Chapter 5

-Aĉ-

A new suffix-aĉ-has gradually come into use during the past few years. Its meaning is well shown in the following examples:—Domo, house;domaĉo, hovel.Virino, woman;virinaĉo, hag.Ridi, to laugh;ridaĉi, to grin (maliciously).Ĉevalo, horse;ĉevalaĉo, a sorry nag, a screw.Obstina, persistent, stubborn;obstinaĉa, pig-headed.Popolo, a people;popolaĉo, populace.Morti, to die;mortaĉi, to die the death.Lingvo, language;lingvaĉo, a jargon.

This suffix should only be used sparingly.

JOINING WORDS. CONJUNCTIONS.

Certain words are used merely to join words or sentences. Those already learned are:—

kaj, and.sed, but.ĉar, because, for.ankaŭ, also.ol, than.se, if.aŭ, or.ĉu, whether.ke, that.kvazaŭ, as if.kvankam, although.almenaŭ, at least.tamen, however.do, then, therefore.

The following are also useful:—

kaj...kaj, both ... and.aŭ...aŭ, either ... or.ĉu...aŭ, whether ... or.ĉu...ĉu, whether ... whether.nek...nek, neither ... nor.eĉ se, even if.same kiel, the same as.

EXCLAMATIONS. INTERJECTIONS.

The following are simply exclamations of joy grief, surprise, etc.:—

ah!aha! ah!ha!ah!he!halloo! hey!hm!hm! humph!ho!oh!oho!ho!ho ve!alas!for!away!fi!for shame!nu!well (now)!nu do!well (now) then!ja!indeed!jen!there! look! behold!bis!again! encore!kia!what!bone!good! all right!brave!bravo!hura!hurrah!vere!truly!efektive!really!adiaŭ!goodbye!bonvenu!welcome!kompreneble!of course!vivu!long live!antaŭen!forward!ĉu vere?is it true?ĉu ne?is it not?

COMPOUND WORDS.

It is often convenient to form compound words, aspoŝtkarto,forpeli,ĉiuminute,stacidomo,senmove,telertuketo. When this is done, the word expressing the principal idea is placed last.

Generally it is sufficient to use therootof the qualifying word, but if the sound or sense requires it, the whole word is taken, asunutagameans "of one day";unuataga, "of the first day."

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN THE SENTENCE.

In English the sense often depends entirely on the order of the words,e.g., the sentence "John saw George" would mean something quite different if reversed—"George saw John." But in Esperanto, thanks to the accusativen, the endingsaandefor participles, and the pronounsi, the order of words may be varied without altering the sense. "Georgon vidis Johano" means exactly the same as "Johano vidis Georgon."

But though the meaning can in most cases be understood whatever the order of the words, it is best to adopt the simplest arrangement, and to follow the natural course of thought, which is, first, that about which we think, then that which we think about it. English students may frame their sentences exactly as they would in their own language. In Esperanto, as in English, the arrangement is sometimes altered, either for emphasis, asLaŭdata estu Dio!Praised be God!; or to please the ear, asOni min admiras, instead ofOni admiras min, People admire me.

Note.—Care must be taken in placing the word "ne." Its usual place is before the verb, when it negatives the whole sentence. Study the effect of placingnein different positions in the sentenceMi deziras vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton, I wish to see John and his brother:—

(i.).Mi ne deziras vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton, I do not wish to see John and his brother.

(ii.).Mi deziras ne vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton, I wish not to see John and his brother,i.e., I wish to avoid seeing them.

(iii.).Mi deziras vidi ne Johanon, sed lian fraton, I wish to see not John, but his brother.

(iv.).Mi deziras vidi Johanon kaj ne lian fraton, I wish to see John and not his brother.

Ne tutemeans "not quite," whiletute nemeans "not at all."

Jam nemeans "no longer." "Not yet" isankoraŭ ne.

Words which are already international, such asmicroscope, telephone, automobile, etc., are adopted unchanged, except as to the spelling and termination, asmikroskopo, telefono, aŭtomobilo.

WORDS USED WITH THE OBJECT.

As already said, when an adjective or participle (or a noun) is added to the object simply as a describing word, it takesnlike the object, asLi perdis sian novan libron(aŭ, sian libron novan), He lost his new book.Ŝi trankviligis la kriegantan infanon(aŭ,la infanon kriegantan), She pacified the screaming child.Li vizitis sian fraton Johanon, He visited his brother John. ("John" showswhichbrother).

But if the adjective, participle, or noun is used not merely to describe, but indirectly to tell something about the object, it does not taken. A comparison of the following sentences will make this clear:—

1.Li trovis la pomojn maturajn. He found the ripe apples.Li trovis la pomojn maturaj. He found (that) the apples (were) ripe.2.Li trovis la kruĉon rompitan. He found the broken jug.Li trovis la kruĉon rompita. He found (that) the jug (was) broken.3.Li kolorigis la drapon ruĝan. He dyed the red cloth.Li kolorigis la drapon ruĝa. He dyed the cloth red.4.Li tranĉis (aŭ faris) la veston tro mallongan. He cut (or made) the too-short coat (the coat that was too short).Li tranĉis la veston tro mallonga. He cut the coat (so that it was) too short.5.Li nomis la knabon mensogisto. He called the boy a liar.

Compare this use of words with the following:—

He made his father angry (or, be angered).Li kolerigis sian patron, or,li igis sian patron kolera.

The loss drove him mad.La perdo frenezigis lin, or,igis lin freneza.

It rendered the gun useless.Ĝi senutiligis la pafilon, or,igis la pafilon senutila.

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.By Dr. Zamenhof.

A.—Alphabet.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii, Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt, Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz [Footnote: Names of the letters: a, bo, co, ĉo, do, e, fo, go, ĝo, ho, ĥo, i, jo, ĵo, ko, lo, mo, no, o, po, ro, so, ŝo, to, u, ŭo, vo, zo.]

Remark.—Presses which do not possess the accented letters can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

B.—Rules.

(1) There is no indefiniteArticle; there is only a definite article (la), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

Remark.—The use of the article is the same as in the other languages. People who find a difficulty in the use of the article need not at first use it at all.

(2)Substantiveshave the terminationo. To form the plural the terminationjis added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the terminationn. Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions (the genitive byde, the dative byal, the ablative byper, or other prepositions according to sense).

(3) TheAdjectiveends ina. Case and number as with the substantive. The Comparative is made by means of the wordpli, the Superlative byplej; with the Comparative the conjunctionolis used.

(4) The fundamentalNumerals(they are not declined) are:unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil.The tens and hundreds are formed by simple junction of the numerals. To mark the ordinal numerals the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple—the suffixobl, for the fractional—on, for the collective—op, for the distributive—the wordpo. Substantival and adverbial numerals can also be used.

(5) PersonalPronouns:mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi(referring to thing or animal),si, ni, vi, ili, oni; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.

(6) TheVerbundergoes no change with regard to person or number. Forms of the verb; timebeing(Present) takes the termination-as;timebeen(Past)-is; timeabout to be(Future)-os; the Conditional mood-us;the Ordering mood-u;the Indefinite-i.Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present-ant;active past-int;active future-ont;passive present-at;passive past-it;passive future-ot.All forms of the passive are formed by the aid of a corresponding form of the verbestiand a passive participle of the required verb; the preposition with the passive isde.

(7)Adverbsend ine;degrees of comparison as with the adjectives.

(8)AllthePrepositionsrequire the nominative.

(9)Everyword is read as it is written.

(10) TheAccentisalwayson the penultimate syllable.

(11)Compound Wordsare formed by simple junction of the words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

(12) When anotherNegativeword is present the wordneis left out.

(13) In order to showDirectionwords take the termination of the accusative.

(14) EachPrepositionhas a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the prepositionjewhich has no meaning of its own. Instead of the prepositionjewe can also use the accusative without a preposition.

(15) The so-calledForeign Words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, merely obtaining the spelling of the latter; but with different words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.

(16) TheFinal Vowelof the substantive and of the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.

COMMON USEFUL EXPRESSIONS.

tio estas, i.e., that is.kaj cetere, k.c., etcetera.kaj tiel plu, k.t.p., and so on.kiel ekzemple, k.ekz., as for example.kiel elbe plej (baldaŭ), as (soon) as possible.kio ajn okazos, whatever happens (shall happen).kondiĉe, ke, on the condition that.kun la kondiĉo, ke, on the condition that.

Bonan tagon, sinjoro.Good day, sir.Kiel vi fartas?How do you do?Tre bone, mi dankas.Very well, I thank you.Mi dankas vin.I thank you.Dankon.Thanks.Multe da dankoj.Many thanks.Vi estas tre ĝentila (afabla).You are very kind.Vi estas tre kompleza.You are very obliging.Mi malsatas.I am hungry.Mi soifas.I am thirsty.Al mi estas varme (malvarme).I am warm (cold).Kiu estas tie? Estas mi.Who is there? It is I.Sidiĝu, mi petas.Be seated, I beg (you).Kun plezuro.With pleasure.Kion vi bezonas?What do you want?Cu vi min komprenas?Do you understand me?Vi estas prava (malprava).You are right (wrong).Tio estas vera.That is true.Estas vera, ke...It is true that...Je kioma horo vi foriros?At what time are you going?Kioma horo estas?What time is it?Kiom kostas tio ĉi?How much does this cost?Ĝi kostas tri ŝilingojn.It costs three shillings.Kie vi estas?Where are you?Kien vi iras?Where are you going?Kian aĝon li havas?How old is he?Antaŭ unu semajno.A week ago.Post du tagoj.In two days.Li venos ĵaŭdon.He will come on Thursday.Pasigu al mi la panon, mi petas vin.Pass me the bread, I beg you (please).Estas li mem!It is himself!Tiom pli boneSo much the better!Oni diras, ke...They say, that...Neniu tion diras.Nobody says that.Kio okazis?What has happened?Ĉu vi konas Sinjoron A.?Do you know Mr. A.?Mi scias, kiu li estas, sed mi ne konas lin.I know who he is, but I do not know him.Ĉu estas leteroj por mi?Are there letters for me?Rapidu.Be quick.Ne diru tion.Do not say that.Ne faru tion.Do not do that.Kia estas la vetero? Kian veteron ni havas?What kind of weather is it?Pluvas; neĝas.It rains; it snows.Pluvis la tutan nokton.It rained all night long.Estas beld, varmege.It is fine, hot.Ĉu mi tion faru?Shall I do that?

LETTERS.

(a).Beginnings.

Kara, dear.Mia kara, my dear.Estimata, esteemed.Estiminda, estimable.Respektinda,respect-worthy.Honorindahonourable.Patro, amiko, etc., father, friend, etc.Samideano, fellow-thinker.Kunlaboranto, fellow-worker.Sinjoro, Sir.Sinjoroj, Gentlemen, Sirs.Sinjorino, Madame, Mrs.Fraŭlino, Miss.

(b).Endings.

Kun (koraj, amikaj) salutoj, with (hearty, friendly) greetings.Kun (alta, granda) estimo, with (high, great) esteem.Kun (miaj, ĉiuj) bondeziroj, with (my, all) good wishes.Kun (multe da) amo, with (much) love.Via, La via, yours.Via, (tre) vin amanta, your (very) loving.Via, tre sincere, fidele, etc., yours very sincerely, faithfully, etc.Ĉiam via, yours always.Tre sincere via, very sincerely yours.

KEY TO EXERCISES.

A father and a brother. A lion is an animal. A rose is a flower and a pigeon is a bird. The rose belongs to Theodore. The sun shines. The father is a tailor. Where are the book and the pencil? Here is an apple. On the ground lies a stone. On the window lie a pencil and a pen. The son stands by the father. Here lies the hat of the father (the father's hat). The father is in the room. Before the house is (stands) a tree.

What is a lion? What is a rose? What shines? What is the father? Where is the father? What is on the window? Where is the pen?

Is a lion an animal? Yes, a lion is an animal. Is a rose a bird? No, a rose is not a bird, a rose is a flower.

The father is well. A child is not a mature man. The sky is blue. A lion is strong. The father is good. The hand of John (John's hand) is clean. (Some,or, a) paper is white. White paper lies on the table. Here is the young lady's exercise book. In the sky stands (is) the beautiful sun. The paper is very white, but the snow is more white (whiter). Milk is more nutritious than wine. The bread is fresh. The uncle is richer than the brother. Here lies (is) a red rose. The dog is very faithful. The book is new.

(The) birds fly. The song of (the) birds is pleasant. Where are the boys? The fathers are well. Children are not mature men. Lions are strong. John's hands are clean. Here are the young ladies' exercise books. The uncles are richer than the brothers. The dogs are very faithful. White papers lie on the table. In the room are new hats. Where are the sharp knives? Good children are diligent. Here lie (are) pure white delicate lilies. The teeth of lions (lions' teeth) are sharp.

I read. You write. He is a boy, and she is a girl. We are men. You are children. They are Russians. Where are the boys? They are in the garden. Where are the girls? They also are in the garden. Where are the knives ? They are (lie) on the table. The child cries, because it wants to eat. Sir, you are impolite. Gentlemen, you are impolite. Tkey say that (the) truth always conquers. The house belongs to him. I come from (the) grandfather, and I go now to (the) uncle. I am as strong as you. Now I read, you read, and he reads, we all read. You write and the children write, they (you) all sit silent and write.

My dog, you are very faithful. He is my uncle, for my father is his brother. Of all my children, Ernest is the youngest. His father and his brothers are in the garden. Her uncle is in the house. Where are your books ? Our books are (lie) on the table; their pencils and their paper also are (lie) on the table.

Who is in the room ? Who are in the room ? The gentle- man who is reading is my friend. The gentleman to whom you are writing is a tailor. What is lying on the table ?

I see a lion (lions). I read (am reading) a book (books). I love (the) father. I know John. (The) father is not reading a book, but he is writing a letter. I do not like obstinate people. I wish you good-day, sir. Good morning! A joyous festival (a pleasant holiday) (I wish you). What a joyful festival (it is to-day) ! In the day we see the bright sun, and at night we see the pale moon and the beautiful stars. We have newer bread than you. No, you are wrong, sir, your bread is less new (staler) than mine. We call the boy, and he comes. In (the) winter they heat the stoves. When one is rich one has many friends. He loves me, but I do not love him. Mr. P. and his wife love my children very much; I also love theirs very much. I do not know the gentleman who is reading.

Why do you not answer me? Are you deaf or dumb? What are you doing?

The boy drove away the birds. From (the) father I received a book, and from (the) brother I received a pen. (The) father gave me a sweet apple. Here is the apple which I found. Yesterday I met your son, and he politely greeted me. Three days ago (before three days) I visited your cousin, and my visit gave (made) to him pleasure. When I came to him he was sleeping, but I woke him.

I will relate to you a story. Will you tell me the truth? To day is Saturday, and to-morrow will be Sunday. Yesterday was Friday, and the day after to-morrow will be Monday. [Footnote: Notice that in these two sentencesankoraŭandiamexpress different meanings of the English word "yet."] Have you yet found your watch? I have not yet looked for it; when I have finished (shall finish) my work I will look for my watch, but I fear that I shall not find it again. If you (shall) conquer us, the people will say that only women you conquered. When you (shall) attain the age of fifteen years you will receive the permission.

I love myself, you love yourself, he loves himself, and every man loves himself. I take care of her (so) as I take care of myself, but she takes no care at all of herself, and does not look after herself at all. My brothers had guests to-day; after supper our brothers went with the guests out of their (our brothers') house and accompanied them as far as their (the guests') house. I washed myself in my room, and she washed herself in her room. The child was looking for its doll; I showed the child where its doll lay. She related to him her adventure. She returned to her father's palace. Her flowers she tended not. My brother said to Stephen, that he loved him more than himself.

Two men can do more than one. I have only one mouth, but I have two ears. He walks out with three dogs. He did everything with the ten fingers of his hands. Of her many children some are good and others bad. Five and seven make twelve. Ten and ten make twenty. Four and eighteen make twenty-two. Thirty and forty-five make seventy-five. One thousand eight hundred and ninety-three. He has eleven children. Sixty minutes make one hour, and one minute consists of sixty seconds.

8a.

January is the first month of the year, April is the fourth, November is the eleventh, and December is the twelfth. The twentieth day of February is the fifty-first day of the year. The seventh day of the week God chose to be (that it should be) more holy than the six first days. What did God create on the sixth day? What (which) date is it (have we) to-day? To-day is the twenty-seventh (day) of March. Christmas Day is the 25th of December, New Year's Day is the 1st of January, One does not easily forget one's first love.

I have a hundred apples. I have a hundred (of) apples. This town has a million of inhabitants. I bought a dozen (of) spoons, and two dozen (of) forks. One thousand years (or, a thousand of years) make a millennium.

Firstly, I return to you the money which you lent to me; secondly, I thank you for the loan; thirdly, I beg you also afterwards (on a future occasion) to lend to me when I (shall) require money.

9a.

Three is half of six, eight is four-fifths of ten. Four metres of this stuff cost nine francs, therefore two metres cost four and a-half francs. One day is a three hundred and sixty-fifth or a three hundred and sixty-sixth of a year.

Five times seven are thirty-five. For each day I receive five francs, but for to-day I have received double pay, that is, ten francs.

These two friends walk out always (two) together. Five together they threw themselves upon me, but I overcame all five assailants.

10.

Give (to) the birds water, for they want to drink. Alexander will not learn, and therefore I beat Alexander. Who has courage (dares) to ride on a lion? I was going to beat him, but he ran away from me.

Do not give your hand to a lion. Relate (tell) to my young friend a beautiful story. Tell father that I am diligent. Tell me your name. Do not write to me such long letters. Show me your new coat. Child, do not touch the looking-glass. Dear children, always be honest. Do not listen to him.

He says that I am attentive. He begs me to be attentive. Tell him not to chatter. Ask him to send me a candle. The cottage is worth your buying (worthy that you should buy it). She strongly desired that he (should) remain alive.

Let him come, and I will forgive him. Let us be gay, let us use life well, for life is not long. Let him not come alone, but come with his best friend. I already have my hat; now look for yours.

11.

If the pupil knew his lesson well, the teacher would not punish him. If you knew who he is, you would esteem him more. They raised one hand upwards as if they were holding something. If I really were beautiful, others would try to imitate me. Oh! if I were (had) already the age of fifteen years!

12.

To remain with a lion is dangerous. The knife cuts well, for it is sharp. Go more quickly. He shut the door angrily. His speech flows softly and pleasantly. We made the contract not in writing, but by word of mouth. An honest man acts honestly. The pastor who died a short time ago lived long in our city. Did you not get it back? He is sick unto death. The iron rod which was in the stove (fire) is burning; hot. Paris is very gay. Early in the morning she drove to the station.

Forgive me that I stayed so long. His anger lasted long. He is to-day in an angry temper. The king soon sent again another good-hearted official. This evening we shall have a ball. Where are you? Away from here! (Get away!).

Where did he drive away to? She ran home. We went forward like furies. Everything was right (good), and we went on further. The lady glanced back. The sailors demanded to go back (required that one should go back). I hung it here, for it saved my life. I never sent here.

13.

My brother is not big, but he is not little, he is of medium growth. A hair is very thin. The night is so dark that we can see nothing even before our nose. This stale bread is hard as stone. Naughty children love to torment animals. He felt (himself) so miserable that he cursed the day on which he was born. We greatly despise this base man. The window was long unclosed; I closed it, but my brother immediately opened it again. A straight road is shorter than a curved. Do not be ungrateful.

The wife of my father is my mother, and the grandmother of my children. My sister is a very beautiful girl. My aunt is a very good woman. I saw your grandmother with her four granddaughters, and with my niece. I have an ox and a cow. The young widow became again a fiancée.

14.

He gave me money, but I immediately returned it to him. I am going away, but wait for me, for I shall soon return. The sun is reflected in the clear water of the river. He returned to his country. She threw herself again upon the seat.

In the course of a few minutes I heard two shots. The firing continued for a very long time. His speech of yesterday was very fine, but too much speaking tires him. He is singing a very beautiful song. Singing is an agreeable occupation. With my hand I kept on briskly rubbing him. The rain kept on falling in rivers. Every minute she kept looking out through the window and cursing the slow motion of the train.

I leap very cleverly. I started with surprise. I used to jump all day long from place to place. When you began to speak I expected to hear something new. The diamond has a beautiful sparkle. She let the diamond flash. Two flashes of lightning passed across the dark sky.

15.

I am (being) loved. I was (being) loved. I shall be (being) loved. I should be (being) loved, Be (being) loved. To be (being) loved. You have been washed. You had been washed. You will have been washed. You would have been washed. Be (having been) washed. To have been washed. He is to be invited. He was (going) to be invited. He will be (about to be) invited. He would be (about to be) invited. Be about to be invited. To be about to be invited. This commodity is always willingly bought by me. The overcoat was (has been) bought by me; consequently it belongs to me. When your house was being built, my house had already been built a long time. I give notice that from now my son's debts will not be paid by me. Be easy; my whole debt will soon have been paid to you. My gold ring would not be so long (being) sought for if it had not been so cleverly hidden by you. According to the plan of the engineers this railway is going to be constructed in the space of two years; but I think that it will be being constructed (in construction) more than three years. When the prayer was (had been) finished he rose.

Augustus is my best loved son. Money in hand is more important than (money) had. A sparrow (which has been) caught is better than an eagle (which is) going to be caught.

16.

Flowing water is purer than water standing still. The fallen man cannot raise himself. (The) time past will never more return; (the) time to come no one yet knows. Come, we await you, Saviour of the world. In the language Esperanto we see the future language of the whole world. The number of the dancers was great. It is the legend which true believers always repeat. He led the traveller to the place where the thieves were resting. (To) a man who has sinned unintentionally God easily pardons. The soldiers led the prisoners (arrested) through the streets. A man whom one has to judge is one to be judged (prisoner at the bar).

16a.

Now he teils me the truth. Yesterday he told me the truth. He always told me the truth. When you saw us in the drawing-room he had already (previously) told me the truth. He will tell me the truth. When you (shall) come to me, he will previously tell me the truth (or, he will have told me the truth; or, before you (will) come to me, he will tell me the truth). If I were to ask him, he would tell me the truth. I should not have made the mistake if he had previously told me the truth. When I (shall) come, tell me the truth. When my father (shall) come, tell me beforehand the truth. I wish to tell you the truth. I wish that that which I said should be true (or, I wish to have told the truth).

17.

Walking in the street, I fell. Having found an apple, I ate it. He came to me quite unexpected. He went meditating (deeply) and very slowly. We were ashamed, having received instruction from the boy. The imperial servant went out, taking with him the bracelet. Profoundly saluting, he related that the thief had been caught. Without saying a word, the duchess opened her jewel-case. Having worked a year, and having saved a few dollars, I married (with) my Mary. Having crossed the river, he found the thief. Looking (having looked) by chance on the floor, she saw some book, forgotten probably by a departed traveller.

18.

The bootmaker makes boots and shoes. Nobody lets thieves into his house. The brave sailor was drowned in the sea. An author writes books, and a writer simply copies papers. We have various servants - a cook, a housemaid, a nurse, and a coachman. (He) who occupies himself with mechanics is a mechanic, and (he) who occupies himself with chemistry is a chemist. A diplomatist we can also call a diplomat, but a physicist we cannot call a "physic," for "physics" is the name of the science itself. One day there came two cheats, who said that they were (are) weavers.

19.

They so hindered me that I spoiled the whole of my work. Send away your brother, for he hinders us. Fetch the doctor, for I am ill. He procured for himself many books from Berlin.

He grew pale with fear, and afterwards he blushed from shame. In the spring the ice and the snow melt. In the muddy weather my coat became very dirty; therefore I took a brush and cleaned the coat. My uncle did not die (by) a natural death, but nevertheless he did not kill himself, and also was killed by nobody; one day, walking near the railway lines, he fell under the wheels of a moving train, and was killed. I did not hang my cap on this little tree; but the wind blew away the cap from my head, and it, flying, became hung (got caught) on the branches of the little tree. Seat yourself (or, sit down), sir.

His gloomy face made his friend laugh. The whole night they passed awake, and lighted more than sixteen candles. I divested the child of his night clothes, and stood him in the tub; afterwards I dried him. He made friends with evil companions. A poor Hebrew wished to become a Christian. The bottle fell and broke. She became his wife. Little by little she became quite calm.

20.

The sea is deeper there than any anchor can reach. In some (any) way. Without any reproach of conscience. I know in what sort of place I shall certainly find him. What kind of weather is it? What harm have I done to you? In that way he did everything. He invited him to come into such and such a place. Not every sort of bird sings. Beyond all doubt. No (kind of) man deserves such a punishment. Such books are harmful. At times he visits us.

For some reason he could not sleep. Why do you not answer me? I did not understand your question, therefore I did not answer. People do not understand one another, and therefore they hold themselves aloof. For every reason that is the best.

I once loved you. What lives must of necessity some time die. When shall you go away? In the moonlight night, when all were asleep, then she sat on the edge or the ship. Be for ever blessed! She had never seen a dog before.

20a.

Where are the boys? Where did you go? I am staying here. He lost his purse somewhere in the town, but where he lost it he does not know. I willingly came from there here. He begged her to tell him whence she came (whence she comes). For youth there are snares everywhere. Everywhere are flowers, and nowhere can one find more beautiful (ones).

How beautiful! Am I fit for a king? So finished the happy day. They shone like diamonds. How are you? Somehow he misunderstood me. My wife thought the same as I. I cannot understand at all what you say. Very strange and quite incomprehensible! I, as president, elected him. I chose him as president.

Whose glove is this? I never take that one's opinion. Suddenly she heard somebody's loud disagreeable voice. Everybody's idea is different. A good friend, without whose help he would never have seen this land. Somebody's loss is not always somebody's gain. Someone's loss is often no one's gain.

20b.

I feel that something is happening. Never did I give you anything. I wish to do something good for (to) you. What is this? What kind of ornament is this? What do I see? This is all I spoke of. I will give up nothing to you. Do nothing against your mother. Before all, be faithful to yourself. She began to feel something such as (which) she herself in the beginning could (can) not understand.

She spoke a little angrily. The pupils of the eyes little by little contracted. Who is so unreasonable (senseless) that he can believe it? How much money have you? I have none. Give me as much water as wine.

Somebody comes; who is it? Would anybody have the courage to do that? Everybody tried to save himself as he could. A language in which nobody will understand us. None of them could save the drowning person. He helped nobody ever (never helped anybody) even with one centime. We shall go all together. I know nobody in that town. This is beyond all human strength.

20c.

Where I am travelling from, whither and why, I can only answer: I know not. They begged him to delay a little (with) his departure. These nests are often larger than the huts of the people of that place. He departed with the firm resolve to leave for ever this ungrateful land. If anyone were to see that, he would curse Fortune. I would give a hundred pounds sterling if ox tongue could have for me such a good taste as for you. What time is it? Nearly (soon) twelve o'clock.

21.

On a hot day I like to walk in a wood. They opened the gate noisily, and the carriage drove into the courtyard. This is no longer simple rain, but a downpour. A huge dog put its forepaw on me, and from terror I did not know what to do. Before our army stood a great series of cannon. (In) that night a terrible gale blew. With delight. He longed to go away again.

Immediately after heating the stove was hot, in an hour it was only warm, in two hours it was only just warm, and after three hours it was already quite cold. I bought for the children a little table and some little seats. In our country there are no mountains, but only hills. In summer we find coolness in thick woods. He sits near the table and dozes. A narrow path leads through this field to our house. On his face I saw a joyful smile. Before the woman appeared a pretty little dog. Pardon, he whispered.

22.

With (by means of) an axe we chop, with a saw we saw, with a spade we dig, with a needle we sew, with scissors we clip. The knife was so blunt that I could not cut the meat with it, and I had to use my pocket knife. Have you a corkscrew to uncork the bottle? I wished to lock the door, but I had lost the key. She combs her hair with a silver comb. In summer we travel by various vehicles, and in winter by a sledge. To-day it is beautiful frosty weather; therefore I shall take my skates and go skating. The steersman of the "Pinta" injured the rudder. The magnetic needle. The first indicator in most illnesses is the tongue. He put it on the plate of a pair of scales.

23.

The sailors must obey the captain. All the inhabitants of a state are citizens (subjects) of the state. Townsfolk are usually sharper than villagers. The Parisians are gay folk. Our town has good policemen, but not a sufficiently energetic chief constable. Lutherans and Calvinists are Christians. Germans and Frenchmen who live in Russia are Russian subjects, although they are not Russians. He is an awkward and simple provincial. The inhabitants of one state are fellow-countrymen, the inhabitants of one town are fellow-citizens, the professors of one religion are co-religionists. Those who have the same ideas are fellow-thinkers.

The ruler of our country is a good and wise king. The governor of our province is strict but just. Our regimental chief (colonel) is like a good father to (for) his soldiers. They are as (equally) proud as a housewife of her house. On the engine the engine-driver sat alone. The emperor, accompanied by the empress, had just entered (into) his box.

24.

Our country will conquer, for our army is large and brave. On a steep ladder he raised himself to the roof of the house. I do not know the Spanish language, but by help of a Spanish-German dictionary, I nevertheless understood your letter a little. On these vast and grassy fields feed great herds of beasts, especially flocks of fine-woolled sheep. The train consisted almost entirely (only) of passenger coaches. They put before me a cover (table requisites), which consisted of a plate, spoon, knife, fork, a small glass for brandy, a glass for wine, and a serviette. On the sea was a great ship, and among the rigging everywhere sat sailors. His escort stood at the back of the box. Dark ranges of mountains bar the way.

A florin, a shilling, and a penny are coins. A grain of sand fell into my eye. One spark is enough to explode gunpowder.

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