CONTENTSOFVOL. II.
THEEAST INDIAVADE-MECUM.
THEEAST INDIAVADE-MECUM.
THE
EAST INDIA
VADE-MECUM.
For some months, generally during the latter part of the rains, the weather is so close and sultry, that universal exudation takes place, even while sitting quiet. The natives, as I remarked in the outset of this subject, have, from experience, adopted a very different mode from that we should have expected to find in use, under such a latitude. We should, no doubt, have been prepared to see airy habitations, through which the wind could pass freely in every direction. But it is far otherwise; and Europeans have, at length, become convinced, that the most insupportable heats are derived from the glare of light objects; or, in other words, from the reflection of surfaces intensely acted upon by a vertical sun.
Some conception may be formed of that intensity, from the fact of meat having been broiledon the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of Fort-William! We, therefore, must coincide with the habits of the natives, to a certain extent, if we mean to retain health, or to acquire comfort. Such, indeed, should, in every country, be held in view: for, however absurd many practices may at first appear, it will ordinarily result that necessity was their parent. I do not mean to say that we should imitate, much less adopt, without discrimination, all we see; but it may be considered an axiom, that, by taking the general outline of indigenous customs for our guide, if we err, it will be on the safe side. Nothing can be more preposterous than the significant sneers of gentlemen on their first arrival in India; meaning, thereby, to ridicule, or to despise, what they consider effeminacy, or luxury. Thus, several may be seen annually walking about withoutchattahs, (i.e.umbrellas,) during the greatest heats; they affect to be ashamed of requiring aid, and endeavor to uphold, by such a display of indifference, the great reliance placed on strength of constitution. This unhappy infatuation rarely exceeds a few days; at the end of that time, sometimes only of a week, (nay, I have known the period to be much shorter,) we too often are called upon to attend the funeral of the self-deluded victim! The first attack is generally announced by cold shiverings, and biliousvomiting; delirium speedily ensues, when putrefaction advances with such hasty strides, as often to render interment necessary so soon as can possibly be effected.
The glare is certainly far more distressing than exposure to the sun, at some seasons: but nothing can equal the effects of both glare and sun-shine, acting upon the human frame, during a Midsummer’s day; when, perhaps, not a breath of air is moving, when every leaf seems to repose, and every bird, saving the vulture, the adjutant, (or argeelah,) and the kite, retires to some shady spot, to avoid the solar ray. At such times, the peaceful Hindu confines himself to an apartment, from which light is generally excluded: there he sits among his family, enjoying his pipe, refreshing himself occasionally by bathing, drinking the pure beverage afforded by some adjacent spring or well; and, in general, avoiding to eat, except of ripe fruits, especially theturbooz, or water-melon, until the cool of the evening. In the meanwhile, however, he perspires copiously, even though in a state of inactivity, unless when refreshed by apunkah, or fan, moved either by his own hand, or by that of some menial.
The instinct of the birds above named, to wit, the argeelah, the vulture, and the kite, all of which are extremely numerous throughout India, and contribute greatly to the salubrity ofthe air, by carrying off astonishing quantities of putrefactive offal, &c., is wonderful! About mid-day, when the sun’s beams strike with incredible force upon the earth’s surface, these feathered scavengers ascend, perhaps to the height of seven or eight hundred yards, so that the largest of them, (the argeelah) is scarcely discernible: there they soar beyond the reach of reflection from the heated soil, enjoying the freshness of a cooler atmosphere, and descending only when allured by the scent of prey. Their sense of smelling must, indeed, be acute; for we see them, especially the vultures, flying for miles, and from all quarters, towards some carcase, usually that of a Hindu, floating down the stream, or stranded upon some shelving bank; but so situated as to render it perfectly certain that the visual faculties could have no concern in the discovery.
Few of the natives havetattiesapplied to their doors, or windows; though by no means insensible to the gratification they afford; but penury, or, to say the least, close and parsimonious economy, prompt to the denial of such a comfort; a comfort without which any constitution, not inured to the climate, would speedily give way. It is really curious to observe what may be effected by habit! When we understand how fatally the sun’s rays act upon our European frames, even while underthe shade of a thick painted umbrella, and although our diet may be nearly similar to that of the most abstemious Hindu, it certainly must appear wonderful, that children, of whatever age, whose rapid circulation, and sable color, should, according to the estimates we form of temperament, be highly unfavorable to such exposure, run about at all seasons, bare-headed, and perfectly nude; seeming to set the sun, the wind, and the rain, alike at defiance. We see the same individuals making long journies, in the most torrid seasons, under nearly similar circumstances; nay, they even carrybangies, containing, on an average, full amaund, (82lb. avoirdupoise,) sixteen, eighteen, twenty miles, or even more, under such an oppressive heat as would kill an European outright; and this, too, for a few pence. If, in considering this point, we urge the benefits of extreme temperance, we urge that which often does not exist; since many, who practise the above, may be ranked among the most arduous votaries of Bacchus, devouring fish, flesh, and fowl, highly spiced, whenever their purses, or the bounty of others, may afford them so welcome a regale. When we see the several shop-keepers, in every city and town, serving their customers, or, in their absence, smoking like Vesuvius, in their littleboutiques, exposed to the glare, and to the burning winds; when we see these persons,with parched skins, and their eyes violently irritated, and clogged, by the clouds of dust which range along the streets, and which, occasionally taking a whirl, nearly suffocate all within their reach; we may then fairly admire the force of habit, and congratulate ourselves on the blessings of a more temperate climate!
In the same situations, we see two classes of persons, both natives of the soil, acting in diametric opposition to each other; and exhibiting that powerful resistance capable of being made by long residence, or rather by aboriginal habitude, against that which never fails to consign our countrymen to the grave. The former class confine themselves, as much as their avocations may permit, within gloomy, but cool, chambers; living most abstemiously, yet, at certain times, exposing themselves in the most unequivocal manner to the severest heats: the other, perfectly inattentive to the dictates of prudence, yet performing what we may fairly term wonders, in opposition to their destructive locality. When the English first visited India, they adopted a mode of building by no means consistent with common sense, and displaying a total ignorance of the most simple of nature’s laws. We accordingly find, that all the old buildings, such as may lay claim to a duration of from forty to sixty years, were, like the celebrated Black-Hole, constructed more likeovens, than like the habitations of enlightened beings. The doors were very small, the windows still less, in proportion, while the roofs were carried up many feet above both. Those roofs were in themselves calculated to retain heat to an extreme, being built of solid tarras, at least a foot thick, lying horizontally upon immense timbers, chiefly of teak, or of saul wood. Again, when they builtbungalows, (i.e.thatched houses,) of one (ground) floor only, the utmost care was taken to close up all the intervals between the thatch, and the walls, on which it rested; so as to exclude the external air, as well as the dust: a practice religiously observed even to the present date. The obvious consequence of this latter construction is, that, whatever air is retained between the thatch, (which, in the course of the day, becomes very, very warm,) and the upper lines of the windows must be highly rarefied.
Thus, we invariably observe, that, towards sun-set, when the inhabitants quit the inner hall, &c., either to sit out onchabootahs, (i.e.large terraces,) raised perhaps a foot or two from the level of the area, and abundantly watered for the occasion; or when they remove to the windwardveranda(or balcony); on either of these occasions, the interior becomes intolerably hot, on account of the rarefied air being drawn down by that current inevitablyattendant upon the removal of all thetatties; and, by the throwing open of all the doors and windows.
In a preceding page, I have shewn, that the French generally acted upon more philosophical principles; they making their doors and windows remarkably high: but, there yet remains a very important improvement to be made; namely, the introduction of tin ventilators, to be inserted near the summits of the thatches. It is a fact, that, during many months in the year, the houses built by most Europeans, and especially theirbungalows, are so extremely heated, as to render it absolutely impossible to sleep in their interior, without the intervention of some artificial means for keeping the air around the bed at a proper temperature.
However faulty the first European builders in India might have been, the moderns have by no means made such improvements as we should suppose experience would have led them to adopt. Whether from economy, or from more attention to exterior, than to comfort, scarce a house is now built with such spacious, lofty, and substantialverandas, as are to be seen on the south side of almost every old mansion. Some of these antiquated edifices hadverandason several sides, and a few might be quoted having them all around; as seen in the officers’ quarters at Berhampore, and Dinapore. It canscarcely be doubted, that suchverandasare, in every respect, admirably suited to the climate; since they prevent the sun from striking on the main wall; which, in exposed situations, have been known to give from 8° to 10° difference on the thermometer; under circumstances in every other respect similar.
It is peculiar, that, until within the last twenty-five years, the ground floors, that is, the whole of the basements, of those fine large houses to be seen in all quarters of Calcutta, and in various parts of the interior, were consigned to the reception of palanquins, gigs, water-stores, or to bewine-godowns, (or cellars,)butler-connahs, (or pantries,) and even, in some instances, stables! In those days, the whole of the family resided in, and confined themselves to, the first floor; which was then the summit of the habitation: leaving to their luggage, cattle, and menials, that part which has lately been discovered to be, in every respect, most suitable to the accommodation of the European population. In houses of agency, &c., we now see the basement converted partly into offices, and but rarely any portion of it appropriated as above described; while, the generality of new houses are built upon a scale such as favors this salutary change, by giving sufficient height to the lower apartments; thereby adapting them to every purpose, and occasioning aconsiderable reduction of the ground plan, in consequence of the accommodations thus gained.
The practice of building houses withoutverandas, certainly cannot be approved; whereas, the old mode of building them on pillars, was highly ornamental, and, at some seasons, not less appropriate: but, the great art of keeping a house cool during the prevalence of the hot-winds, rests entirely on shutting them out, except at some few apertures supplied withtatties; which, being kept constantly moist, or, indeed, dripping wet, produce such an immense evaporation, as to cool the interior completely: of course, a suitable draught must be preserved, by opening some window, &c. on the lee-side. This is commonly effected by means of Venetians; which allow the air to pass, but debar the access of glare. Without adverting to the expence, it should seem that aclose-verandais by far preferable to an open one; and, were it not for the immense additional charges, we can hardly doubt that the European inhabitants of Calcutta would, in imitation of the generality ofbungalow-residents, have their apartments surrounded by averanda, of full fourteen feet in width; with apertures, of a good size, in the exterior wall, corresponding with those of the interior. This arrangement renders the generality ofbungalowsremarkably pleasant; but, it must be noticed, that there is a very wide difference in the expence incurred in rendering them so: their roofs being of thatch, and their walls of sun-burnt bricks, plastered with mud and chaff, offer a great contrast in the out-lay, both as relating to the labor, and to the materials, in a house constructed of burnt bricks, and good lime, whose roof is of masonry, and in which timbers of great price are every where used. Accordingly, we find, that, in almost every part of India, an excellentbungalowmay be built for about five thousand rupees, completely fitted with glass doors, and windows, and with all the necessary out-offices duly tiled, or thatched, according to their purposes; while, a house suited to the accommodation of the same family, in Calcutta, could not be finished for less than ten times that sum.
The bricks form a very, very small portion of the disbursements incident to building in India: so cheap, indeed, are they, that most of the made-roads about Calcutta, and in other parts, are formed by laying broken, or even whole, bricks regularly; giving the centre two or three layers, gradually tapered off to the sides, and then covering them with a coat of rubbish, or, which is far better, coarse sand. Such roads are extremely firm, and far more durable, thanthose we make with gravel, flint, lime-stone, &c. But great allowance must be made for the heavy machines used among us, and carrying such tremendous burthens; whereas, an Indianhackerycan rarely weigh five cwt., nor can its load be averaged at more than fifteen cwt., being altogether only a ton. We well know, that our common narrow-wheeled waggons weigh from fifteen to twenty-five cwt.; and, that, except where weigh-bridges limit their burthens, it is by no means uncommon to see them carrying from two and a half, up to four, tons. Three chaldron of coals will be found to average about seventy cwt.; yet, are often drawn by three horses through the streets of London.
The lime used in Calcutta, is brought down from theMorungs, and their vicinity, in large boats, being previously slaked; though it is sometimes imported in its quick state, or as nearly so as accident may permit. It may readily be concluded, that, after a passage of from three to four hundred miles, this article is rather deteriorated; especially as the voyage can rarely be effected under three weeks or a month. The prices of this kind of lime, made from a very firm stone, calledgutty, abundant in some parts, vary much according to the season, and to the demand: it has been sold aslow as six or seven rupees per hundred maunds, but, at other times, has reached to twenty and twenty-five.
At Madras, and indeed all along the coast of Coromandel, as well as on some parts of the Malabar border, an excellent kind of lime is made from sea shells. This nearly equals what is made in Italy, from the refuse of marble, and receives an extraordinary fine surface, competiting even with that of polished glass; at the same time that it is incomparably firm, and durable. When laid upon a wall, which is done only by way of a finish, it is carefully freed from grit, and kept working, and rubbing, until nearly dry; thereby to prevent the surface from cracking, as it would be subject to do, when acted upon by the hot air at mid-day: when nearly dry, it is rubbed with coarse calico cloths, until it receives a beautiful lustre, which causes it to appear semi-diaphanous. A few houses at Calcutta have been finished with this kind of lime, conveyed from Madras by shipping; but the expence, being very considerable, has occasioned the commonMorunglime to be generally employed, both for cement, and for white-washing.
In the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country, a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance calledkunkur, which, at first, might be mistaken for small rugged flints, slightly coated with soil.The experiments made upon these alkaline concretions, which abound in most parts above Bengal Proper, and, in some places, prove extremely troublesome to the farmer, but especially to the horticulturist, give the following result: calcareous earth, 41, cilicious earth, 16, calx of iron, 3, and air, 40.Kunkuris not easily reduced to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than is necessary to burn the harder kinds ofgutty; it is, likewise, less durable and tenacious as a cement; of which the color, viz. commonly what we call fawn, is a strong indication.
Whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns, or that thekunkuris so peculiarly hard, we commonly find that, on slaking, a large portion of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued. These insoluble masses are often pounded by means of adainky, or foot-break, and mixed with the perfect calx: nor is the lime burner very scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes, &c., remaining at the bottom of the kiln, after thekunkurhas been taken out; on the contrary, he will, if not very narrowly watched, mix as much as he can with the calx; thereby causing the lime to be very considerably deteriorated. This kind of lime, commonly calledcutcha, (i.e.weak,) sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds.
In all parts of India, the lime-burners proceed on the most expensive plan; their kilns beingrarely more than four feet in diameter, nor above that much in height: consequently, they have not sufficient accumulation, concentration, or reverberation of heat, to burn the stones properly; neither do they, in general, break them sufficiently small, but bundle them in, with very little attention to regularity or economy. It is the same with the brick and tile-kilns; which are, for the most part, of a pyramidal form; the raw bricks being laid intermediately with the fuel, and the exterior being plastered over, perhaps half a foot in thickness, with mud. The best bricks I ever saw in India were made by an engineer officer, who had some extensive public works to carry on. He first built the whole of the walls of abungalowhe required, with sun-burnt bricks, properly cemented with mud well filled in; taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such way, that the frames could be afterwards introduced. The whole interior was then laid with bricks and fuel, while the exterior of the veranda walls were also closed in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly; and a complete coating was given, in the ordinary way. The bricks baked uncommonly well, while the walls became a solid mass, capable of resisting all the elements, should they unite for its destruction. Thebungalowproved remarkably dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c.,were all set at defiance; it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance: the greater part of the cement, which happened to contain cilicious particles, was nearly vitrified.
Thirty years ago, the generality of houses were coated with the same kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors, and the roofs: this was made ofchunam, (i.e.white-lime,) one third;soorky, (i.e.brick-dust,) one third; and sand, one third; these, being mixed duly with a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very scarce, and short hair not to be procured on any terms,) together with somejaggery, or refuse molasses, made a tolerably strong cement. The surface, after a house had been duly plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with a strong solution of lime in water. This would have been enough to blind every man, woman, or child, in the place, had it not been partially remedied, by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing wash: but, whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the prevailing colors, it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their appearance, and left a motley kind of work.
The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly gentlemen in the corps of engineers, gradually overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and Portugueze finery, they substituting, in their public works, a plaster composed of river sand,saturated with a solution of white lime, of the consistency of cream. The addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp, gave this simple compound, (if I may so blend the terms,) not only much additional durability, but a remarkably neat appearance; especially when the body of the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained, and the cornices, &c. were finished of a pure white. Houses thus exteriorly finished became yet further neat, by the contrast of their Venetian windows, invariably painted green: some prefer all verdigris; others, a deep clear green for the frame-work, with verdigris for the several leaves, or valves.
Almost every house has folding Venetians to each window, or outward door; these are sustained by very strong hinges, which allow each fold, or shutter, to open outwards, and to lie back flat upon the exterior wall: in that position the Venetians are kept from blowing about, by means of hooks; in the same manner as we see practised in England, where this kind of shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never made upon the European construction, but move invariably in two folds, one to the right, the other to the left; each opening inwardly, and lying within the thickness of the wall, or nearly so.
In no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a house than in India; andthat not without necessity, the rains being so very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to their action, either above, below, or laterally. When houses are built with what is termedcutcha, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud, and either plastered with the same, or with mortar, the least crack in the roof, or the smallest hollow near the foundation, will teem with danger. The rain which, often for a whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into the walls, where it does incalculable mischief: many of these houses, whose substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate, may annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy, or of drizzling, but oblique, rain: the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to such buildings as are insecurely coated; it drifts in under the plaster, damps the mud cement, and brings down the heavy roofs with a most sonorous crash. Few of thesecutchahouses are now to be seen with tarras roofs; such as are so built for the sake of cheapness, being, almost without exception, intended for thatches, and thus becoming what we termbungalows. The natives build sometimes on that kind of half and half plan, which commonly, in the end, cheats the contriver. Thus, I have seen some, of a small description, built withcutcha(or sun-dried) bricks for the interior, while the exterior of the wall was made ofpucka(or burnt) bricks;from whose interstices the mortar was carefully picked out, as though about to be pointed; for the purpose of causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints, and thus to retain its position firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the ingenuity of such a system, when properly conducted, I lament, that, in almost every case which came within my knowledge, the whole system was disgraced, by the house either fallingin toto, or by shedding its coat of mail.
There certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients, or some particular recipe giving better proportions, or better materials, which, after a time, formed a very capital cement: of this, many very well known edifices furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate within the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation. The impressions made by shots, of 24 and 32lb. fired by Admiral Watson against its western face, when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it, in the year 1755, were absolutely insignificant; the brave admiral might have battered for a century, without bringing down the wall. In the year 1779, when the Company’s clothgodowntook fire, the third regiment of European infantry, then in garrison at Fort-William, marched out with engines, &c. to aid towards its extinction; yet were they utterly unable to get the iron bars loose from the masonry; though provided with tackles, crows, axes, &c.Thisgodown, which occupied a large part of the northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards converted into offices; but with incredible labor! The masonry was as hard as rock! When this occurrence took place, the old fort had been built about forty years; whereas, we find that all the Company’s, or any other, buildings which now claim that age, are of a very different complexion! The greater part of them, though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept up at an inordinate expence; while such of them as have given up the ghost, display a crude mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish.
Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls: many of these may be seen among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which we have scarcely any information, absolutely retaining their places, although the beams on which they formerly rested have been, God only knows how many years, removed. If these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been constructed according to the Syrian principle, we should have had less cause to admire their solidity, and toughness; but, such has never been the case with any I have seen; and which, though certainly of no considerable dimensions, appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small calibre. I have often been one of a party to walk on such. It may, perhaps, be in place here to describe the manner in which roofs areconstructed in India: I mean such as are now under consideration. The beams are rarely more than two feet apart; and, speaking generally, may have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth, by five, or six, in width; sometimes, though but rarely, and then only when under the eye of science, cambered to the extent of three or four inches; according to the length of the timber. These joists are laid upon the bare wall, having their ends previously well charred; and, in some cases, smeared withpetroleum; called by the natives, ‘earth-oil.’ This is done to deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood; which, in time, they would certainly do, but for the above precaution. The ends of the timbers are cased in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches all the way round, and at their bases: in order that the timber may be removed, in case of decay, without damaging the wall; the interval is, however, filled up afterwards withcutchawork; which, not being liable to adhere firmly to thepuckawall, may be easily removed when the joist is to be changed. When plastered over, the whole appears uniform.
In some parts of the country, but especially in the upper provinces, the natives cover in their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat very firm, and about a foot in thickness. This mode of construction requires some care, but isfound to be extremely efficient. The walls ought to be substantial, as should also the joists; and the surface of the clay should be rather convex, so as to direct the water falling on it into proper gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building from being damped.
Without this precaution, the heavy falls of rain, which may be constantly expected during three months in the year, would speedily dissolve such tenements, with nearly as much facility as though they were made of lump-sugar. But when due care is taken, both to prevent, and to stop, leaks, clay roofs are rather eligible, than objectionable; especially in the vicinity ofbazars, (or markets,) and lines, in which fires are frequent. Many gentlemen have adopted the plan, some wholly, others partially, in theirbungalows, and find little or no cause to regret their having done so.
It is, however, expedient to send up a man now and then, to lute any cracks that may appear in consequence of excessive heats; but, after a season or two, the clay becomes extremely firm, nearly equal to mortar-tarras, resisting the various changes of temperature, and appearing to be consolidated into a very firm mass. The greatest inconvenience it produces, is the harbor afforded to that inconceivably obnoxious insect, thewhite-ant.
This little depredator rarely fails to takeadvantage of whatever opportunity is offered for the exhibition of its powers. Assembling by the ten thousand, in a few hours they will eat out the bottom of a deal box, perhaps an inch in thickness, or render it a mere honeycomb. Of fir, they are remarkably fond, as also of mango-wood.
It seems rather peculiar that they should be so partial to woods abounding so highly, as these both do, in turpentine; while the presence of a few drops ofpetroleum, which is imported from Pegu, Ava, and the Arvean coast, under the name ofmutty ke tale, (earth-oil,) seems to be a perfect preventive. Few things come amiss to these obnoxious visitants, which every where abound, and destroy wood, leather, cottons, woollens, &c. Nay, a story is current, that, some years back, they were absolutely accused of having devoured some thousands of dollars! Fortunately,on deeper research, it was discovered, that they had only ate away the bottom of the treasure-chest; and, like misers, had buried the hard cash some feet under ground.
As ceilings are not in use in India, each joist is neatly finished, having its lower edges rounded off with a beading-plane. At right angles with the joists, smaller battens, calledburgahs, are laid; three or four inches wide, by about two or three deep, orvice versâ; these are nailed down upon the joists at such parallel distances,in general about seven or eight inches, as may allow a large kind of tile to be laid on them. Over the tiles they lay rubbish, rather dry, about four or five inches deep, patting it down gently, by the continual operation of some dozens of men, women, and children, who, squatting, like monkies, on their haunches, and having batons of about a cubit in length, something of a trowel shape, though not so obtuse, continually beat the materials until they become perfectly compact. The better method, which is in more general adoption, is, instead of such rubbish, to put on a coarser kind of mortar, well worked up, but not very moist; which is beat in the mode above described. After this has been duly compacted, but before it is quite dry, another coating of two or three inches, but of finer materials, is put on, and beat in like manner; then a third, perhaps only an inch deep, of still finer materials; and, ultimately, the whole is coated, for about half an inch in depth, with the finest ingredients, mixed, after being sifted through a coarse cloth, withjaggree, and by some with peas-meal; which the natives consider to be peculiarly valuable in cement. This last coat is laid on with a trowel, very firmly pressed, in order to compact it the more, and to prevent cracking; which will, nevertheless, always take place, more or less, according as more or less pressureand beating have been used; or, as the great body of the tarras may be made of good or bad materials.
All the partition-walls, dividing off the several apartments, are necessarily of masonry; both because the pressure from above is enormous; and, that wood cannot be trusted, where the white-ants could honeycomb its interior, without being much, if at all, noticed on its surface. These partition-walls are carried up about six inches above the tarras roof; whereby the latter appears to be divided into chequers, corresponding with the several apartments. Small channels are cut, to allow the water to pass into the spouts, or drains; from which jars, of about a hogshead in measurement, are filled with water intended for table use. Some spouts are made to extend full a yard from the wall, and, in some instances, have canvas hoses attached, for the purpose of leading the water into the jars; but the more modern practice is to build pipes of pottery within the wall, or to clamp them to it with iron, until their lower ends, which are crooked for the purpose, form a proper debouchure. The latter mode, however, in very heavy rains, subjects the walls to be damped, in consequence of the fall of water being greater than the pipes can instantly carry off. This may give some idea of those deluges which at times take place, almost instantaneously.
The tops of houses are invariably enclosed with breast-parapets, or with balustrades; which give a very finished appearance to these superb buildings. With the exception of those ridges formed by the continuation of the partition-walls, the roofs afford a pleasant promenade at certain seasons: some of them command most interesting views. During the very hot weather, probably from the end of April to the setting in of the rains in the first or second week of June, many gentlemen have their cots, (as the bed, with all its apparatus, is usually called,) carried to the tops of their houses, and sleep there during the night. This may appear a very hazardous proceeding; but, when it is considered, that no dew, worthy of notice, falls at that season, and, that the cots have generally curtains, which would receive, and absorb, what little might fall, we may, on the whole, pronounce it to be less dangerous than should at first be supposed. If, indeed, this were to be done more to the southward, near the mouth of the Hoogly river, where the immense marshes, the ouze left by the returning tides, and the jungles, which every where abound, produce the most deleterious exhalations, we should then be correct in exclaiming against the practice: but few, very few, instances could be adduced of any serious indisposition having attended it; while, on the other hand,it is confessed by all who have adopted it, that the greatest refreshment ever resulted; enabling them to rise early, divested of that most distressing lassitude attendant upon sleeping in an apartment absolutely communicating a febrile sensation, and peculiarly oppressive to the lungs.
I believe all those fatal, or injurious effects, which have been so often adduced, by way of caution to persons impatient of heat, have been produced not by sleeping in an open exposure, but in a current of air. This I cannot recommend; on the contrary, I must vehemently censure such a custom, as being highly dangerous: I could quote several most melancholy cases, arising entirely from this most injudicious conduct! Mr. Johnson, who appears to have been about two years in India, during which time he was surgeon of a frigate, has published a volume, in which there are occasionally to be found interesting details, and sensible observations. I shall offer to my readers some remarks he has made, at page 269, that bear closely on the subject under discussion. He says; ‘Europeans, in general, on their first arrival in India, are prepossessed with the idea, that sleeping at night in the open air must be a very dangerous practice; but, in the course of a short residence on shore, they get rid of this prejudice, by observing most of the natives, and many of theEuropeans, sleeping on open terraces, and inverandas, not only with impunity, but as a preservative against the debilitating effects of a hot climate. But on board-ships, where they have not an opportunity of seeing, or of reflecting on, these circumstances, they frequently adhere, for a considerable time after their arrival on the station, to the established regulations, of making every man sleep in his proper berth: and suffering none to lie about upon the decks; a system, in my opinion, very prejudicial to the health of ships’ companies in India. At sea, indeed, it is not of so much consequence, where the watch on deck always gives sufficient room to those below; but it is in harbours, and road-steds, where the air is much hotter than at sea, the impolicy of the measure becomes manifest.’—And again, page 270, ‘We will suppose, that every man, when he turns into his hammock, falls fast asleep in a few minutes; which, by the by, is not always the case. About eleven o’clock, however, I will venture to say, he wakes in a deluge of perspiration, panting with the heat and rarefied air; upon which he turns out, and goes upon deck, for the purpose, as he terms it, of getting a mouthful of fresh air; anathematizing, as he ascends, the infernal heat of the climate! Under pretence of going to the head, he gets upon the forecastle; when the cool breeze from the shoreimmediately chills him, and gives a sudden check to his perspiration.’ All this I have personally experienced, both on board-ship and on shore; and I make no scruple of saying, that, in lieu of being injured by sleeping out on achabootah, in a well-covered cot, my whole frame has been braced, my rest has been sound and refreshing, and I have avoided all the miseries inseparably attendant upon seeking repose in a close, muggy atmosphere; where thirst and irritation create perpetual restlessness, banish sleep, and cause that relaxation and debility which render each subsequent day burthensome as its preceding night has been distressing!
In a former page, I observed, that boarded floors were almost unknown in India: various reasons have, doubtless, combined to explode them; firstly, the depredations of the white-ant; secondly, the perpetual danger of their warping; and, thirdly, the difficulty of rendering the sounds of foot-steps less audible. This last may appear trivial; but, where so many menials, &c., are ever moving about in various parts of a house, and that, too, with little ceremony, though, it is true, they are all bare-footed, it would prove extremely inconvenient at those times when the family might retire to rest during the heat of the day. About twenty-five or thirty years back, all the stairs were of masonry; but, of late years, wooden ones have been introduced.These, being made to rest on strong beams, obvious in every part, save where they enter the walls, may be considered as tolerably safe from the white-ants; certainly they are much neater, and more easily kept in order. All the joists, in every house, are either painted, or tarred; the latter has a very unpleasant, indeed, a mean appearance; and is not often practised: for the most part, white, with a very slight cast of blue, to preserve it from fading, is adopted.
Some paint the beaded, or moulded, edges of the door pannels, also the rounded corners of the joists, with some delicate color; such as a very light sky-blue, a very light verdigris-green, or a lilac; and, by way of conformity, ornament the mouldings of the wall pannels with similar tints. In the upper provinces, it is a very prevalent fashion to color the pannels with some native ochres, of beautiful hues, leaving the mouldings, cornices, &c. white. These mouldings, &c. are all done by means of trowels shaped for the purpose, and not by moulds, or stamps; of course, what with want of device, and want of activity, such ornaments may be reckoned among that variety of tedious labors of whichBlackyis extremely enamoured. Yet, in the execution of such matters, he will display great ingenuity, consummate patience, and, often, great delicacy: but, with respect to design, taste, composition, perspective, consistency,and harmony; in all these, whether in drawing, sculpture, or in any mode of representation, he will prove himself to be completelyignoramus. Let the former apology be pleaded; namely, that, in every branch, the Indian mechanic is called upon, after, perhaps, only a few days of observation, or, at least, with so little practice as would, among us, be considered rather an objection than a qualification, to perform that which we judge to be unattainable, except by the application of several years, closely attached to one individual intention. Therefore, in lieu of condemning their operations, we should rather regard them with admiration; for, I will venture to assert, that we should not fail to wonder at one of our own countrymen, who, perhaps at rather an advanced age, without previous education, without the possibility of reference to books, or to public institutions, should undertake to do that with a hatchet, or any other gross implement, which persons regularly brought up in the respective profession should assert to be impracticable, unless duly provided with benches, vices, and tools, of exquisite formation, out of number. The Asiatic has the bare soil for his bench, his toes are his vice, and his implements usually amount to no more than a small adze, a saw, with, perhaps, a chisel, and a pair of uncouth pincers!
The same operations which I have described to be necessary for the construction of a tarras roof, are equally so for the floors in every part of the house; but, unless the basement stands very high, so as to allow of water houses, &c. underneath the ground-floor, it is usual to have the latter flued, by means of narrow channels, or air-conduits, of about four inches deep, and as many wide; so as to be covered with bricks of an ordinary size: these flues are made in parallel lines, at, perhaps, a foot or more asunder, and pass entirely under the house, in both directions, having their several apertures covered by small iron grates, for the purpose of keeping out rats, snakes, &c.; which would else find admirable asylums within these intersecting channels. The lower tarrases are thus kept thoroughly dry by the flues, which, of course, give ventilation to every part under the floor. Where bricks are scarce, which is often the case, on account of their never being made for general sale, except at public stations and great cities, and then of a very small size, it is common to build the ground tarras upon inverted pots; each being capable of containing about three pecks, or a bushel. These pots may be had, in any quantity, all over the country; generally at the low rate of a farthing, or, at the utmost, a halfpenny, each.
The pots are ranged upon the ground, withinthe area formed by the walls, side by side, but not quite in contact, each resting on its mouth, which consists generally of a rim, projecting about three or four inches from the body of the vessel, which is nearly spherical. The loosest sand that can be had, or, in its absence, any dry rubbish, is then thrown in, so as to fill up all the intervals, and to cover the pots, about four inches in depth. This surface being levelled, another stratum of pots is added, if judged necessary; the whole process of filling up is similar in both, and the tarras is laid in the usual manner on the levelled surface.
By far the greater portion of the subsoil throughout Bengal, at least, in that wide expanse reaching from Gogra to Dacca, on the north-east, and from the Soane, along the plains at the foot of the hills, to the debouchure of the Hoogly, (which, together, form the limits of our richest, and most populous,purgunnahs, or districts,) is a loose, gritty sand, very like what farmers term alush; which, in a few places, receives a strong red tint from the ferruginous mountains, every where to be seen along either boundary. This extreme looseness of the subsoil creates a most peremptory necessity for securing the foundations of weighty buildings, by every possible means; and, in the sinking of wells, is often found to present the most formidable obstacles.
Under such circumstances, it must appear self-evident, that those large mansions forming the bulk of Calcutta, by which I mean that portion raised, and inhabited, by Europeans; together with the several garden-houses, and the numerous edifices on a large scale erected by the natives, especially their places of worship, which are most ponderously constructed; all these necessarily require to be very firmly founded: nor can too much attention be paid to carrying off the water, which pours down from the tops of the houses; lest the bases should be sapped, and very serious injury be entailed.
With this intention, almost everycompound, or enclosed area, is either laid with pan-tiles, or is well coated withsoorky, in the same manner as the roads; while, in many instances, the junction of the wall with the level of the area is concealed, and secured, by atalus, blending with the building, at about a foot or more above that level.
With respect tobungalows, or any other buildings coming under the designation of ‘temporary,’ their foundations are usually very shallow. These are, for the most part, raised a foot or two from the surrounding level; and, as their inner walls, that often run from sixteen to twenty feet in height, are well secured by theverandas, which likewise preserve the precinct, for full twelve or fourteen feet, from being softenedby the rains, very shallow foundations are deemed sufficient. The surrounding parapet which limits, while it raises, theveranda, is usually of burnt-brick, cemented with good mortar, and plastered over with the same; but the whole of the residue of bricklayers’ work is such as has been already explained. Theverandasofbungalowsare sustained either by strong wooden posts, or by pillars of masonry; their intervals are filled up withjaumps, before described, which may be raised at pleasure, to any angle, including about 10°, or 15°, above the horizontal; or they may be suffered to hang perpendicularly against the exterior faces of the pillars. In tempestuous weather, and especially during those violent squalls called ‘north-westers,’ in consequence of their usually either commencing on, or veering round to, that quarter, it will be found necessary to place the bamboo props, whereby thejaumpsare usually elevated, against their exterior sides; by which means thejaumpis pressed to the pillar, and becomes greatly exempted from the danger of being blown away; which, nevertheless, frequently is its fate, although its weight may be full a cwt. and a half, or even two cwt.
The force of thesenorth-westersis next to incredible! I recollect one in particular, which, in November 1787, tore up an immense tree, called the ‘Barrackpore Beacon,’ on account of itsbeing situated at a point where it could be seen from Duckansore, along a beautiful reach of the Hoogly river. This fine piece of timber measured nearly twenty feet in girth, and branched out in the most luxuriant manner, reaching to full seventy or eighty feet in height: it was torn up by its roots, though some of the ramifications were much thicker than my own body, leaving an excavation of not less than 15,000 cubic feet.
When stationed atHazary-Bang, in the Ramghur district, mybungalowwas, I firmly believe, saved from falling by mere accident. It had become fashionable to construct fire places in our halls, running up the chimnies, so as to pierce the thatches immediately below the summit of that wall in which the fire-place was made, and which served as the front face of the chimney. Cutting through the wall, to make a proper opening wherein to set the grate, I found that, in lieu of being firm, as it should have been, the whole cut like so much butter. In consequence of this discovery, I hastened the finishing of the stove, which, in a short time, aired the room, and completely dried the walls; but, not before they began to display very unequivocal tokens of what would have taken place, but for my very fortunate adoption of the whim then in vogue.
It is remarkable, that thebungalowstood ona gentle declivity, from which the superficial water was well drained; but, the soil was proverbially spongy, and retained every shower, much the same as chalk, but without its good qualities: thus, notwithstanding the floors, (or tarrases,) were full two feet above the surrounding level, my habitation would, I am well convinced, have subsided; burying every inhabitant under its ruins! Probably, that fatal moment would have accorded with the height of somenorth-wester; to whose fury the catastrophe would, though erroneously, have been imputed.
Theverandasofbungalowsare generally allotted to the accommodation of servants of all descriptions; and, except where, as in Calcutta, a separate lodging-room is provided, serve for the home of whatevercahars, or bearers, may be employed. These have each their mat, on which they sleep, forming a pillow of anyg’hettry, or bundle of cloaths, and covering themselves with their quilts, &c.: blankets being but very little in use among domestics of any description. When a gentleman has company, the side-board is usually set out in theveranda, where also the several guests’hookahsare prepared; and, in rainy weather, their water cooled. All servants come upon being called only; there being no bells hung in any part of the country, and very, very few even of hand-bellsto be seen. The common call,Qui hi? (meaning ‘who is there?’) often rouzes a dozen of the slumbering crew, though it is occasionally repeated, with some vociferation too, before one will stir. Although to manybungalowsthere are abundance of out-offices, some of which may have been built for the reception of palanquins, and especially of a gig, (there called abuggy,) few persons allow either theirmahanahs, or theirboçhahs, to be kept in such places, as they would be subject to various unpleasant purposes, whereby their interior especially would often be soiled: this objection acts likewise in some measure towards the common practice of retaining the gig, as well as the palanquin, within theveranda; the latter is easily lifted in and out by the bearers, but the former requires that aramp, or slope, should be made, up and down which thesyce(or groom) draws it with facility. All conveyances, when housed, are covered with a double cloth, usually made ofkarwah.
Throughout Calcutta the doors are pannelled, and have, generally, handsome brass mountings, with mortice locks; the windows are well glazed; and, in many instances, the rooms are laid with superb carpets, either of European, Persian, or Mirzapore manufacture: the two latter are generally made of silk; exhibiting not only rich patterns, but the most brilliant colors, at least equal to any made at our manufactories.The floors, or, more properly speaking, the tarrases, are almost invariably covered with a matting made of a species of rush, which possesses considerable firmness and pliancy. This, after being duly cleansed from fibres, &c. is made up into bundles, about a cubit in length, and nearly the same in girth, in which state it is well soaked: from these bundles the mat-makers, who are usually of theCunjoortribe, weave the mats upon a kind of woof made of twine, but perfectly concealed by the rushes. Some of these mats are made plain; while others are in various stripes, or in chequers. With this manufacture a room of any size may be fitted; the work being either done on the spot, or at the houses of the persons employed; the color is generally that of faded straw; though, sometimes, red or black rushes, dyed for the purpose, are introduced. For the accommodation of persons residing in parts where they cannot have floors fitted with entire mats, long strips, of about a yard wide, and four or five yards long, are sold in almost every greatbazar(or market). These require to be sewed side by side, the same as our Scotch carpeting; but, exclusive of that disadvantage, are not so eligible; both because they are less carefully made, and that, in almost every instance, they are manufactured from refuse materials.
In the upper provinces, where thekudjoor(or date-tree) abounds, a very passable kind of matting is made of its leaves; it is true, this is not so durable, nor so handsome, nor so even, as that sort just described; owing to the coarseness of the materials, it is rather subject to catch the feet of chairs; add to this, the danger of fire fromhookahs, &c.: all these circumstances limit the use of thekudjoormats to very ordinary purposes; or, at the least, to laying down in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially carpeted.
Mats are likewise made, in every part of the country, from green bamboos; which, being split into very thin laths, of about half an inch, or less, in width, answer the same purpose as the foregoing; these are, however, very uncomfortable, and harbour centipedes by the hundred: thekudjoormats partake of that objection, but not to the same extent. Mats, if we may so call them, are likewise made by laying down rattans, and stringing them together with strips of their own bark, the same as is done in making theseerkyused in thatching; but this species is very rare: indeed, I believe only a few were ever seen in Calcutta, and they were said to have been brought by the Dutch from Malacca, whence great numbers of rattans are yearly imported. The price of the best rush-mats may be taken at about a rupee per square yard; that of the mats in strips at from four annas (8½d.) toeight annas (17d.); but thekudjoor, and bamboo kinds, can only be computed by the demand for materials, and the prices of labor, locally: probably, taking all things into consideration, we may estimate a square yard of either at two annas, or about 4¼d.A very beautiful species of mat is made in some parts of the country, but especially in the south-eastern districts, about Dacca and Luckypore, from a kind of reedy grass, of which the rind, being pared off very thin, and trimmed to about the eighth of an inch in width, is wove into mats, rarely exceeding seven or eight feet in length, by about four feet in width. These are peculiarly slippery, whence they are designated ‘seekul-putty,’ (i.e.polished sheets); their color resembles that of common horn, and their prices are generally from two to six rupees per piece; according to their fineness, and to the state of the markets. The principal uses of theseekul-putty, are, to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed, thereby to keep the body cool; which is certainly effected to a great degree by this device, by its remarkably slippery surface: some few pillows for couches are likewise covered therewith, and I have seen it employed in making covers for mahogany tables; to which it is well adapted, on account of its repelling dust: in such case, it ought to have all the joinings well taped, and to be lined with blanket, or withkarwah, &c. properly quilted.
Exclusive of the carpets before mentioned, and which are very high priced, a manufacture ofsatrinjesis carried on at Mirzapore, and in many other parts. These serve all the purposes of carpets, but have no plush; being in that particular very similar to our Scotch carpeting, but, at the same time, very dissimilar in respect to pattern. Thesatrinjeis nothing more than a very large colored sheet, in which, except for about a cubit’s breadth all around, the whole is divided into bars, or stripes, usually from two to six inches wide, proportioned to the extent of the fabric. The principal colors in these carpets are crimson for a ground, with bars of deep, or light red; or blue grounds, with white, yellow, or tawny bars; or green grounds, with deeper, or lighter green, or crimson, or orange bars; or any of these,vice versâ. The common price of a woollensatrinje, may be from twelve annas (i.e.3/4 of a rupee) to three rupees per square yard; according to fineness, substance, color, demand, &c.
Of cottonsatrinjes, the price rarely exceeds a rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, for the same extent; these, however, wash admirably. It is no uncommon thing to see asatrinjeof full twenty by thirty feet; and this, too, made upon nothing more than a bamboo roller, round which the work gradually collects, as the threads are crossed, by passing the warp-lines, alternatelyover and under the woof-lines, in regular changes!
Cheeks, or screens, to keep out the glare, are made in a similar manner. These simple, yet most comfortable, addenda to our Indian habitations, are formed of bamboo wires, (if I may use the term,) from four to six feet in length, and about the thickness of a very large knitting-needle, or, perhaps, of a crow-quill. A thin, clean-worked lath, of the same material, is put at the top and bottom.
Manycheeksare made of bamboo wires, previously painted either green, or reddish brown, but generally the former. These require no particular care, further than keeping them separate, as they dry; which is usually effected by laying them upon two rows of bricks, or against a wall, or upon scattered straw, when the weather is calm. Whencheeksare intended to represent any pattern, such as birds on branches, or Indian deities, &c., the whole of the wires are laid with their respective ends on two boards, over which two others are placed perfectly parallel, and even, so as to press the ends of the wires, and to prevent their being easily displaced. A pattern, being cut out on paper of the required size, is fastened down upon the wires, and its outline every where distinctly marked upon them; after which it is worked in on the former ground, say a green,with brown for branches, a deeper green for the leaves, and red, yellow, &c., for the birds: the whole is then left to dry. When ready for use, thecheek-wallah(or maker) fixes his apparatus close to the top, and, taking each wire in succession, fastens it down in its proper place, being guided by two lateral lines, as they are handed to him by an urchin, perhaps not more than three or four years of age! In this way the representation is preserved.
The neatest patternedcheekscome from China; but the Bengallee artist is getting fast forward, and bids fair to put a stop to the importation: it is usual to have the wholecheekbound, all around, either with a light cotton tape, of about three or four inches broad, or with red, or blue,karwah. At the top of eachcheek, generally, a piece of circular leather is attached, two being sewed together, though on different sides of the wires; to these the cotton cords, usually white, or red and white, or blue and white, about an inch in circumference, and each a full yard in length, are sewed: their use is, to tie up thecheek, when rolled towards the door-plate, at such times as it is not wanted. Each end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather sewed on, for the cords by which thecheekis to be suspended.
It is understood, that whitecheeksare preferable; both because they keep out the glaremuch better, and as they render the interior less distinguishable to any spectator from without: consequently, they contribute most to coolness, and to privacy.
I believe it would be impossible to find any house inhabited by an European of respectability, in any part of Calcutta, which should prove to be destitute of proper doors, of pannelled wood, or of windows, at least, furnished with Venetians, if not with glass sashes. Whether for appearance, convenience, or real utility, certainly there cannot be any thing equal to glass, the use of which is now become so general, that almost everybungalowin the upper provinces, unless merely built as a shelter for a few months, is provided with glass; some, perhaps, only partially, but a great majority throughout. Were it not that this most agreeable improvement were attainable on what may be called very moderate terms, the great number of serious drawbacks it has to encounter, would assuredly cause its exportation to the East to be very limitted. The principal objections to its use, are, 1stly, the difficulty of getting glass cut to fit the sashes; 2dly, the aptness of even the best seasoned wood to warp, so as to cause the panes to fly; 3dly, the difficulty which frequently exists of getting glass at all; especially of the larger sizes.
As a balance to this, we find, that this brittlecommodity, after undergoing all the risques attendant upon shipping, and landing, together with all the dangers of the seas, and much occasional rough usage after being consigned to the up-country trader, can usually be sold at Futty-Ghur, or Lucknow, which are each distant about a thousand miles, by water, from Calcutta, at the following prices: panes of 8 by 11 inches, at about twenty rupees percoorge, (or score,); 10 by 14, at about twenty-six rupees; of 12 by 16, at about thirty-two; of 15 by 20, at about forty; of 18 by 26, at about fifty; and of 20 by 30, at about sixty rupees. These prices give little more than cent. per cent. upon the wholesale prices of London. What with the necessity for making those panes and sashes, which are exposed to the sun, very firm, as well as from a due attention to economy in so expensive an article, we generally see, in the upper provinces, the panes laid transversely, instead of upright; and only one row of such panes in each frame; the wood-work being made very broad, so as to occupy a large space. The light thus admitted, is found fully adequate to every common purpose; the atmosphere being, for full eight months out of the twelve, perfectly clear; and there being rarely any buildings to debar the full enjoyment of that blessing: besides, that great exposure to an unclouded sky, which may in England be deemed highlyadvantageous, would, in India, prove objectionable; by admitting so forcible a glare as must give more uneasiness than pleasure.
When glass either cannot be had; or, that, owing to some speculator having monopolized, the price is considered too high, it is not uncommon to see windows furnished with plates oftalc; which may be obtained, in almost any quantity, at the several cities, especially towards the frontiers; very extensive dealings being carried on in this article, by persons resident chiefly at Lucknow, Benares, and Patna, who import it from Thibet, and the countries on the north of the Punjab, or Seik territory, in masses, often as large as a quartern loaf. The principal intention of such traffic is for the supply of that fine powder, used in the Hindu holiday, calledhooly, which may generally be viewed as the carnival of that sect.
The masses oftalccommonly sell for about a rupee and a half, or even up to two rupees per seer (of about two pounds avoirdupoise): when good, it is of a pure pearl color, but it has, ordinarily, either a yellowish, or a faint blue cast: by means of proper tools, this mineral may be split into very thin leaves, which often present smooth surfaces, but are apt to have little scaly blisters, that greatly deteriorate their value. However, a seer oftalc, that splits well, will sometimes yield a dozen or more panes, of about12 inches by 9, or of 10 by 10; and thus, according to the form of the lump; which can only be split in the direction of its laminæ. These panes are so far diaphanous as to allow ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or thirty yards tolerably distinct; and, of course, present an excellent substitute for glass.
I am surprized that the very simple process wherebytalcmay be vitrified, has not encouraged some ingenious person to establish a manufactory for that purpose. When combined with alkaline salt, (every where attainable in India,) it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a transparent, handsome, greenish-yellow glass. If equal portions oftalcand of chalk be melted together, with one-fourth part of borax, (thesoohaugah, or tincal, so abundant throughout the East,) the mixture will produce a fine pellucid, greenish glass, of considerable lustre and hardness; gypsous earths, (which, though not brought into use, are supposed to abound in some parts of Bahar, and of the upper provinces,) may be advantageously substituted for chalk, whence the result will be a rich, pellucid, yellow glass, of equal brightness and durability.
Speaking of chalk, I must remark, that very large quantities are occasionally sent to India, notwithstanding some of the hills at the back of Raje Mahal abound therewith. I understood, many years ago, from an old friend, who wasquarter-master of a regiment stationed at Monghyr, distant about forty miles from the former place, that, in consequence of a scarcity of musquet flints, he had sent people to the Chalk Hills of Raje Mahal, whence he had obtained a boat-load that answered admirably. In reply to my questions regarding the chalk, he informed me it was very coarse. But he forgot, that, by dissolving it in a large quantity of water, and allowing the rubbish to sink, the finer particles would be for a while suspended; and, on being poured off, would, after repeated washings in this manner, yield the purest whiting. It really appears surprizing, that those chalk hills should remain unnoticed; and, that even the lime-burners should neglect to take advantage of their being so advantageously situated among wildernesses of fuel, and within a mile of the great channel of the Ganges! That the Company should ever send out whiting, or put themselves to the expence of millions upon millions of gun and pistol flints, when they possess such a quarry, (of which the extent is not known,) appears highly inconsistent with that economy so much and so properly studied. If it be argued, that some impolicy might exist in shewing the natives how to provide themselves with flints; the answer is very easy; for the gun-smiths ofMonghyrare fully apprized of the whole process.But, surely the chalk cannot be accused of the same dangerous tendency! To say the least, government might, with great advantage, cause all the lime required for their own works to be made from it; imposing a price upon all that might be dug by merchants, or others; as they do at their stone quarries, nearChunar-Ghur, &c. My readers will, at all events, discover that a very useful glass might be made in India, the duty on which would produce a much larger sum than the whole amount of profits accruing to our exporters. It is, indeed, a well-known fact, that the captains of Indiamen take out window glass more with the view to making up a general assortment, than from any great advantage arising from its sale to the European shop-keepers, &c. In time of peace they are invariably undersold by foreign traders; who carry out glass of an inferior quality, which sells to a certain extent; and is often rather sought, than rejected, on account of its greenish hue, which is found to soften the light considerably; especially in exposed situations.