler of the Empire in Church as well as in State, and after the disputed succession of his cousin Bruno (Gregory V., 996-99) placed on the papal throne the first of the great line of later medieval popes. Gregory V. was the first pope of transalpine birth imposed by the Germans; Gerbert was the first of the French popes. It needed the imperial army to keep Gregory on the throne, and to crush the last of the Roman princelets who had made the papacy infamous; Gerbert (Silvester II., 999-1003) was only able to remain in the eternal city so long as Otto was there to protect him. [Sidenote: Gerbert.] But Gerbert's greatness belonged to a sphere far wider than that of the local papacy. He was a scholar in the ancient classics, a logician, mathematician, astronomer and musician, a great collector of books and a great teacher of men. An Aquitanian by birth, he was brought up at Aurillac, and then passed from one place of study to another, till, by the influence of the Emperor Otto I., he settled at Rheims in 972. His school was a famous one: among those whom he taught were many bishops, Robert the future king of the Franks and Otto the future emperor. From Rheims he went as abbat to {201} Bobbio, where the necessary severity of his rule provoked such opposition that he was obliged to return to Gaul. [Sidenote: In Gaul] He returned in time to win the influence of the great see of Rheims on behalf of the child heir of Otto II., who died at the end of 983, and to take part in the diplomacy which ended in the transfer of the West Frankish crown to Hugh the duke of the Franks. When Arnulf, of the very Karling house which had been dispossessed, became archbishop, and tried to hand over Rheims to his kindred, Gerbert, the steadfast supporter of the "Capetians," was made his successor. The election was of more than doubtful legality, and the politics, papal and imperial, of the time still further complicated the question: it was only settled by the transference of Gerbert, on the nomination of his old pupil, Otto III., to the see of Ravenna, From 998 he remained in Italy till his death. [Sidenote: and in Italy.] In 999 he became pope, and then he gave himself, heart and soul, to forward the great schemes, missionary, reforming, imperial, which were indeed as much his own as those of the enthusiastic genius of the young emperor. The old offices of the "republic" were revived and harmonised, as in the East, with the Christian character of the imperial power. Pope and emperor worked hand in hand for the conversion of the barbarians: it is said that it was Silvester who gave the kingship to the Hungarian Duke Stephen, as a son of the Christian Empire and the holy see of the imperial city. In the unquiet days of his papacy he was yet able to set an example of wisdom, counsel, godliness, charity, which formed an epoch in the regeneration of the Roman episcopate. Zealous, loyal, inspired by an overpowering sense of duty, {202} Silvester II. in a short time fulfilled a long time and left a mark on the history of the Middle Ages such as was made by but few even of its greatest men. [Sidenote: Pope Silvester II.] At his death in 1003 the age of reform had started on its way; and his was the light which had directed its beginnings. Thus in the West the end of the period shows the Empire and the papacy of one mind, eager for a spiritual reform in the Church, for Christian and missionary ideals in the State, not careful to delimit the provinces of Church and State, but eager rather for unity of action as well as sentiment in the cause of Christian extension and endeavour.
[Sidenote: The end of the Dark Age.]
Though the contest was not yet over, it might be said with confidence that the Church of Christ had won over the barbarians. Missionaries and martyrs had changed the face of Europe, and the fierce tribes which were pouring over the Continent in the fifth century, barbarous and heathen, were now for the most part tamed and converted to the love of Christ. Out of a land which had been wild and barbarous, and where one of the greatest of saints and missionaries had met his death, had come a revival in Christian form of the old imperial idea, and the great men who had been nourished by it had given new health to the central Church of Europe. For the moment, the Empire and the Papacy, Germany and the new temporal State in the hands of the Roman bishop, were united to lead the Christian nations and to convert the heathen on their borders. In the East remained the magnificent fabric of the immemorial Empire, active still in missionary labour and setting an example of the union of Church and State in {203} agreement to which the West could never attain. The eleventh century was to bring to East and West alike, with new responsibilities, new difficulties in action and new problems in thought. Everywhere it was for unity men strove, the unity which if in its main aspect it was political, was on its spiritual and ideal side embodied in the visible Church of Christ.
[1] Dr. O. L. Wells,The Age of Charlemayne, p. 434.
[2] See H. A. L. Fisher,The Medieval Empire, ii. p. 65; Hauck,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, iii. 57-9.
{205}
457 Leo I.461 Hilarus 461 Severus————-467 Anthemius468 Simplicius472 Olybrius473 Glycerius474 Julius Nepos 474 Zeno475 RomulusAugustulus483 Felix III.————-491 Anastasius I.492 Gelasius I.496 Anastasius II.498 Symmachus514 Hormisdas518 Justin I.523 John I.526 Felix IV.527 Justinian I.530 Boniface II.532 John II.535 Agapetus I.536 Silverius537 Vigilius555 Pelagius I.560 John III.565 Justin II.574 Benedict I.578 Pelagius II. 578 Tiberius II.582 Maurice{206}
590 Gregory I.602 Phocas604 Sabinianus607 Boniface III.607 Boniface IV.610 Heraclius615 Deusdedit618 Boniface V.625 Honorius I.638 Severinus.640 John IV.641 ( Heracleonas( Constantine III.642 Theodorus I. 642 Constans II.649 Martin I.654 Eugenius I.657 Vitalianus.668 Constantine IV.672 Adeodatus676 Domnus I.678 Agatho682 Leo II.683 Benedict II.685 John V. 685 Justinian II.687 Sergius I.694 Leontius697 Tiberius III.701 John VI.705 John VII. 705 Justinian II.(restored)708 Sisinnius708 Constantine711 Philippicus713 Anastasius II.715 Gregory II. 715 Theodosius III.717 Leo III.731 Gregory III.741 Zacharias 741 Constantine V.752 Stephen II.752 Stephen III.757 Paul I.768 Stephen III.(or IV.)772 Hadrian I.775 Leo IV.779 Constantine VI795 Leo III.797 Irene{207}
800 Charles I.802 Nicephorus I.811 Stauracius811 Michael I.813 Leo V.814 Louis I.816 Stephen IV.817 Paschal I.820 Michael II.824 Eugenius II.827 Valentinus827 Gregory IV.829 Theophilus840 Lothar I.842 Michael III.844 Sergius II.847 Leo IV.855 Benedict III. 855 Louis II.(in Italy)858 Nicolas I.867 Hadrian II. 867 Basil I.872 John VIII.875 Charles II.(West Franks)882 Marinus I. 882 Charles III.(East Franks)884 Hadrian III.885 Stephen V.886 Leo VI.891 Formosus 891 Guido (in Italy)894 Lambert(in Italy)896 Boniface VI. 896 Arnulf896 Stephen VI. (East Franks)897 Romanus897 Theodorus II.898 John IX.900 Benedict IV.901 Louis III.(in Italy)903 Leo V.—————903 Christopher904 Sergius III.911 Anastasius III.912 Constantine VII.(till 958){208}
913 Lando 912 Alexander )914 John X. 919 Romanus I. ) co-( Constantine ) emperors915 Berengar 944 ( VIII )928 Leo VI. (in Italy) ( Stephanus )929 Stephen VII.
931 John XI. ———— 936 Leo VII. 939 Stephen VIII. 942 Marinus II. 946 Agapetus II.
955 John XII.958 Romanus II.962 Otto I.963 Leo VIII. 963 Basil II. )[964 Benedict V.] 963 Nicephorus )965 John XIII. II. ) co-973 Benedict VI. 973 Otto II. 969 John I. ) emperors974 Domnus II. 976 Constantine )974 Benedict VII. IX. )983 John XIV. 983 Otto III.985 John XV.996 Gregory V.999 Silvester II.1002 Henry (II.)1003 John XVII.
NOTE.—This list is for the most part that adopted by Dr. Bryce,HolyRoman Empire; but the dates might be slightly varied by reference toDuchesne, K. Müller, and Funk (Weltzer and Welte,Kirchenlexicon).It may also be noted that the popes were frequently not elected tillthe year after the death of their predecessors.
{209}
I. A list of original authorities for the whole of the period 461-1003 would be too long in proportion to the text of this book, but a few of the most important may be mentioned for the sake of those who wish to begin to study the period at first hand. Any such study should include:—
Evagrius, ed. Bidez and Parmentier, 1898. Zachariah of Mitylene [translation], ed. Hamilton and Brooks, 1899. Bede, ed. Ch. Plummer, 1895. Procopius, ed. Haury (in course of publication). Joannes Diaconus,Vita S. Gregorii, ed. Migne, andZeitschrift für Katholische Theologie, XI., 158-73. Gregory the Great,Letters, ed. Ewald and Hartmann, 1887, etc. Paulus Diaconus, ed. Waitz, 1878.Monumenta Moguntina, ed. Jaffé, 1866. Gregory of Tours, ed. Arndt and Krusch, 1884-5.Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, 1886-92.Liudprand, ed. Dümmler, 1877.Letters of Gerbert, ed. Havet, 1889.Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, ed. Jaffé, 1851, 2nd ed. 1885. Mansi,Concilia, 1759-98. Einhard,Vita Caroli Magni, ed. Pertz and Waitz, 1880.
II. Reference to the other authorities can be most easily found through modern works, from which the following is a selection:—
Milman,History of Latin Christianity.Gibbon,Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire(ed. Bury).{210}Bury,History of the Later Roman Empire.Bryce,Holy Roman Empire.Oman,The Dark Ages.Hodgkin,Italy and her Invaders.Hauck,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands.Harnack,Dogmengeschichte.Duchesne,Les Églises Separées."Les Premiers Temps de L'État Pontifical.H. Leclercq,L'Afrique chrétienne."L'Espagne chrétienne.M. J. Labourt,Le Christianisme dans l'Empire perse.P. J. Pargoire,L'Église byzantine, de 527 à 847.A. J. Butler,The Arab Conquest of Egypt.Diehl,L'Afrique byzantine."Justinien."Études sur l'administration byzantine dans l'Exarchat deRavenne.F. H. Dudden,Gregory the Great.Hefele,History of the Councils.Gasquet,L'Empire byzantin et la Monarchie franque.Hutton,The Church of the Sixth Century.Besse,S. Wandrille.Du Bourg,S. Odon.Martin,S. Colomban.Hodgkin,Charles the Great.Davis,Charlemagne.Fisher,The Medieval Empire.Hunt,The English Church, 597-1066.Margoliouth,Mohammed.Gardner,Theodore of Studium.Marin,De Studio Constantinopolitano.Lavisse (ed.),Histoire de France.Marignan,Études sur la civilisation française (la sociétemérovingienne).Lützow,Bohemia.Morfill,Poland.Rambaud,Histoire de la Russie.Poole,Illustrations of Medieval Thought.Kraus,Geschichte der Christlichen Kunst, I.Potthast,Bibliotheca Medii Aevi.
{211}
Aachen, 167; councils at(809), 81; (860), 190Abasgi, a Caucasian people, converted, 95Abbassides, dynasty of Khalifs, descendants of Muhammad'suncle Abbas, 156Abbats, lay, 168-9, 172; in the Rule of S. Columban, 171;Cluniac, 174-5Abbo of Fleury, Frankish chronicler, 199Abder Rahman I., Ommeyad Khalif of Cordova (755), 146Abyssinian Church, Monophysite, 9, 23, 111Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 7, 8, 10Acca, bishop of Hexham (709-32), 169Adalbert, S. (Voytech), bishop of Prague, 125-6, 129Adalwald, Lombard king, 63Adam of Bremen, 130Adamuan's Life of Columba, 115-16Adiaphorites, 86Adoptianist heresy, 72; in the West, 78-9, 81, 168;in the East, 79, 80, 156Aelfeah (Alphege), bishop, 121Aelfric, abbat of Eynsham, 121Aethelbert, king of Kent, 183-5Aethelred, king of England, 121Aethelstan, king of England, 131Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester, 119Africa, the Church in North, 5, 17, 20, 103-10; increase of papalpower, 65, 67, 69, 107-8; Eucharist, 179; survival ofChristian customs to modern times, 23, 110; Vandals in, 103;reconquered by Belisarius, 105; Muhammadan conquest, 5, 108, 109Agapetus (Agapitus), Pope, 15, 38Agatho, Pope, 88Agde, 146Agilulf, Lombard king, 62, 134Agnellus, archbishop of Ravenna, 33Agriculture, cared for by the Benedictines, 36; by Gregorythe Great, 65Aidan, S., 116Airulf, Lombard king, 68Aistulf, Lombard king, 148, 149Akoimetai, 8, 14, 161Aktistetes, 86Alamanni, 42, 135Alans, Mongol barbarians, in Gaul, 41Albagrians of the Caucasus, converted, 95Albinus, abbat of Canterbury (d. 732), 169Alcuin, 81, 116, 141, 152, 167-70Aldhelm, S., of Malmesbury, 115, 171Alexandria, Church and Patriarchate of, 8, 10, 16, 17, 24,64, 65, 84, 87, 110; Eucharist, 179; conquered by the Arabs, 109Alfred the Great, king of England, 32, 118Alodaei, Soudanese people, converted, 111Althing, Icelandic assembly, 132Amalric, Wisigothic king in Spain, 74Ambo(pulpit), 188Ambrosian Rite (so called from S. Ambrose, bishop of Milan,374-97), 183Amöneburg (Hessen), monastery, 136Anastasius, emperor, 7, 9, 47Anastasius, patriarch of Antioch, 63Anastasius, patriarch of Constantinople, (703-53), 155, 157Anastasius of Sinai, S., 180.Andover, 121Angarii, tribe allied with the Saxons, 140Annegray, S. Columban's settlement at, 55Anselm, S., archbishop of Canterbury (died 1109), 160, 171Ansgar, S., archbishop of Hamburg, 129-30Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople, 15Antioch, Church and Patriarchate of, 8, 10, 16, 17, 23, 24,84, 87, 156; Eucharist, 179; synod at (541 or 542), 16Antirrheticiof S. Theodore the Studite, 164Antistes(bishop), 66Antony, archbishop of Novgorod (c. 1200), 161Aphthartodocetes, 21, 85Apocrisiarius, papal envoy at Constantinople, 63Aquilea, patriarch of, 21, 39Aquitaine, 49Arabia, conquered by Muhammad, 101; Arabian Christians inPersia, 110; Christianity in S. Arabia, 111Arabs.SeeMuhammadans.Architecture, Byzantine, 25-8, 100, 106Arcona (Isle of Rügen), heathen temple at, 127Arianism, extinct in the East, 9; of the Goths in Italy, 29, 30,60; its suppression a political necessity, 33; the Frankishstruggle against, 47-8; of the Vandals in Africa, 103-5; ofthe Lombards, 56, 61; in Spain, 73, 74, 75Arles, 46, 49, 50, 146Armagh, monastery, 53Armenia, 3; Church of, 13, 84, 85, 95, 156; Monophysite, 23,110; Adoptianiats in, 79; Paulicians in, 80Arnulf, S., bishop of Metz, 58, 135, 139, 144, 145Arnulf, archbishop of Rheims, 201Asser, bishop of Sherborne, 118Assyria, Christians in, 93, 96 n.Athanagild, Wisigothic king in Spain, 74Athanasian Creed, 81-2Athens, 99Augustine of Canterbury, S., 62, 69, 113, 117, 182-90Augustine of Hippo, S., 3, 72, 103, 106, 170;De Civitate Dei, 154Aurillac, 200Austrasia, Eastern Frankish kingdom, 43, 49, 135, 145-6;Synod in (742), 138Autun, Council of (670), 59Avars, Mongol race, 135, 141Avignon, 146Avitus, bishop of Vienne, 81Axum, Ethiopic kingdom, 111-12
Baghdad, 96, 97Bangor (Ireland), monastery, 54-5;Antiphonaryof, 115Baptism, 176-8; of Chlodowech, 42; of Borivoj, 128; of thepeople of Kiev, 127; of Olaf Trigvason, 132Basil the Great, S. (329-79), his Rule, 163Basil I. the Macedonian, emperor, 80, 193Basil II., emperor, 126Baume, monastery at, 173Bavarians, 135, 138Bede (Baeda), 68 n., 115-16, 118, 167, 169, 170, 179, 180, 183-5Belisarius, 30, 61, 105Benedict Biscop, 115, 169Benedict of Nursia, S., 34-9, 53, 58, 163; his Rule, 35-7, 58-9,69, 119, 121, 171, 173, 175; the Benedictines, 35-8, 60, 62, 137Bercta, Kentish queen, 186Berno, abbat of Cluny, 173-4Besançon, 56, 173Béziers, 146Bishops, their position under Justinian, 24-5; share in thecivil government of Italy, 33-4; without dioceses in the CelticChurch, 114; "Universal Bishop," 66, 175; bless thepeople at the Eucharist, 190Blemmyes, Ethiopic tribe, converted, 111Bobbio, 53, 56, 201Boethius, 32Bohemia, Christianity in, 127-9;Bohemian princess brings about the conversion of Poland, 125Boïar, title of Bulgarian magnates, 124Boleslav I., duke of Bohemia, brother of S. Wenceslas (died967), 128Boleslav II., "the Pious," duke of Bohemia (967-99), 128, 129Boniface, S. (Winfrith), 130, 136-40, 142, 147, 198Boris, Bulgarian king, 124Borivoj, Bohemian duke, baptized, 128Boso, bishop of Merseburg, 126Braga, councils at (563, 572), 74Bremen, archbishopric, 130, 142Bretislav II., king of Bohemia (1092-1100), 127Britain, 83, 88; Christianity in, 113 ff; early British Church,183; ritual in the British Church, 183.SeeEnglandBrittany, 115Brunichild, 13, 48-9, 56, 74-5, 171Bruno (Pope Gregory V.), cousin of Otto III., 199, 200Bruno, missionary to the Prussians, 125Brythons, Celts of Britain, their Church, 113, 183Bulgarians, a Finnish race, conversion of, 124; they and theirChurch, 13, 23, 44, 84, 128, 193Burgundians, 41; Frankish kings of, 49, 55-6, 135Bury, Dr. J. B., quoted, 21 n., 46-7, 113Byzacene, African see, 106Byzantine architecture, 25-8, 100, 106; Church and Patriarchate,91,and seeConstantinople; Empire,seeUmpire, Eastern
Caelian Hill at Rome, 60, 64Caesarius, bishop of Arles, 72, 81Calabria, 157, 162Candace, title of the queens of Abyssinia, 111Canons, collection of, 85; canon law, 194-5; canon of the Mass,181-2, 190Canterbury, 115, 185-6Capetians, House of Hugh the Great, duke of the Franks, 201Carisiacum (Quierzy), 151Carling House.SeeKarlingsCarloman, son of Charles Martel, brother of Pippin the Short,114-5, 147, 149Carloman, son of Pippin the Short, brother of Charles the Great,148, 150-1Carthage, taken by the Vandals, 103; by the Muhammadans,77, 109; Church of, survival, 110; bishop of, 67, 103-6, 108Cassiodorus, 30, 38Catholicos, primate of the Monophysite Armenian Church, 84,95; of the "Church of the East," 96; of the PersianChurch, 93-4, 99Celibacy of the clergy.SeeMarriageCeltic Church, 113-17,and seeIreland; Celtic Easter, 55, 114;Celtic influence on the English liturgy, 187, 190; Celticmissionaries and Boniface, 138Ceremonial, 181-90Ceylon, 96Chad, S., 116, 169Chalcedon, Council of (451), 2, 7, 9, 10, 18, 24, 65-6, 79, 85-6,89, 95Chaldeaecan Church, 23, 93Châlons, Battle of, 41Charles Martel, Frankish mayor of the palace, 135, 137, 141, 146Charles I., the Great, 50, 136, 182, 197; anointed king, 148;revives the Empire, 152-4; destroys the Lombard kingdom,150, 152; supposed donation of, 151-2; theocratic ideasof, 139; religious wars, 127, 140-2; his share in theAdoptianist controversy, 80; his learning and piety, 166-70;aspirations, 172Charles II., the Bald, emperor, son of Louis I., the Pious, 170Charles the Simple, sole king of the West Franks (898-922), 174Cherson, near the mouth of the Dnyepr, 126Childebert I., Frankish king, 39Childebert II., Frankish king, son of Sigebert and Brunichild, 49Childerich III., last of the Merwings, 147Chilperich I., Frankish king of Neustria, son of Chlothochar I.,43, 51, 54, 75China, Nestorian missions in, 96, 98Chlodowech, king of the Franks, baptized, 42, 177; dies, 43;his aim, 46; receives the consulate, 47; his daughter, 74Chlothochar I., Frankish king, son of Chlodowech, 43, 47, 54, 74Chlothochar II., Frankish king, son of Chilperich I. andFredegund, 56, 58, 145Chlothochar (Lothar), king of Lotharingia, son of the emperorLothar I. (855-69), 191-2Chora, Church of the, at Constantinople, 26Chosroes II., Persian king (590-628), 101Chosroes, Persian king (800-50), 80Christmas baptisms, 177; communion, 179Christology, 98.SeeHeresiesChrotechild (Clotilda), wife of Chlodowech, 42Church, The, her task in fifth century, 1; organisation, 2, 24;tendency to separation in East and West, 3,and seeSchism;Churches of Rome and Constantinople held to be one, 10;East and West differ in use ofQuicunque, 81-2Church, the Eastern, strengthens the Empire, 4; her firm positionin 527, 11; united with the State, 12; history, 6-28, 83-92,155-65; conservative character, 165, 194.SeeConstantinople,SchismChurch, the Western: Church property and jurisdiction underthe Gothic kings in Italy, 30-1; determines the developmentof the Frankish nation, 45; maintains imperial tradition,45-6; her aggressive claims, 194; subject in Germany andItaly to the control of the Saxon emperors, 191, 197-201.SeePapacy, Rome, Schism"Church of the East," Nestorian, 96-7Clonard, monastery, 53, 55Clonfert, monastery, 53Clonmacnoise, monastery, 53Clotilda, Clotilde.SeeChrotechild, HlothildClovesho, Synod of (747), 138, 187Cluniacs, monks of Cluny, 174-5Cluny, monastic reform of, 169, 171-5; abbey of, 173-4; Ruleof, 174-5; congregation of, 174Cologne, archbishop of, 192Columba, S., 114-16Columban, S., 53-8, 116; his Rule, 55, 171; monastery at Baume, 173Communion, Holy, 178-90; received by the Stylites, 25.SeeEucharistConfirmation, 178; of Olaf Trigvason, 121Consolation of Philosophy, The, by Boethius, 32Constans II., emperor, 109Constantine I., emperor, 12, 40; donation of, 154[Constantine IV.], emperor, 89Constantine V., Copronymus, 80, 155, 158, 162, 165Constantine, pope, 91Constantine of Thessalonica (S. Cyril), 123Constantine, founder or reviver of Eastern Adoptianism, 79-80Constantinople, theological bent of its people, 8; buildings at,25-7; captured by the Turks (1453), 163; modern, 158, 161Constantinople, Church of, its growing isolation, 13; a witnessfor religious liberty, 14; valuable services to the ChurchUniversal, 20; quarrel with Rome over the Ecthesis andType, 88; missions to Bulgarians, 124; to Russians, 126-7;to Moravians and Czechs, 128; theology in, 156.SeeChurch, Eastern; SchismConstantinople, councils at: Fifth General (553), 15, 17, 18, 20-2,39, 63-4, 86, 106-7, 161; synod of 588, 66; Sixth General(680-1), 21, 84-5, 88; Council of 681, 67;in Trullo(691),85, 89-92; Council of 692, 67; iconoclastic synod of 754, 165;Councils of 861 and 867, 193; Eighth General (869), 193-4;Council (879-80), 194Constantinople, Patriarchate of, 24, 67, 85, 90, 124, 192-4Constantinople, patriarchs of, 87-8; claim the title ofOecumenical, 65.SeeAcacius, Germanus, Ignatius, John theCappadocian, Mennas, Methodius, Nicephorus, Paul, Photius,Sergius, TarasiusCoptic Church, 9, 23, 84, 101, 110, 112; Copts resist Saracens, 109Corbie (New Korvey), monastery, on the Weser, 130, 170Corbinian, S., 135Corinth, bishops of, 67Cornwall, early British Church of, 113, 117Corsica, 151Cosmas, sixth-century traveller, 97Councils, valuable work of the, 19.SeeAachen, Antioch,Austrasia, Autun, Braga, Chalcedon, Clovesho, Constantinople,Frankfort, General, Gentilly, Hatfield, Mâcon, Orange,Regensburg, Rome, Toledo, WhitbyCracow, relics at, 125Creed, at the Council of Chalcedon, 2; proposal to reform, 14;importance of a logically tenable, 19; Pope Leo III. discouragesadditions to, 81; Athanasian, 81-2; Nicene, 193Crescentius, John, patrician of Rome, 199Crete, bishops of, 67Croatia, Croats, 84, 124Cross, the Holy, 100-2; tolerated by the iconoclast emperor LeoIII., 159; sign of the, in baptism, 177; used by S. Augustinein his mission, 184-5Crusades, true and false, 197-8"Culdees," Celtic monks, 119Cumbria (or Strathclyde), early British Church of, 113Cuthbert, M., 116, 121, 169Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury, 187Cyprus, Church of, 21Cyril, S., patriarch of Alexandria (412-44), opponent of Nestorius,10, 18, 22Cyril, S. (Constantine), apostle of the Slavs, 123-4, 126, 128Czechs, Slav race of Bohemia, 127
Dagobert I., Frankish king, son of Chlothochar II., 44, 58, 145Danes ravage England and Scotland, 117-19, 121; settle, andare converted, 118; Danish invasions, 122; conversion ofDenmark, 129, 131David, S., 118Decretals, false, 194-6Deira, northern kingdom of England, 63Denmark, conversion of, 129, 131Desiderius (Didier) of Cahors, S., 58Dionysius the Areopagite, Platonist so called, 89Dnyepr (Dnieper), Russian river, baptisms in, 127Dokkum, S. Boniface martyred at, 139Donation of Constantine, 154; of Pippin, at Quierzy, 149, 151;of Charles the Great, 151-2Donatists, 103, 107Double procession of the Holy Ghost, 76, 80-1, 193-4Druidism favoured the growth of Christian monasticism, 53Dublin, conversion of Danes at, 122; Norse king of, 132Duchesne, Mgr., quoted, 40, 208Dudden, F. H., quoted, 50, 75 n.Dunstan, S., 115, 119-21Durham, see of, 121
Eadgar, king of England, 119East, the, large number of ecclesiastics in, 25East and West, reunion of, after the quarrel of pope and emperor,in 519, 10; political severance completed, 149; breach widens,191; divergence, Photian schism, 192-4; nominal reunionthroughout tenth century, 194.SeeSchismEaster baptisms, 177; communion, 179; use of the alleluia, 182;Celtic Easter, 55, 114Eastern Church, orthodox, securer than the West in itsChristianity, 7; its intense conservatism, 27; dictatesto the papacy under Vigilius and Pelagius, 40.SeeChurch,Constantinople, SchismEbbo, archbishop of Rheims, 129, 141Ebroin, mayor of the palace in Neustria, 146Ecthesis, issued by Heraclius, 87, 89Edessa, 93, 96, 110Education, 166-7, 175.SeeLearningEgbert, archbishop of York, 167, 179Egypt, 9; National Church, 13; Monophysite Church, 23; sects,110; Church, 112; Holy Communion, 180; Muhammadaninvasion, 84, 108.SeeAlexandria, CopticEinhard, biographer of Charles the Great, 142, 153, 167Eligius, S., 58Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, 78-9, 168Ellesthaeos, Ethiopian king, 112Eloi (Eligius), S., 58Emly, monastery, 53Emmeran, Emmeram, S., missionary in Bavaria, 135Empire, the, becomes a Christian power, 1; obsolescent, 2;representative of Christian unity, 3; invaded by barbarians, 1, 3;its vitality, 3Empire, Eastern, relations with the Franks, 46-7; its strengthrenders the Nestorian missions possible, 98; becomes morepurely Oriental, 113; end of the imperial power in Italy, 147-8;its recognition of the Western Umpire of Charles theGreat, 153.SeeConstantinopleEmpire, Western, ends with Romulus Augustulus (476), 28;tradition preserved by the Church, 45-6; revival of theimperial idea, 172; Charles the Great restores the Empire,139, 144, 152; origin of the "Holy Roman Empire," 153;papal theory of the Empire, 192; weakness of the Empire in ninthand tenth centuries, 196; revival under the Saxon Ottos,191, 197-202England, conversion of, 62-3, 69, 117, 183-7; Church of,117-21; its independent attitude towards Rome, 117, 120,121; kings the nursing fathers of the Church, 27; Englishmissionaries to Germany, 136-9, 141-2; ritual in, 183-90Ennismore, monastery, 53Epiphanius, bishop of Pavia, 29Epiphany baptisms, 177; communion, 179Etherius, chaplain and notary to Charles the Great, 151Ethiopian Church, 110-12Eucharist, celebration of, in sixth century, 188; doctrine of,controversy concerning, 170-1; Aelfric's doctrine of, 120;reservation of, 180-1.SeeCommunion, MassEugenius, S., bishop of Carthage, 104-5Eutychian heresy, 7Evagrius, ecclesiastical historian (period 431-594), 21 n.Exarch of Ravenna, 34, 40, 91; the Exarchate, 61-2, 69, 147-9,151, 157
Facundus, bishop of Hermione, 106Fasting Communion, 180; Saturday fast in tenth century, 131Faustus, bishop of Riez, a semi-Pelagian, 72Felix II., pope, 8Felix, bishop of Urgel, 78-9, 168Ferrand, African deacon, writer in the "Three Chapters"controversy, 106Feudalism, rise of, 44-5, 172-3Filioque("and [from] the Son"), word added to the Nicene Creedin the West, leads to controversy with the East, 193-4Fontaine, monastery, 55Fontenelle, abbey, 57Fortunatus, bishop of Carthage, 108Frankfort, Council of (794), 79, 168Franks in Gaul, 42; conversion of, 4, 43, 177; their imperfectChristianity, 43-4, 54; staunch Catholicism, 42, 47-8, 177;break up of their kingdom, 44; formative influence of theChurch, 45; relations with the Eastern Empire, 46-7; alliancewith the papacy, 49; their Church's relations with Rome,50; greatly influenced by monasticism, 58; they invadeSpain, 74; laxity and corruption of their Church, 138, 144;Karling reformation, 144; Frankish missal, 183; relationswith England, 186; Frankish clergy concoct the forged decretals, 195Fredegund, wife of Chilperich I., 43Frederic, Saxon bishop in Iceland, 132Freeman, Edward Augustus, quoted, 3Freising, see of, 138Frisians, 197; English missionaries to, 136, 139Fritzlar, abbey, 140Fuero Jusgo, the Wisigothic code, 74, 76Fulda, monastery, 81, 140Fulgentius, S., African bishop, 105
Gaiseric (Genseric), king of the Vandals, 103-4Gall, S., 56, 116Gallican Church, 39, 41-59,seeFranks, Gaul; Gallican liturgyand ritual, 47, 181-3, 186, 188-90; influence on the Englishliturgy, 186-7Galswintha, wife of Chilperich I. of Neustria, 48Gaul, Roman, 41; Christianity in, 41-59, 83, 176; Gregorythe Great in, 48-51, 65, 69; monasticism in, 171; feudalism,172; Normans in, 196Gelasian Sacramentary (so named from pope Gelasius I., 492-6), 182-3Gelimer, Vandal king, 105General Councils, first four, 76; Third (of Ephesus, 431), 96;Fourth (of Chalcedon, 451), 2, 7, 9-10, 18, 24, 65-6, 79, 85-6,89, 95; Fifth (of Constantinople, 553), 15, 17, 18, 20-2,39, 63-4, 86, 106-7, 161; Sixth (of Constantinople, 680-1),21, 84-5, 88; Seventh (of Nicaea, 787), 155, 165; Eighth(of Constantinople, 869), 193-4; Eighth, according to theGreeks (of Constantinople, 879-80), 194Gentilly, Council of (767), 81Georgia, Church of, 23, 95Gerbert of Aurillac (Silvester II.), 200-2Germanus, S., patriarch of Constantinople, 155Gildas, British historian, 183Glastonbury, monastery, 115, 119Gnesen, archbishopric of, 125Goidels, Celtic stock in Ireland, 53; Goidelic language, 119Goths, Eastern (Ostrogoths), in Italy, 4, 29-32; Western,seeWisigothsGrado, archbishop of, 157Gradual, 188Greece, iconoclasm causes a rising in, 157; Greek Church, itscharacter, 6: the Eastern Empire in its religious aspect, 13.See alsoChurch, Constantinople, Eastern, SchismGreenland, mission to, 132Gregorian Sacramentary, 182Gregory I., the Great, S., pope, 21, 25, 34, 40, 55, 76, 113, 134,171, 180-2, 184, 186, 190, 192; his life and work, 60-71; hisrelations to Gaul, 48-51, 65, 69; to Africa, 107; to missions, 69;to monasticism, 69; to classical learning, 52, 70; his claim tojurisdiction, 68; claimed no special authority for the use ofRome, 187; his theology, 70-1; his writings, 35, 60, 63-5Gregory II., pope, 136-7, 157Gregory III., pope, 137, 147, 157Gregory IV., pope, 130Gregory V. (Bruno), pope, 199, 200Gregory of Tours, bishop and historian, 43-5, 51-2, 58, 66 n.,145, 171Gregory, abbat of Utrecht, 136Gregory, patrician, upstart emperor, 109Guntchramn (Guntram), king of the Burgundian Franks, 55
Haakon (Hacon) the Good, king of Norway, 131Hadrian I., pope, 151, 154, 182Hadrian II., pope, 123-4Hamburg, archbishopric, 129-30Harnack, A., referred to, 22Harold Bluetooth, king of Denmark (died 978), 131Harold, Danish king in 822, 129Harold Haarfager (Fairhair), king of Norway, 131Hatfield, Council of (680), 88Helena, empress, 100Henotikon, the, 7, 8, 10Henry I., "the Fowler," first German king of the SaxonHouse(919-36), 126Heraclius, emperor, 22-3, 83-4, 100-1, 109, 158; as a theologian, 87Herat, Nestorian bishopric of, 98Heresy, not a unifying power, 134; real danger of sixth and seventhcentury heresies, 19; heresy akin to patriotism in the East,13; an expression of national independence, 23; baptism ofheretics, 178.SeeAdoptianist, Aphthartodocetes, Arianism,Donatists, Eutychian, Jacobite, Monophysites, Monothelites,NestoriansHermenigild (Hermenegild), Wisigothic king in Spain, 75Heruls, a Teutonic tribe, 29, 94Hessen, 136-8Hieria, iconoclastic synod at, 155Hieroclea, author of theSynekdemos, 24Hilarus, papal official under Gregory the Great, 107Hilda, S., 116Hilderic, Vandal king, 105Himyarites, Christians in South Arabia, 111-12Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, 170, 192, 195Hira (in Persia), Monophysite bishop of, 110Hlothild (Chlothildis), daughter of Chlodowech, 74Hodgkin, Dr. Thomas, quoted, 32-3, 48, 75 n, 135, 144Homerites (Himyarites) in South Arabia, Christian, 111-12Honorius I., pope, 87-8; condemned by the Sixth GeneralCouncil, 85Hormisdas, pope, 9-10, 90Hugh the Great, duke of the Franks (923-56), 196Hugh Capet, duke (956), and king (987-96) of the Franks, 201Hugh, S., abbat of Cluny, 174Hungary, 141; received a Christian king, 201Hunneric, Vandal king, 104Huns, 41, 94Hymns, 15 n, 81, 156, 162, 168, 190
Ibas of Edessa, 16-18Iberians of Georgia, 95Iceland, 115; conversion of, 132-3Iconoclastic controversy, 12, 143, 147, 155-65, 194Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople, 193-4Illyria, Illyricum, 65-7, 157Image-worship.SeeIconoclasticIncarnation, doctrine of the, the Church's tenacity of, 19;endangered by iconoclasm, 160, 164.SeeHeresiesIndia, 9, 23, 96-8Ingunthis, Frankish princess, daughter of Sigebert and Brunichild,wife of Hermenigild of Spain, 48, 75Iona, 116-17Ireland, Christian and outside the Empire, 3; the Church in, 53,113-16, 121-2, 183; Irish learning, 169-71; missionaries inThuringia, 136; monks in Iceland, 132; priests atGlastonbury, 115, 119Irene, Empress, 154, 164Irminsul, the, a column worshipped by the Saxons, 140Isidore of Seville, 76, 195Isis, worship of, 111Islam, 98.SeeMuhammadanismIstria, 63-4, 68, 151Italy, conquered by Goths, 4, 29; reconquered by Belisarius andNarses, 32; Imperial restoration, 33; Church in, 29-40;S. Columban in, 56; saved from Arianism, 60; liturgy, 183; endof the Eastern Imperial power, 143, 147-8; Charles the Great,150-4; the Saxon Ottos, 197-201Italy, Northern, long refuses to accept the Fifth GeneralCouncil, 21; Gregory the Great's activity, 65, 69; Bavariankings in, 135Italy, Southern, Benedictines in, 62; effect of iconoclasm on,157, 162
Jacobite sect, 109-10; in Syria, 23, 84James, Studite monk, 162Jarrow, monastery, 116Jerusalem, Church and patriarchate of, 8, 16-17, 84, 87,100-1, 156; councils at (553), 20; (628), 101Jews, Gregory the Great tries to convert, 69; persecuted inSpain, 77; Jews in Syria, 100; influence Muhammad, 101;Jews in Arabia, 111-12Joannicius, S., Bulgarian recluse, 124John I., pope, martyred, 31John II., pope, 15John VIII., pope, 194John X., pope, 197John XI., pope, 174John XV., pope, 199John XVI., anti-pope set up by Crescentius (997-8), 199John of Biclaro (Joannes Biclarensis), bishop of Gerona, 62 n.,95 n., 75John the Cappadocian, patriarch of Constantinople, 10, 90John of Damascus (John Damascene), S., 87, 159-60John the Deacon, biographer of Gregory the Great, 64, 182John of Ephesus, Monophysite bishop and Syriac writer ofsixth century, 24, 111John Maro, 89John of Nikiu, Jacobite bishop, 86, 109John the Patrician, recaptures Carthage from the Arabs, 109John the Scot (Johannes Scotus "Erigena"), 170-1Julian of Halicarnassus, 86Justin I., emperor, 10, 32, 112Justin II., emperor, 21-2Justinian I., emperor, 86, 89, 90, 94, 99-100, 107, 110-12, 143,153, 177; his birthplace, 24, 67-8, 91; building, 26, 27, 100,106; Christian legislation of, 28; controversies of his reign,14-22; corresponds with the pope, 10, 14; deals with theMonophysites, 15; his alleged heresy, 15, 21, 22; summonsFifth General Council, 17; intervenes in Africa, 105-6;his relations with the Franks, 47; restores the imperial rulein Italy, 33; Spanish war, 74; hymn-writer, 15 n.Justinian II., 90-1Justiniana Prima, 67, 91Jutes in Britain, 117; of Jutland, converted, 130
Karlings, Frankish royal house, 57, 139, 144, 147, 196, 201Kerait, Tartar kingdom of, 96-7Key of Truth, The, book of the Armenian Paulicians, 80Khalifs of Baghdad, 97, 99; Khalif Omar, 101Khartoum, Christian remains near, 111Khorassan, 93Kiev, town on the Dnyepr, becomes Christian, 127Kothransson, Thorwald, Icelander, 132Kristián, tenth-century Bohemian historian, 128
Lateran synod (649), 88Leander, archbishop of Seville, 63, 75-6Learning, 5, 38, 123; survival of, 5; at the court of theMerwings, 51; classical, taught to Gregory the Great, 60;yet he opposed classical learning in bishops, 52; classical,of the Irish Church, 115; in England, 115; of the Irish monks,121-2; of the Studite monks, 163; revival of, under Charles theGreat, 154, 166-70.SeeAelfric, Bede, Gerbert, Education,LiteratureLebanon, 84; Monothelites in, 22Leger (Leodegar), S., 81, 146Lent, 36, 140Leo I., the Great, S., pope, 6, 7, 10, 29, 63, 89Leo III., pope, 81, 152Leo III., the Isaurian, emperor, 109, 155, 157-8Leo IV., the Chazar, emperor, 155Leo V., the Armenian, emperor, 165Leo VI., the Wise, emperor, 194Leodegar, Leodgar, (S. Leger), bishop of Autun, 81, 146Leontius of Byzantium, 86Leovigild, Wisigothic king in Spain, 48, 75Lerins, abbey, 81Liber Pontificalis, 39 n., 151Liberatus, sixth-century theological writer in Africa, 106Limoges, 150, 174Lindisfarne, 117Litanies, 184-6Literature in North Africa, 106; literary renaissance underCharles the Great, 166.SeeBoethius, Cassiodorus, Gregorythe Great, Gregory of Tours, John of Damascus, Learning,Paul the Silentiary, Procopius, Venantius Fortunatus,Theodore of the StudiumLiturgies, 181-90Liudhard, Frankish bishop in Kent, 186Lombards, 40, 147-50, 152; invade Italy, 34, 61; pope negotiateswith, 62; conversion from Arianism to Catholicism, 4, 56, 63, 134Lothar (Chlothochar) II., king of Lotharingia, 191-2Louis I., the Pious, emperor, son of Charles I., 129Louis II., emperor, son of the Emperor Lothar I., 192Louis the German, king of Bavaria (840-76), son of Louis thePious, 128Louis d'Outremer, king of the West Franks (936-54), son ofCharles the Simple, 174Ludmilla, S., of Bohemia, 128Luxeuil, S. Columban's monastery at, 55-6