Note1.—They are sometimes improperly used for adjectives, as, “After those wars of which they hoped for a soon and prosperous issue.”—Sidney.“A soon issue” is not English; an adverb cannot agree with a substantive; it should be “a speedy and prosperous issue.” Such expressions likewise as the following, though not destitute of authority, are exceedingly inelegant, and irreconcilable with analogy: “the then ministry,” for “the ministry of that time;” “the above discourse,” for “the preceding discourse.”Note2.—They are sometimes used like substantives, as, “a little while,” for “in a little time,” or “for a little time.” “Worth while,” “some how,” “any how,” “any where,” are examples of the same kind.Note3.—The adverbswhence,thence,hence, are equivalent to, “from which place,” “from that place,” “from this place;”from whence,from thence,from hence, are therefore chargeable with redundancy.Note4.—Neveris sometimes erroneously used forever, as, “they might be extirpated, were they never so many.” It should be, “ever so many,”i.e.“how many soever.” “Who will not hearken to the voice of the charmer, charm heneverso sweetly.” It should be, “everso sweetly;”i.e.“however sweetly,” or “how sweetly soever.”Note5.—Everis likewise sometimes improperly used fornever, as, “I seldom or ever see him now.” It should be, “seldom ornever,” the speaker intending to say, “that rarely, or rather at no time, does he see him now;” not “rarely,” or “at any time.”Note6.—Priestley remarks, that the French always place their adverbs immediately after their verbs, which order, he observes, by no means suits the English idiom. “His government gave courage to the English barons to carry farther their opposition.”—Hume.It would be better, “to carry their opposition farther.” “Edward obtained a dispensation from his oath, which the barons had compelled Gaveston totake, that he would abjure for ever the realm;” better “the realm for ever.”Note7.—The adverb is generally placed between the auxiliary verb and the participle, as, “this is perfectly understood.” When there are more auxiliaries than one, the same author observes, that the adverb should be placed after the first. This rule, however, is by no means universally followed; for many of our best writers employ a different arrangement, and, I think, with great propriety; as, “this will be perfectly understood,” where the adverb follows both auxiliaries. The place of the adverb may, in general, be ascertained, by considering what word it is intended to qualify: and, in the last example, it should be closely connected withunderstood. But more on this subject in the following note.Note8.—The adverb, as its name imports, is generally placed close to the word, which it modifies or affects: its force, therefore, very much depends upon its position. Inattention to the proper collocation of adverbs is frequently the cause of much obscurity and misconception. To this inattention we may ascribe the ambiguity in the following sentence: “He was not honoured with this reward, but with the approbation of the people.” This sentence may imply, either that he was honoured with this reward, not without the approbation of the people; or that he was not honoured with this reward, but was honoured with the approbation of the people. The latter is the meaning intended. It should therefore be, “he was honoured, not with this reward, but with the approbation of the people.” By this arrangement the sentiment is correctly exhibited—the two subjects, reward and approbation, are perspicuously contrasted, and while the former is negatived, the latter is affirmed[127].Note9.—Lowth observes that “the adverb should be for the most part placed before adjectives, and after verbs;” thus, “he was excessively modest,” “he fought bravely.” This is, indeed, the general arrangement; but it admits many exceptions. In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the wordonly. Its place, in my opinion, is after the substantive to which it refers, or which it exclusively implies, and before the attributive. In the following sentence of Steele’s, the collocation is faulty: “The bridegroom sitswith an aspect which intimates his thoughts were not only entertained with the joys with which he was surrounded, but also with a noble gratitude, and divine pleasure.” This collocation of the two adverbs implies that his thoughts were something more than entertained: whereas it is the author’s intention to say, that his thoughts were entertained with something more than joys. The sentence, therefore, should proceed thus: “The bridegroom sits with an aspect, which intimates, that his thoughts were entertained not with the joys only, with which he was surrounded, but also with a noble gratitude and divine pleasure.”[128]When Addison says (Spec.No. 412), “By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view,” the question naturally occurs, what does he more than mean? It is evident that, agreeably to this arrangement, the adverb refers tomean, exclusively of all other attributes or actions, and being prefaced by a negative, implies “that he does something more than mean.” In this criticism I concur with Blair, who has expressed his disapprobation of this arrangement.Had he, as the same author observes, placed the adverb afterbulk, it would have still been wrong. For if he had said, “I do not mean the bulk only,” then the adverb, followinga noun substantive, must refer to it exclusively of every other, and the clause being negative, the question would be, what does he mean more than the bulk? Is it the colour, the beauty, or what else?Now, as Mr. Addison intended to say that he did not mean one thing, the wordonlyshould have followed the name of that thing, whether its designation was simple or complex. He should, therefore, have said, “the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view.” According to this arrangement, the wordonlyrefers, as it ought, to “the bulk of any single object” as one idea; and the question occurs, what does he mean more than the bulk of any single object? to which the answer follows, “the largeness of a whole view.” It may, however, at the same time be observed that, consistently with the practice of some of our best writers, who place the adverb before its subject, there seems no impropriety here in saying, “I do not mean only,”i.e.“one thing,” “the bulk of a single object, but the largeness of a whole view.”“The perfidious voice of flattery reminded him,” says Gibbon, “that by exploits of the same nature, by the defeat of the Nemean lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar of Erymanthus, the Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among the gods, and an immortal memory among men.” “They onlyforgot to observe that, in the first ages of society, a successful war against savage animals is one of the most beneficial labours of heroism.” In the beginning of the latter sentence the adverbonlyis misplaced. As it stands, the meaning is that they were the only persons who forgot: it should be “onlythey forgot to observe;”i.e.“one thing they forgot,” namely, “to observe.” To this erroneous collocation in Gibbon, I shall oppose a similar example from Pope, in which the adverb is correctly placed. In a letter to Hughes, speaking of the compliments which this gentleman had paid to him on his translation of Homer, he acquaints him, that he should be ashamed to attempt returning these compliments; one thing, however, he would observe, namely, that he esteemed Mr. Hughes too much not to be pleased with the compliments which he had received from him. His words,therefore, are, “I should be ashamed to offer at saying any of those civil things, in return to your obliging compliments, in regard to my translation of Homer:onlyI have too great a value for you not to be pleased with them;” where the wordonlyintroduces the clause, and is equivalent to “one thing is true,” or “thus much (tantum), I say, I have too great a value,” &c. Here it is obvious that the adverb, as it precedes the pronoun, does not refer to it; and that Mr. Pope’s collocation of it is perfectly correct, to express the sentiment, which he intended. Had he said, “I only,” the adverb would have referred to the pronoun, and implied that he was the only person who valued. Had he intended to say, that he merely entertained an esteem for him, but could not manifest it, then the presence of the auxiliary would have been necessary, and he would have expressed himself thus, “I do only entertain too great an esteem for you;” that is, “I do only (one thing) entertain too great an esteem.” Had he said, “I have only too great a value for you,” it would be properly opposed to, “and not too little.” Had he said, “I have too great a value only,” thenvaluewould be contrasted with some other sentiment, as when one says, he “has wealth only, but not virtue,” for example, or any other acquirement. As a violation of this rule, I adduce also the following expression of a reviewer. “We only discharge our duty to the public;” a declaration which, strictly interpreted, means “we are the only persons who discharge.” It should be, “we do only (one thing) discharge our duty;” for the writer intended to say, that he did nothing but discharge his duty to the public[129]. In justification of such inaccuracies, it is impertinent to plead, that a little attention will prevent misconception. It is the business of every author to guard his reader, as far as the language in which he writes will permit, from the possibility of misconstruction, and to render that attention to the language unnecessary. Quintilian’s maxim cannot be too often repeated to those who, bysuch apologies, attempt to defend any avoidable ambiguity[130].The following sentence is justly censured by Blair, and also by Baker, in his “Remarks.” “Theism,” says Shaftesbury, “can only be opposed to polytheism or atheism.” He ought to have said, observes Baker, “Theism can be opposed only to polytheism or atheism.” Dr. Blair concurs in opinion with the remarker. I am inclined, however, to differ from both; and think, that the sentence should run thus: “Theism can be opposed to polytheism only, or atheism;” where the adverbonlyrefers to the noun immediately preceding, and is understood to the other, implying, that these two systems of belief are the only creeds to which theism can be opposed. If this be not the proper arrangement, it is obvious, that no definite rule can be given on the subject. For, if the adverb may be placed either before or after the substantive, to which it refers, then precision becomes impossible, and we may say, “he only” or “only he” to express the same sentiment; which collocations, I have already shown, denote ideas materially different. But, if there be a definite and precise rule for the position of this word, and if the sense be different, according to the collocation of the adverb, then I think it will appear, that it ought to be subjoined to the substantive or pronoun to which it refers; and this opinion is supported by the authority of Blair himself, in the examples which I have just now adduced. For why, unless on this principle, does he contend that the wordonlyshould be placed afterthe bulk of a single object? If the adverb then be, in this example, rightly placed after the substantive or complex name, to which it refers, it ought to have the same position assigned to it in every similar instance. That the adverb, in the last example, refers to “polytheism,” there can be no question; it should therefore follow, and not precede, it.I am well aware, that many examples may be produced, wherein, with an arrangement different from that here recommended, the sense would, notwithstanding, be perfectly clear; and, perhaps, Blair’s collocation, in the last example,may be adduced as an instance. But when a rule, conducive to perspicuity, is once established, every unnecessary deviation from it should be studiously avoided, or, at least, not wantonly adopted.The sentence, as it stands in Shaftesbury, implies that theism is capable of nothing, but of being opposed to polytheism, or atheism; “Theism can only (one thing, namely) be opposed to polytheism or atheism;” where it is evident thatonlyrefers tobe opposed, agreeably to the rule now given. In the same manner, if I say, “he was only great,” it is implied, that he was nothing but great, the adverb being placed before the attributive, to which it refers. Hence the question naturally is, what was he not besides? The answer may be, “not good,” “not wise,” “not learned.” Were the adverb placed after the pronoun, it would imply, that “he was the only person who was great.”[131]I am perfectly aware, that the rule here given will not, in all cases, preclude ambiguity; but whenever it becomes doubtful, whether the adverb is intended to affect the preceding substantive, or the following attributive, a different form of expression may be adopted, and the use of theauxiliary, along with the principal verb, will, in many instances, ensure perspicuity. This expedient, however, cannot always be employed. If we say, “The manufacturer only was prosperous,” it may be uncertain, whether the adverb is to restrict the predicate “prosperous” to the manufacturer, implying that he was the only prosperous man, or to the verb expressing past time, signifying that he was then, but is not now prosperous. If the former be the meaning intended, we may say, “he was the only prosperous man;” if the latter, we may say, “the manufacturer was once,” or “was then, the only prosperous man.”It would have contributed much to perspicuity, if authors had adopted one uniform practice, placing the adverb constantly, either before or after its subject, whether a substantive or an attributive[132]. But, where usage is so divided,and where the adoption of a new and general rule would be now liable to insuperable objections, all that can be successfully attempted is, in accommodation to existing circumstances, to reduce the evil within narrow limits, if we cannot, by any precise rule, entirely remove it. With this view we would recommend, that when the adverb refers not to a word, but to a sentence or clause, it be placed at the beginning of that sentence or clause; where it refers to a predicate, it precede the predicating term; and when it has a reference to a subject, it follow its name or description. An observation, however, already made, may be here repeated, namely, that in the last case, a different collocation may often be adopted without the risk of ambiguity, and even with advantage to the structure of the sentence.Note10.—Adverbs, as Lowth observes, are generally placed before the adjective to which they refer. This rule, however, admits a few exceptions. The adverbenoughis always placed after its adjective, as, “the reward was small enough.” The proper position of this adverb, indeed, seems to be immediately after the adjective; it is frequently, however, placed at some distance from it, as, “a large house enough.” Usage is, indeed, somewhat divided on this point, Mr. Baker, and a few others, pleading for the following arrangement, “a large enough house.” The former collocation, however, seems far the more general; and is recommended by that rule, by which the substantive and adjective should be placed in juxta-position, or as near as possible to each other. The latter is defended by the principle, that the qualifying adverb should be placed close to the adjective, whose signification it modifies. This collocation is generally, however, pronounced a Scotticism; but it is not peculiar to Scotch writers.
Note1.—They are sometimes improperly used for adjectives, as, “After those wars of which they hoped for a soon and prosperous issue.”—Sidney.“A soon issue” is not English; an adverb cannot agree with a substantive; it should be “a speedy and prosperous issue.” Such expressions likewise as the following, though not destitute of authority, are exceedingly inelegant, and irreconcilable with analogy: “the then ministry,” for “the ministry of that time;” “the above discourse,” for “the preceding discourse.”
Note2.—They are sometimes used like substantives, as, “a little while,” for “in a little time,” or “for a little time.” “Worth while,” “some how,” “any how,” “any where,” are examples of the same kind.
Note3.—The adverbswhence,thence,hence, are equivalent to, “from which place,” “from that place,” “from this place;”from whence,from thence,from hence, are therefore chargeable with redundancy.
Note4.—Neveris sometimes erroneously used forever, as, “they might be extirpated, were they never so many.” It should be, “ever so many,”i.e.“how many soever.” “Who will not hearken to the voice of the charmer, charm heneverso sweetly.” It should be, “everso sweetly;”i.e.“however sweetly,” or “how sweetly soever.”
Note5.—Everis likewise sometimes improperly used fornever, as, “I seldom or ever see him now.” It should be, “seldom ornever,” the speaker intending to say, “that rarely, or rather at no time, does he see him now;” not “rarely,” or “at any time.”
Note6.—Priestley remarks, that the French always place their adverbs immediately after their verbs, which order, he observes, by no means suits the English idiom. “His government gave courage to the English barons to carry farther their opposition.”—Hume.It would be better, “to carry their opposition farther.” “Edward obtained a dispensation from his oath, which the barons had compelled Gaveston totake, that he would abjure for ever the realm;” better “the realm for ever.”
Note7.—The adverb is generally placed between the auxiliary verb and the participle, as, “this is perfectly understood.” When there are more auxiliaries than one, the same author observes, that the adverb should be placed after the first. This rule, however, is by no means universally followed; for many of our best writers employ a different arrangement, and, I think, with great propriety; as, “this will be perfectly understood,” where the adverb follows both auxiliaries. The place of the adverb may, in general, be ascertained, by considering what word it is intended to qualify: and, in the last example, it should be closely connected withunderstood. But more on this subject in the following note.
Note8.—The adverb, as its name imports, is generally placed close to the word, which it modifies or affects: its force, therefore, very much depends upon its position. Inattention to the proper collocation of adverbs is frequently the cause of much obscurity and misconception. To this inattention we may ascribe the ambiguity in the following sentence: “He was not honoured with this reward, but with the approbation of the people.” This sentence may imply, either that he was honoured with this reward, not without the approbation of the people; or that he was not honoured with this reward, but was honoured with the approbation of the people. The latter is the meaning intended. It should therefore be, “he was honoured, not with this reward, but with the approbation of the people.” By this arrangement the sentiment is correctly exhibited—the two subjects, reward and approbation, are perspicuously contrasted, and while the former is negatived, the latter is affirmed[127].
Note9.—Lowth observes that “the adverb should be for the most part placed before adjectives, and after verbs;” thus, “he was excessively modest,” “he fought bravely.” This is, indeed, the general arrangement; but it admits many exceptions. In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the wordonly. Its place, in my opinion, is after the substantive to which it refers, or which it exclusively implies, and before the attributive. In the following sentence of Steele’s, the collocation is faulty: “The bridegroom sitswith an aspect which intimates his thoughts were not only entertained with the joys with which he was surrounded, but also with a noble gratitude, and divine pleasure.” This collocation of the two adverbs implies that his thoughts were something more than entertained: whereas it is the author’s intention to say, that his thoughts were entertained with something more than joys. The sentence, therefore, should proceed thus: “The bridegroom sits with an aspect, which intimates, that his thoughts were entertained not with the joys only, with which he was surrounded, but also with a noble gratitude and divine pleasure.”[128]
When Addison says (Spec.No. 412), “By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view,” the question naturally occurs, what does he more than mean? It is evident that, agreeably to this arrangement, the adverb refers tomean, exclusively of all other attributes or actions, and being prefaced by a negative, implies “that he does something more than mean.” In this criticism I concur with Blair, who has expressed his disapprobation of this arrangement.
Had he, as the same author observes, placed the adverb afterbulk, it would have still been wrong. For if he had said, “I do not mean the bulk only,” then the adverb, followinga noun substantive, must refer to it exclusively of every other, and the clause being negative, the question would be, what does he mean more than the bulk? Is it the colour, the beauty, or what else?
Now, as Mr. Addison intended to say that he did not mean one thing, the wordonlyshould have followed the name of that thing, whether its designation was simple or complex. He should, therefore, have said, “the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view.” According to this arrangement, the wordonlyrefers, as it ought, to “the bulk of any single object” as one idea; and the question occurs, what does he mean more than the bulk of any single object? to which the answer follows, “the largeness of a whole view.” It may, however, at the same time be observed that, consistently with the practice of some of our best writers, who place the adverb before its subject, there seems no impropriety here in saying, “I do not mean only,”i.e.“one thing,” “the bulk of a single object, but the largeness of a whole view.”
“The perfidious voice of flattery reminded him,” says Gibbon, “that by exploits of the same nature, by the defeat of the Nemean lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar of Erymanthus, the Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among the gods, and an immortal memory among men.” “They onlyforgot to observe that, in the first ages of society, a successful war against savage animals is one of the most beneficial labours of heroism.” In the beginning of the latter sentence the adverbonlyis misplaced. As it stands, the meaning is that they were the only persons who forgot: it should be “onlythey forgot to observe;”i.e.“one thing they forgot,” namely, “to observe.” To this erroneous collocation in Gibbon, I shall oppose a similar example from Pope, in which the adverb is correctly placed. In a letter to Hughes, speaking of the compliments which this gentleman had paid to him on his translation of Homer, he acquaints him, that he should be ashamed to attempt returning these compliments; one thing, however, he would observe, namely, that he esteemed Mr. Hughes too much not to be pleased with the compliments which he had received from him. His words,therefore, are, “I should be ashamed to offer at saying any of those civil things, in return to your obliging compliments, in regard to my translation of Homer:onlyI have too great a value for you not to be pleased with them;” where the wordonlyintroduces the clause, and is equivalent to “one thing is true,” or “thus much (tantum), I say, I have too great a value,” &c. Here it is obvious that the adverb, as it precedes the pronoun, does not refer to it; and that Mr. Pope’s collocation of it is perfectly correct, to express the sentiment, which he intended. Had he said, “I only,” the adverb would have referred to the pronoun, and implied that he was the only person who valued. Had he intended to say, that he merely entertained an esteem for him, but could not manifest it, then the presence of the auxiliary would have been necessary, and he would have expressed himself thus, “I do only entertain too great an esteem for you;” that is, “I do only (one thing) entertain too great an esteem.” Had he said, “I have only too great a value for you,” it would be properly opposed to, “and not too little.” Had he said, “I have too great a value only,” thenvaluewould be contrasted with some other sentiment, as when one says, he “has wealth only, but not virtue,” for example, or any other acquirement. As a violation of this rule, I adduce also the following expression of a reviewer. “We only discharge our duty to the public;” a declaration which, strictly interpreted, means “we are the only persons who discharge.” It should be, “we do only (one thing) discharge our duty;” for the writer intended to say, that he did nothing but discharge his duty to the public[129]. In justification of such inaccuracies, it is impertinent to plead, that a little attention will prevent misconception. It is the business of every author to guard his reader, as far as the language in which he writes will permit, from the possibility of misconstruction, and to render that attention to the language unnecessary. Quintilian’s maxim cannot be too often repeated to those who, bysuch apologies, attempt to defend any avoidable ambiguity[130].
The following sentence is justly censured by Blair, and also by Baker, in his “Remarks.” “Theism,” says Shaftesbury, “can only be opposed to polytheism or atheism.” He ought to have said, observes Baker, “Theism can be opposed only to polytheism or atheism.” Dr. Blair concurs in opinion with the remarker. I am inclined, however, to differ from both; and think, that the sentence should run thus: “Theism can be opposed to polytheism only, or atheism;” where the adverbonlyrefers to the noun immediately preceding, and is understood to the other, implying, that these two systems of belief are the only creeds to which theism can be opposed. If this be not the proper arrangement, it is obvious, that no definite rule can be given on the subject. For, if the adverb may be placed either before or after the substantive, to which it refers, then precision becomes impossible, and we may say, “he only” or “only he” to express the same sentiment; which collocations, I have already shown, denote ideas materially different. But, if there be a definite and precise rule for the position of this word, and if the sense be different, according to the collocation of the adverb, then I think it will appear, that it ought to be subjoined to the substantive or pronoun to which it refers; and this opinion is supported by the authority of Blair himself, in the examples which I have just now adduced. For why, unless on this principle, does he contend that the wordonlyshould be placed afterthe bulk of a single object? If the adverb then be, in this example, rightly placed after the substantive or complex name, to which it refers, it ought to have the same position assigned to it in every similar instance. That the adverb, in the last example, refers to “polytheism,” there can be no question; it should therefore follow, and not precede, it.
I am well aware, that many examples may be produced, wherein, with an arrangement different from that here recommended, the sense would, notwithstanding, be perfectly clear; and, perhaps, Blair’s collocation, in the last example,may be adduced as an instance. But when a rule, conducive to perspicuity, is once established, every unnecessary deviation from it should be studiously avoided, or, at least, not wantonly adopted.
The sentence, as it stands in Shaftesbury, implies that theism is capable of nothing, but of being opposed to polytheism, or atheism; “Theism can only (one thing, namely) be opposed to polytheism or atheism;” where it is evident thatonlyrefers tobe opposed, agreeably to the rule now given. In the same manner, if I say, “he was only great,” it is implied, that he was nothing but great, the adverb being placed before the attributive, to which it refers. Hence the question naturally is, what was he not besides? The answer may be, “not good,” “not wise,” “not learned.” Were the adverb placed after the pronoun, it would imply, that “he was the only person who was great.”[131]
I am perfectly aware, that the rule here given will not, in all cases, preclude ambiguity; but whenever it becomes doubtful, whether the adverb is intended to affect the preceding substantive, or the following attributive, a different form of expression may be adopted, and the use of theauxiliary, along with the principal verb, will, in many instances, ensure perspicuity. This expedient, however, cannot always be employed. If we say, “The manufacturer only was prosperous,” it may be uncertain, whether the adverb is to restrict the predicate “prosperous” to the manufacturer, implying that he was the only prosperous man, or to the verb expressing past time, signifying that he was then, but is not now prosperous. If the former be the meaning intended, we may say, “he was the only prosperous man;” if the latter, we may say, “the manufacturer was once,” or “was then, the only prosperous man.”
It would have contributed much to perspicuity, if authors had adopted one uniform practice, placing the adverb constantly, either before or after its subject, whether a substantive or an attributive[132]. But, where usage is so divided,and where the adoption of a new and general rule would be now liable to insuperable objections, all that can be successfully attempted is, in accommodation to existing circumstances, to reduce the evil within narrow limits, if we cannot, by any precise rule, entirely remove it. With this view we would recommend, that when the adverb refers not to a word, but to a sentence or clause, it be placed at the beginning of that sentence or clause; where it refers to a predicate, it precede the predicating term; and when it has a reference to a subject, it follow its name or description. An observation, however, already made, may be here repeated, namely, that in the last case, a different collocation may often be adopted without the risk of ambiguity, and even with advantage to the structure of the sentence.
Note10.—Adverbs, as Lowth observes, are generally placed before the adjective to which they refer. This rule, however, admits a few exceptions. The adverbenoughis always placed after its adjective, as, “the reward was small enough.” The proper position of this adverb, indeed, seems to be immediately after the adjective; it is frequently, however, placed at some distance from it, as, “a large house enough.” Usage is, indeed, somewhat divided on this point, Mr. Baker, and a few others, pleading for the following arrangement, “a large enough house.” The former collocation, however, seems far the more general; and is recommended by that rule, by which the substantive and adjective should be placed in juxta-position, or as near as possible to each other. The latter is defended by the principle, that the qualifying adverb should be placed close to the adjective, whose signification it modifies. This collocation is generally, however, pronounced a Scotticism; but it is not peculiar to Scotch writers.
Rule XXI.—Conjunctions have no government.
Note1.—In giving this rule, I differ from all other grammarians, who have erroneously, as I conceive, assigned them a regimen. Some conjunctions, says Lowth, govern the indicative, and some the subjunctive mood. This I affirm without hesitation to be a great mistake; for not a single example,I venture to assert, can be produced, in which the verb is divested of its indicative form, in consequence of its being subjoined to any conjunction. The Latins had a form of the verb, which they properly enough denominated the subjunctive mood; because, where the meaning was unconditionally assertive, they employed this form, if the clause was preceded by some particular conjunctive or adverbial term. Thus, when they said,adeo benevolus erat, ut omnes eum amarent, “he was so benevolent, that all men loved him,” though the assertion in the latter clause, be evidently unconditional, as the English shows, they changed the indicative into another form, because the verb is preceded by the conjunctionut. No similar example can be produced in English.Lowth informs us, that, when hypothesis, conditionality, or contingency is implied, the mood should be subjunctive; if certainty, or something determinate and absolute be signified, the verb should be indicative. Now surely, if the sense require a form different from the indicative, the verb cannot be said to be under the government of the conjunction; for the verb assumes that form, not because preceded by the conjunctive term, or because it is under its government, but because the sentiment to be expressed requires that phraseology. Whether the conditional, or what Lowth terms the subjunctive, be a distinct form of the verb, or only an elliptical mode of expression, we have already inquired. Seep. 126.Note2.—Mr. Harris says, that the chief difference between prepositions and conjunctions is, that the former couple words, and the latter sentences. This opinion is erroneous; for conjunctions frequently couple words, as in the following example: “A man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect character.” Here it is not implied, that “a man of wisdom is a perfect character;” but “a man of wisdom combined with virtue, or a man of wisdom and virtue.” That conjunctions, indeed, do not couple at all, in that sense, at least, in which grammarians have understood the term, Mr. Tooke seems to have incontestably proved. That they sometimes couple sentences, or that instances may be produced, in whichHarris’s definition will appear correct, the following example will serve as an evidence: “You, and I, and John rode to town;”i.e.“you rode,” “and I rode,” “and John rode.” But to assert, that this is their distinctive property, is to affirm what may be disproved by numberless examples. If we say, “two and two are four.” Are two four, and two four? “A B, B C, and C A, form a triangle.” Is A B a triangle? or B C? or C A? “John and Mary are a handsome couple.” Is John a couple? and Mary a couple? The common theory, therefore, is false; nor is it to be doubted, that conjunctions are, in respect to signification, and were originally in regard to their regimen, verbs, or words compounded of nouns and attributives. In explaining them, however, I divided them, as the reader may remember, into the several classes of adversative, concessive, conditional, &c. This I did, not only in conformity to general usage, and that he might not be a stranger to the names assigned to them; but likewise for this reason, that, though they originally formed no distinct species of words, but were either verbs, or compounds of nouns and verbs, they have now assumed another character, and are construed in a different manner. It is necessary, however, that he should be acquainted not only with their present use, but also with their primitive import, and classification.How these words were degraded from their original rank, and deemed insignificant, while some, perhaps, lost their syntactical power, is a matter, I conceive, of no difficult inquiry. For, when the verbs, to which any of these words belonged, became obsolete, the words themselves, thus separated from their parent stock, and stripped of that consequence and authority which they thence derived, their extraction becoming daily more dubious, and their original value more obscure, sunk by degrees into inferior note, and at last dwindled into comparative insignificance. Besides, many of them, doubtless, were transplanted into our language without theradices; their etymology, therefore, being little known, their primitive character, and real import, would soon be involved in increasing darkness.It is to be considered, also, that those who have dispensed the laws of grammar in our language, or assumed the office of critics, have been generally such as, though perhapssufficiently conversant in Greek and Latin, were entirely unacquainted with the Northern languages. Accustomed, therefore, to render the conjunctions and prepositions in Greek or Latin, by synonymous English words, and unacquainted with the true character of these vernacular terms, theiretymonsbeing obsolete, or having never been used in our language, it is easy to conceive how they would naturally assign to the English words the same character and the same name which were affixed to the synonymous Latin terms. Nay, this has been so much the case, that we have ascribed an ambiguous character to several English words, referring them now to one class, then to another, merely because they agree in signification with certain Greek and Latin terms, which have been severally referred by classical grammarians to different orders. That the wordwhetherhas uniformly, in our language, the same import and the same character, denoting “which of the two,” there can be no doubt; yet, because this word answers sometimes toan,anne,num, and sometimes touter, grammarians and lexicographers have accounted it both a conjunction and a pronoun.Utrumin Latin has shared the same fate. So far, indeed, has this spirit been carried, that we will not admitexcept,according,concerning,respecting, with many similar terms, to be verbs or participles, becausepræter,secundum,de, are prepositions. It is from this propensity to assimilate ours with the Latin language, that all these errors have arisen.That the words now termed prepositions and conjunctions were originally verbs, or nouns, or compounds of these, Tooke has, in my judgment, incontrovertibly proved. This being admitted, it appears to me highly probable, that they were primitively construed as such, joined either with the nominative or the objective case, as the verbs had either a transitive or intransitive meaning; and that they were followed by either single words or clauses. This, however, is merely conjecture, founded indeed in the nature of the words, but not supported by any evidence. In process of time, in consequence of that assimilation which naturally takes place between a living language and a dead one, much read, much written, and much admired, these words, when their origin became obscure, would, as I have remarked, be divested oftheir primitive character, and be considered as belonging to those classes, to which the synonymous Latin words were referred. Hence their regimen would likewise undergo a change. It would appear awkward and vicious to say now, “I saw nobody but he;” is not improbable, however, that the mode of expression was originally, “I saw nobody, be out he,”i.e.“he be out.” But I am now indulging in conjecture, the very error which chiefly has misled us in our grammatical researches. One thing, however, is certain, that several words, which were originally employed as prepositions or conjunctions indifferently, have now acquired a more fixed character, and are used but seldom in a double capacity. Of this the wordwithoutis an example. Thus, it was not unusual to say, “without you go, I will not,” where the term of exclusion, though in truth a preposition prefixed to a clause, was considered as a conjunction synonymous withnisi. This usage, unless in conversation, is now almost entirely relinquished; and the termwithoutis now generally employed as a preposition, being prefixed to single words. It is likewise certain that in respect to signification there is no difference between conjunctions and prepositions:vidi neminem nisi eum, is equivalent tovidi neminem præter eum. In like manner, “I saw nobody but him,” is synonymous with “I saw nobody besides him;” in which examples the conjunctionsnisiandbutare perfectly synonymous withpræterandbesides, which are termed prepositions.It may be asked, if then prepositions and conjunctions be alike verbs, or nouns, or compounds of these, and if many prepositions and conjunctions be in point of meaning identical, what forms the ground of distinction between them? It is simply this, that the former are prefixed to single words only, as nouns and pronouns, or to clauses involving an infinitive mood[133], the infinitive being strictly the name of the verb; and that they have a regimen; while the latter are prefixed to clauses, and have no regimen. This is the only distinction between prepositions and conjunctions as discriminated in modern use. Their original character is sufficiently established by Mr. Tooke.I have said that some of these words have, in our language, an ambiguous character, being employed both as prepositions and conjunctions. Of this the wordthanis an example. Priestley seems to consider it as a preposition, and pleads in favour of the following expression, “you are taller than him,” not “taller than he.” “Since it is allowed,” says the Doctor, “that the oblique case should follow prepositions, and since the comparative degree of an adjective, and the particlethan, have certainly between them the force of a preposition, expressing the relation of one word to another, they ought to require the oblique case of the pronoun following, so that,greater than mewill be more grammatical thangreater than I.” Here I cannot concur with the learned author. The same argument would prove thatmajor quam me, would be more grammatical thanmajor quam ego; a conclusion which is opposed by universal authority. The truth is,thanmust be either a conjunction or a preposition, or both. If a conjunction, it can have no government, any more than the Latinquam; unless we confound the distinction which has been just now explained, and is universally admitted, namely, that conjunctions are distinguished from prepositions, by their having no government. If it be a preposition, no argument is necessary to prove that it may be joined with an objective case; for such is the distinguishing character of prepositions. If it be either a preposition or a conjunction, it follows, that it may be construed either with or without a regimen. Lowth, with greater propriety, considers it as a conjunction; and Campbell, in his “Rhetoric,” recommends this usage as the only means of preventing that ambiguity, which necessarily arises from the employment of this word as a preposition only. For, if we use it as a preposition, we should say, “I love you better than him,” whether it be meant “I love you better than I love him,” or “I love you better than he does.” By using it as a conjunction, the ambiguity is prevented. For, if the former sentiment be implied, we say, “I love you better than him,”i.e.“than I love him;” if the latter, we say, “I love you better than he,”i.e.“than he loves you.” Whatever may have been the original character or syntax of this word, since usage is now divided, some writers employing it as a conjunction, and others as a preposition, the grammarianmay, consistently with his duty, plead for that usage only, which prevents ambiguity.The rule here recommended is generally violated, whenthanis joined with the relative pronoun, as, “Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.” “Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat.” Salmon has attempted to account for this almost universal phraseology, by saying, that the expression is elliptical, being the same as, “than compared with whom.” This explanation is forced and unnatural. It is likewise unnecessary. The simple fact is, that the wordthanwas formerly used as a preposition, and, I believe, more frequently than it is now. Hence, doubtless, arose this phraseology.
Note1.—In giving this rule, I differ from all other grammarians, who have erroneously, as I conceive, assigned them a regimen. Some conjunctions, says Lowth, govern the indicative, and some the subjunctive mood. This I affirm without hesitation to be a great mistake; for not a single example,I venture to assert, can be produced, in which the verb is divested of its indicative form, in consequence of its being subjoined to any conjunction. The Latins had a form of the verb, which they properly enough denominated the subjunctive mood; because, where the meaning was unconditionally assertive, they employed this form, if the clause was preceded by some particular conjunctive or adverbial term. Thus, when they said,adeo benevolus erat, ut omnes eum amarent, “he was so benevolent, that all men loved him,” though the assertion in the latter clause, be evidently unconditional, as the English shows, they changed the indicative into another form, because the verb is preceded by the conjunctionut. No similar example can be produced in English.
Lowth informs us, that, when hypothesis, conditionality, or contingency is implied, the mood should be subjunctive; if certainty, or something determinate and absolute be signified, the verb should be indicative. Now surely, if the sense require a form different from the indicative, the verb cannot be said to be under the government of the conjunction; for the verb assumes that form, not because preceded by the conjunctive term, or because it is under its government, but because the sentiment to be expressed requires that phraseology. Whether the conditional, or what Lowth terms the subjunctive, be a distinct form of the verb, or only an elliptical mode of expression, we have already inquired. Seep. 126.
Note2.—Mr. Harris says, that the chief difference between prepositions and conjunctions is, that the former couple words, and the latter sentences. This opinion is erroneous; for conjunctions frequently couple words, as in the following example: “A man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect character.” Here it is not implied, that “a man of wisdom is a perfect character;” but “a man of wisdom combined with virtue, or a man of wisdom and virtue.” That conjunctions, indeed, do not couple at all, in that sense, at least, in which grammarians have understood the term, Mr. Tooke seems to have incontestably proved. That they sometimes couple sentences, or that instances may be produced, in whichHarris’s definition will appear correct, the following example will serve as an evidence: “You, and I, and John rode to town;”i.e.“you rode,” “and I rode,” “and John rode.” But to assert, that this is their distinctive property, is to affirm what may be disproved by numberless examples. If we say, “two and two are four.” Are two four, and two four? “A B, B C, and C A, form a triangle.” Is A B a triangle? or B C? or C A? “John and Mary are a handsome couple.” Is John a couple? and Mary a couple? The common theory, therefore, is false; nor is it to be doubted, that conjunctions are, in respect to signification, and were originally in regard to their regimen, verbs, or words compounded of nouns and attributives. In explaining them, however, I divided them, as the reader may remember, into the several classes of adversative, concessive, conditional, &c. This I did, not only in conformity to general usage, and that he might not be a stranger to the names assigned to them; but likewise for this reason, that, though they originally formed no distinct species of words, but were either verbs, or compounds of nouns and verbs, they have now assumed another character, and are construed in a different manner. It is necessary, however, that he should be acquainted not only with their present use, but also with their primitive import, and classification.
How these words were degraded from their original rank, and deemed insignificant, while some, perhaps, lost their syntactical power, is a matter, I conceive, of no difficult inquiry. For, when the verbs, to which any of these words belonged, became obsolete, the words themselves, thus separated from their parent stock, and stripped of that consequence and authority which they thence derived, their extraction becoming daily more dubious, and their original value more obscure, sunk by degrees into inferior note, and at last dwindled into comparative insignificance. Besides, many of them, doubtless, were transplanted into our language without theradices; their etymology, therefore, being little known, their primitive character, and real import, would soon be involved in increasing darkness.
It is to be considered, also, that those who have dispensed the laws of grammar in our language, or assumed the office of critics, have been generally such as, though perhapssufficiently conversant in Greek and Latin, were entirely unacquainted with the Northern languages. Accustomed, therefore, to render the conjunctions and prepositions in Greek or Latin, by synonymous English words, and unacquainted with the true character of these vernacular terms, theiretymonsbeing obsolete, or having never been used in our language, it is easy to conceive how they would naturally assign to the English words the same character and the same name which were affixed to the synonymous Latin terms. Nay, this has been so much the case, that we have ascribed an ambiguous character to several English words, referring them now to one class, then to another, merely because they agree in signification with certain Greek and Latin terms, which have been severally referred by classical grammarians to different orders. That the wordwhetherhas uniformly, in our language, the same import and the same character, denoting “which of the two,” there can be no doubt; yet, because this word answers sometimes toan,anne,num, and sometimes touter, grammarians and lexicographers have accounted it both a conjunction and a pronoun.Utrumin Latin has shared the same fate. So far, indeed, has this spirit been carried, that we will not admitexcept,according,concerning,respecting, with many similar terms, to be verbs or participles, becausepræter,secundum,de, are prepositions. It is from this propensity to assimilate ours with the Latin language, that all these errors have arisen.
That the words now termed prepositions and conjunctions were originally verbs, or nouns, or compounds of these, Tooke has, in my judgment, incontrovertibly proved. This being admitted, it appears to me highly probable, that they were primitively construed as such, joined either with the nominative or the objective case, as the verbs had either a transitive or intransitive meaning; and that they were followed by either single words or clauses. This, however, is merely conjecture, founded indeed in the nature of the words, but not supported by any evidence. In process of time, in consequence of that assimilation which naturally takes place between a living language and a dead one, much read, much written, and much admired, these words, when their origin became obscure, would, as I have remarked, be divested oftheir primitive character, and be considered as belonging to those classes, to which the synonymous Latin words were referred. Hence their regimen would likewise undergo a change. It would appear awkward and vicious to say now, “I saw nobody but he;” is not improbable, however, that the mode of expression was originally, “I saw nobody, be out he,”i.e.“he be out.” But I am now indulging in conjecture, the very error which chiefly has misled us in our grammatical researches. One thing, however, is certain, that several words, which were originally employed as prepositions or conjunctions indifferently, have now acquired a more fixed character, and are used but seldom in a double capacity. Of this the wordwithoutis an example. Thus, it was not unusual to say, “without you go, I will not,” where the term of exclusion, though in truth a preposition prefixed to a clause, was considered as a conjunction synonymous withnisi. This usage, unless in conversation, is now almost entirely relinquished; and the termwithoutis now generally employed as a preposition, being prefixed to single words. It is likewise certain that in respect to signification there is no difference between conjunctions and prepositions:vidi neminem nisi eum, is equivalent tovidi neminem præter eum. In like manner, “I saw nobody but him,” is synonymous with “I saw nobody besides him;” in which examples the conjunctionsnisiandbutare perfectly synonymous withpræterandbesides, which are termed prepositions.
It may be asked, if then prepositions and conjunctions be alike verbs, or nouns, or compounds of these, and if many prepositions and conjunctions be in point of meaning identical, what forms the ground of distinction between them? It is simply this, that the former are prefixed to single words only, as nouns and pronouns, or to clauses involving an infinitive mood[133], the infinitive being strictly the name of the verb; and that they have a regimen; while the latter are prefixed to clauses, and have no regimen. This is the only distinction between prepositions and conjunctions as discriminated in modern use. Their original character is sufficiently established by Mr. Tooke.
I have said that some of these words have, in our language, an ambiguous character, being employed both as prepositions and conjunctions. Of this the wordthanis an example. Priestley seems to consider it as a preposition, and pleads in favour of the following expression, “you are taller than him,” not “taller than he.” “Since it is allowed,” says the Doctor, “that the oblique case should follow prepositions, and since the comparative degree of an adjective, and the particlethan, have certainly between them the force of a preposition, expressing the relation of one word to another, they ought to require the oblique case of the pronoun following, so that,greater than mewill be more grammatical thangreater than I.” Here I cannot concur with the learned author. The same argument would prove thatmajor quam me, would be more grammatical thanmajor quam ego; a conclusion which is opposed by universal authority. The truth is,thanmust be either a conjunction or a preposition, or both. If a conjunction, it can have no government, any more than the Latinquam; unless we confound the distinction which has been just now explained, and is universally admitted, namely, that conjunctions are distinguished from prepositions, by their having no government. If it be a preposition, no argument is necessary to prove that it may be joined with an objective case; for such is the distinguishing character of prepositions. If it be either a preposition or a conjunction, it follows, that it may be construed either with or without a regimen. Lowth, with greater propriety, considers it as a conjunction; and Campbell, in his “Rhetoric,” recommends this usage as the only means of preventing that ambiguity, which necessarily arises from the employment of this word as a preposition only. For, if we use it as a preposition, we should say, “I love you better than him,” whether it be meant “I love you better than I love him,” or “I love you better than he does.” By using it as a conjunction, the ambiguity is prevented. For, if the former sentiment be implied, we say, “I love you better than him,”i.e.“than I love him;” if the latter, we say, “I love you better than he,”i.e.“than he loves you.” Whatever may have been the original character or syntax of this word, since usage is now divided, some writers employing it as a conjunction, and others as a preposition, the grammarianmay, consistently with his duty, plead for that usage only, which prevents ambiguity.
The rule here recommended is generally violated, whenthanis joined with the relative pronoun, as, “Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.” “Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat.” Salmon has attempted to account for this almost universal phraseology, by saying, that the expression is elliptical, being the same as, “than compared with whom.” This explanation is forced and unnatural. It is likewise unnecessary. The simple fact is, that the wordthanwas formerly used as a preposition, and, I believe, more frequently than it is now. Hence, doubtless, arose this phraseology.
Rule XXII.—Derivatives are generally construed like their primitives; as, “it was a happy thingforthis country, that the Pretender was defeated;” or “happilyforthis country the Pretender was defeated.” Thus also, “to comparewith,” and “in comparisonwithriches;”—“to dependon,” and his “dependence on the court.”
Rule XXIII.—One negative destroys another; or two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative; as, “nor have I no money, which I can spare;” that is, “I have money, which I can spare.”—“Nor was the king unacquainted with his designs;” that is, “he was acquainted.”
Note1.—Here our language accords with the Latin. In Greek and French, two negatives render the negation stronger.Note2.—This rule is violated in such examples as this, “Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes.” It should beany more.
Note1.—Here our language accords with the Latin. In Greek and French, two negatives render the negation stronger.
Note2.—This rule is violated in such examples as this, “Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes.” It should beany more.
Rule XXIV.—Interjections are joined with the objective case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the nominative of the pronoun of the second, as, “ah me,” “oh me,” “ah thou wretch,” “O thou who dwellest.”
Syntaxbeing that part of grammar, which teaches rules not only for the concord and government, but also for the order of words in clauses and sentences, I shall subjoin the few following brief directions for the guidance of the scholar, respecting arrangement.1st. The collocation should never invert the natural order of events, or violate the principles of reason and metaphysical propriety. It is obvious, for example, that no person can write, who cannot read. The ability to do the former necessarily implies a capacity to do the latter. It is preposterous, therefore, to say with Addison, “There will be few in the next generation, who will not at least be able to write and read.” He should have said, “to read and write.” “He was the son of a mother, who had nursed him with maternal tenderness, and had borne him in an hour of the deepest affliction.” The natural order of events should have dictated the reverse arrangement. There would be a manifest impropriety in saying “Our father is well, and alive;” the former state necessarily implying the latter. In the following passage, however, it is perhaps excusable, the answers particularly corresponding to the questions: Joseph says to his brothers, “Is your father well? The old man, of whom ye spake, is he yet alive?” They answer, “Thy servant, our father, is in good health; he is yet alive.” This error was termed by the ancient grammarianshysteron proteron; and, though not so palpably as in the preceding examples, it occurs much more frequently than an inattentive reader is apt to imagine.2nd. The English language admits but few inflexions, and therefore little or no room for variety of arrangement. The connection of one word with another is not to be perceived, as in Greek and Latin, by correspondence of termination, but by relative position. This renders it indispensably necessary, that those words which are intimately related by sense one to another, should be closely connected by collocation. “The cunning of Hannibal was too powerful for the Pergamenians, who by the same kind of stratagem had frequently obtained great victories at land.” The relative here, by its position, must be understood as referring to the Pergamenians; whereas it is intended to refer to Hannibal. Therelative clause, therefore, should have followed the name of the Carthaginian. “His picture, in distemper, of calumny, borrowed from the description of one painted by Apelles, was supposed to be a satire on that cardinal.”—Walpole.The error here is obvious. He should have said, “His picture of calumny.” “It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our heavenly Father.”—Sherlock.Here the grammatical antecedent istreasures; but it is intended to beaccidents. The relative is removed from its proper subject.3rd. As the converse of the preceding rule, it may be observed, that those words should be separated, which in juxta-position may, at first sight, or first hearing, possibly convey a meaning which the speaker or writer does not intend. “I, like a well-bred man, who is never disposed to mortify or to offend, praised both sorts of food.” As the two introductory words are capable of two meanings, would it not be better to say, “Like a well-bred man ... I praised both sorts of food.” I am aware, that the other collocation is preferable, where a particular stress is to be laid on the principal subject; but ambiguity is an error, which should be studiously avoided, and the meaning should not be left to the determination of a comma.4th. From the preceding rules, it follows as a corollary, that no clause should be so placed in a sentence, as to be referable either to what precedes, or what follows. “The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house,on the death of his mother, ordered all the apartments to be flung open.” The clause in italics is ambiguously placed.5th. When each of two arrangements is equally favourable to perspicuity, and equally consistent with metaphysical propriety, that should be preferred which is the more agreeable to the ear.6th. Harsh and abrupt cadences should be avoided; and in elevated style, the clauses should swell towards the close of the sentence. This latter rule, however, which requires some limitations, belongs to the province of the rhetorician, rather than to that of the grammarian.
Syntaxbeing that part of grammar, which teaches rules not only for the concord and government, but also for the order of words in clauses and sentences, I shall subjoin the few following brief directions for the guidance of the scholar, respecting arrangement.
1st. The collocation should never invert the natural order of events, or violate the principles of reason and metaphysical propriety. It is obvious, for example, that no person can write, who cannot read. The ability to do the former necessarily implies a capacity to do the latter. It is preposterous, therefore, to say with Addison, “There will be few in the next generation, who will not at least be able to write and read.” He should have said, “to read and write.” “He was the son of a mother, who had nursed him with maternal tenderness, and had borne him in an hour of the deepest affliction.” The natural order of events should have dictated the reverse arrangement. There would be a manifest impropriety in saying “Our father is well, and alive;” the former state necessarily implying the latter. In the following passage, however, it is perhaps excusable, the answers particularly corresponding to the questions: Joseph says to his brothers, “Is your father well? The old man, of whom ye spake, is he yet alive?” They answer, “Thy servant, our father, is in good health; he is yet alive.” This error was termed by the ancient grammarianshysteron proteron; and, though not so palpably as in the preceding examples, it occurs much more frequently than an inattentive reader is apt to imagine.
2nd. The English language admits but few inflexions, and therefore little or no room for variety of arrangement. The connection of one word with another is not to be perceived, as in Greek and Latin, by correspondence of termination, but by relative position. This renders it indispensably necessary, that those words which are intimately related by sense one to another, should be closely connected by collocation. “The cunning of Hannibal was too powerful for the Pergamenians, who by the same kind of stratagem had frequently obtained great victories at land.” The relative here, by its position, must be understood as referring to the Pergamenians; whereas it is intended to refer to Hannibal. Therelative clause, therefore, should have followed the name of the Carthaginian. “His picture, in distemper, of calumny, borrowed from the description of one painted by Apelles, was supposed to be a satire on that cardinal.”—Walpole.The error here is obvious. He should have said, “His picture of calumny.” “It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our heavenly Father.”—Sherlock.Here the grammatical antecedent istreasures; but it is intended to beaccidents. The relative is removed from its proper subject.
3rd. As the converse of the preceding rule, it may be observed, that those words should be separated, which in juxta-position may, at first sight, or first hearing, possibly convey a meaning which the speaker or writer does not intend. “I, like a well-bred man, who is never disposed to mortify or to offend, praised both sorts of food.” As the two introductory words are capable of two meanings, would it not be better to say, “Like a well-bred man ... I praised both sorts of food.” I am aware, that the other collocation is preferable, where a particular stress is to be laid on the principal subject; but ambiguity is an error, which should be studiously avoided, and the meaning should not be left to the determination of a comma.
4th. From the preceding rules, it follows as a corollary, that no clause should be so placed in a sentence, as to be referable either to what precedes, or what follows. “The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house,on the death of his mother, ordered all the apartments to be flung open.” The clause in italics is ambiguously placed.
5th. When each of two arrangements is equally favourable to perspicuity, and equally consistent with metaphysical propriety, that should be preferred which is the more agreeable to the ear.
6th. Harsh and abrupt cadences should be avoided; and in elevated style, the clauses should swell towards the close of the sentence. This latter rule, however, which requires some limitations, belongs to the province of the rhetorician, rather than to that of the grammarian.