Chapter 7

(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal defilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on clean clothes and perform the wazú, then he should say: "I make ghusl to put away impurity." All being ready he should wash himself in the following order. He must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the left three times and, lastly, on his headalso the same number of times. The three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water be put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one hair even is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All other particulars are sunnat or mustahab.

There are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a purification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be given here. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the subject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islám how much the Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions have raised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest importance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islám is not to be denied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer depends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is useless unless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make men formalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making wazú washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth, he cannot lawfully say the daily Namáz enjoined on all Muslims. None but those who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the puerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial, but which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learned Muslims of great importance.

(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the following circumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of one kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of water might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring danger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of the Namáz of a Feast day or the Namáz at a funeral, the worshipper is late and has no time to perform the wazú. On ordinary days this substitution of tayammum for wazú is not allowable.

The ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: "I make tayammum to put away impurity;" then, "I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. I commence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises are in the religion of Islám." He then strikes the sand with open hands, rubs his mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair must be left untouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts are to make the intention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. "If ye are sick, or on a journey, or if one of you come from the place of retirement, or if ye have touched women, and ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your faces and your hands with it." (Súra v. 9.)

Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be used for purification. The following kinds of water are lawful:—rain, sea, river, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The first kind is authorized by the Qurán. "He sent you down water from heaven that He might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass from you." (Súra viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned by the Traditions. I give one illustration. A man one daycameto the Prophet and said: "I am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of fresh water; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none wherewith to quench my thirst, may I use sea water?" The Prophet replied: "The water of the sea is pure." Tirmízí states that this is a Hadís-i-Sahíh. Great difference of opinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water, and so renders it unfit for ablutions. It would be wearisome to the reader to enter into all details, but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox, it is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into flowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used, provided always that the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is for this reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits square. If ofthat size, it is called adah dar dah, (literally 10 x 10). It may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about one foot deep.

The necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence the Namáz.

(4). Salát or Namáz. The Namáz can be said either in private or in public. All that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshipper should be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that the face be turned towards Mecca. Whether the Namáz is said in public or in private, it must be preceded by wazú, except when tayammum is allowed. If the Namáz[188]is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious than repeating it in private, it must be preceded by the Azán, or call to prayers, and the Iqámat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in which the Musallí, one who says the Salát, must stand and the words he is to say are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some idea of a Namáz, or Service.[189]

The Mu,azzin[190]calls out loudly in Arabic:—

"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar[191]!"

All who hear it respond:—

"Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar! Alláhu Akbar!"

The Mu,azzin says:—

"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God."

Each of his auditors replies:—

"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God."

Mu,azzin:—"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God."

Auditor:—"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God."

Mu,azzin:—"Come to prayer."

Auditor:—"I have no power or strength but from God most High and Great."

Mu,azzin:—"Come to do good."

Auditor:—"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not be."

If it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds the words: "Prayer is better than sleep," to which the response is given: "Thou hast spoken well." "Alláhu Akbar," and "There is no God but God" are then repeated twice and so the Azán ends.

The Iqámat (literally, "causing to stand") is a repetition of the Azán, but after the words, "come to do good," the statement "prayer has commenced" is made.

These preliminaries being now over, the Namáz can commence. It is as follows:

The Musallí, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side and says in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):—

"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this morning (or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the case may be) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may be)."

Then follows the Takbír-i-Tahrímah, said with the thumbs touching the lobes of the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. The fingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position the Musallí says:—"Alláhu Akbar!"

The Qíám, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being placed on the back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former seize the wrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the navel,[192]the eyes aredirected towards the spot where the head of the worshipper will touch the ground in prostration, and the Saná is said. It is:—

"Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee!Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness!There is no God but Thee!"

"Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee!

Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness!

There is no God but Thee!"

The Ta'awwuz is then said:—

"I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan."

Then follows the Tasmíyah:—

"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful."

Then follows the Fátiha,[193]or first chapter of the Qurán:—

"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the Merciful! King on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do we cry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of those to whom Thou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and who go not astray."

After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Qurán as he likes.[194]Some verses he must repeat.

The Súrat-ul-Ikhlás (Súra 112) is generally said:—

"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is not begotten; and there is none like unto Him."

The Takbír-i-rukú'—Alláhu Akbar!—is said whilst the Musallí makes an inclination of the head and body, and separating the fingers a little, places his hands upon his knees.

The Tasbíh-i-rukú' is said in the same position. It is:—

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"

The Tasmía' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands placed on either side. Thus:—

"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised[195]."

The Takbír-i-Sijdar—Alláhu Akbar!—is said as the worshipper drops on his knees.

The Musallí then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers close to each other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on the side of the feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touch the side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. The eyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches the ground first with his nose, and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touch the lobe of the ears.[196]All this being carefully attended to, the Musallí can say the Tasbíh-i-Sijda thus:—

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!"

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!

I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!"

He then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, places his hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says the Takbír-i-Jalsa[197]—"Alláhu Akbar!"

After a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and the Takbír-i-Sijda and the Tasbíh-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when in the act of rising up the Musallí says the Takbír-i-Qíám—"Alláhu Akbar!"

This concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fátiha, so that after saying the Takbír-i-Qíám a Musallí would have to begin again at that place (p.195) and repeat all that he had just finished; the only change being that after the Fátiha, he recites different verses of the Qurán to those he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have been said, and after the last, though it be an odd number, theMusallí, unless he is a Shía'h, places his left foot under him and sits upon it. He then places his hands above his knees, as for the Takbír-i-Jalsa, and with his eyes directed towards his lap says the Attahíyát:—

"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of the body, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous servants!"

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says the Tashahhud[198]:—

"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad is the servant of God and the messenger of God."

Then at the end of all the rak'ats the Musallí, whilst in the same posture, says the Darúd:—

"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants[199]; as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou art great. O God! bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless Abraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great."

Then comes the Du'á, which may be in the worshipper's own words though he usually says[200]:—

"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings of life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell."

Then turning the head to the right the Musallí repeats the Salám:—

"The peace and mercy of God be with you."

Then turning the head to the left he says:—

"The peace and mercy of God be with you."

At the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raiseshis hands as high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his own face, and offers up a Munáját, or supplication, either in Arabic or in the vernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey the blessing received from above to every part of the body.

The appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which the following text is quoted: "Glorify God when ye reach the evening (masá), and when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the heavens and in the earth,—and at twilight ('ashí) and when ye rest at noon (zuhr)." (Súra xxx. 17). The Commentators say that masá includes both sunset and the period after sunset; that is both the Salát-ul-Maghrib and the Salát-ul-'Ishá. There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in the following verse: "Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of the day, and at the approach of night." (Súra xi. 116).

These daily Namáz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are those distinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of prayer.

Sunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is said the Prophet repeated them.

Witr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be said after the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually they are added to the Salát-ul-'Ishá. Imám Abu Hanífa says they are wájib, that is ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the Qurán, but by Traditions each of which is generally received as a Hadís-i-Sahíh, and so witr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority. Imám Sháfa'í, however, considers them to be sunnat only, a term already explained.

The Traditions referred to are: "God has added to your Namáz one Namáz more: know that it is witr, say it between the Salát-ul-'Ishá and dawn." On the authority of Buzár, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophetsaid: "Witr is wájib upon Muslims," and in order to enforce the practice he added: "Witr is right, he who does not observe it is not my follower." The Prophet, the Companions, the Tába'ín and the Taba-i-Tába'ín all observed it. The word witr literally means "odd number." A Tradition says: "God is odd, He loves the odd." (Alláhu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra). Musalmáns pay the greatest respect to an odd number. It is considered unlucky to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a day, the date of which is an even number. The number of lines in a page of a book is nearly always an odd number.

Nafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab, or meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must be understood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. They simply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have already given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the five daily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service I have described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he observes the three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five more rak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual to omit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount of repetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very mechanical.

A Muslim who ventured to say that a Namáz might be recited in Hindustani was publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras on Friday, February 13th, 1880.[201]

The table on the next page will make the matter clear.[202]The optional Sunnat rak'ats are called'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnat rak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said.

No.

Time.

The names of the time of prayer.

The number of rak'ats said.

Arabic.

Persian.

Urdu.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(a) Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'. (b) Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'. (c) Farz. (d) Sunnat after Farz. (e) Nafl. (f) Witr.

The five periods of prayer.

From dawn to sunrise.

Salát-ul-Fajr.

Namáz-i-Subh.

Fajr Kí Namáz.

When the sun has begun to decline.

Salát-uz-Zuhr.

Namáz-i-Peshín.

Zuhr Kí Namáz.

Midway between No. 2 and 4.

Salát-ul-'Asr.

Namáz-i-Dígar.

'Asr Kí Namáz.

A few minutes after sunset.

Salát-ul-Maghrib.

Namáz-i-Shám.

Maghrib Kí Namáz.

When the night has closed in.

Salát-ul-'Ishá.

Namáz-i-Khuftan.

'Ishá Kí Namáz.

7[203]

Three periods which are voluntary.

When the sun has well risen.

Salát-ul-Ishráq.

Namúz-i-Ishráq.

Ishráq Kí Namáz.

About 11 o'clockA.M.

Salát-uz-Zuhá.

Namáz-i-Chast.

Zuhá Kí Namáz.

After mid-night.

Salát-ut-Tahajjud.

Namáz-i-Tahajjud.

Tahajjud Kí Namáz.

In addition to these there are several kinds of Namáz which have to be said at different times, or under special circumstances.

(i). Salát-ul-Juma'—The Friday Namáz. This is a farz duty. It has the threefold authority of the Qurán, the Sunnat, and the Ijmá'. Thus: "O ye who believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on theday of the assembly(Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit your traffic." (Súra lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said: "Juma' is farz," and, "God will make a mark on the heart of him who misses the Salát-ul-Juma'[204]." There are, however, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent,viz: a traveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a madperson, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which make this Namáz obligatory are:—

(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qází (judge) dwells.

(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy.

(3). It must take the place of the Salát-uz-Zuhr, with which it agrees, except that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The nafl rak'ats are omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the two which follow the farz ones are said.

(4). One, or according to the followers of Imám Sháfa'í two Khutbas, or sermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imám after the four sunnat rak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba should consist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety.

(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imám. The Sháfa'ítes say there should be at least forty worshippers.

(6). The Azán, or call to prayers, must be made to all without distinction of rank.

Any person who is qualified to act as Imám at the other prayers can conduct this Namáz. The Imám and Khatíb (preacher) is usually, but not necessarily, one and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad said that long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy of the latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imám sits down to rest before the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then offer up a Du'á, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is bid'at, (innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to the Traditionists, Bukhárí, Abu Dáúd and Tirmízí, it is a mustahab act to wear clean clothes on Friday.

The preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, with a large club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon.[205]

The following is a specimen of the Khutbas.

SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY.In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has opened our hearts through the blessing of Islám. He has made Friday the best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him, his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God! that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Míká,íl the Khatíb, Isráfíl the Imám and 'Izrá,íl the Mukabbir[206]and all the angels join in the Namáz. When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to me as Mu,azzin to the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islám;" Míká,íl: "I give mine to the Khatíbs;" Isráfíl: "I give mine to the Imáms;" 'Izrá,íl: "I give mine to the Mukabbirs." The angels say: "We give ours to the company of the Muslims." The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr."Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Qurán, the Word of God,—the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and righteous. When thou readest the Qurán say: "O God! protect me from cursed Satan."In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful."When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it, will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares. God is the best provider.'" (Súra lxii. 9-11.) Godby means of the Holy Qurán will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal, Holy, Clement.

SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has opened our hearts through the blessing of Islám. He has made Friday the best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him, his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I advise you and my own soul thus: "Obey God!" Know, O servants of God! that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven, and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Míká,íl the Khatíb, Isráfíl the Imám and 'Izrá,íl the Mukabbir[206]and all the angels join in the Namáz. When it is over Gabriel says: "I give the reward due to me as Mu,azzin to the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islám;" Míká,íl: "I give mine to the Khatíbs;" Isráfíl: "I give mine to the Imáms;" 'Izrá,íl: "I give mine to the Mukabbirs." The angels say: "We give ours to the company of the Muslims." The Prophet said: "The night and day of Friday last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr."

Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Qurán, the Word of God,—the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and righteous. When thou readest the Qurán say: "O God! protect me from cursed Satan."

In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.

"When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it, will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares. God is the best provider.'" (Súra lxii. 9-11.) Godby means of the Holy Qurán will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal, Holy, Clement.

Here ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences the second.

In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sáhib-ul-Ghár,[207]and with Omar Ibn-ul-Khattáb, the chief of the holy men; and with Osmán the possessor of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Qurán, and upon 'Alí Murtuzá, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased with the great Imáms Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbás, the uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Asháb (Companions). O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!"

In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one. He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sáhib-ul-Ghár,[207]and with Omar Ibn-ul-Khattáb, the chief of the holy men; and with Osmán the possessor of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Qurán, and upon 'Alí Murtuzá, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased with the great Imáms Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbás, the uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Asháb (Companions). O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!"

The collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translated contains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer, the resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. The form in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion are practically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the special subject of the sermon. The second of the twosermons is always the same; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. Both are said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as an explanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in the Qurán, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be done in an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moollá, or any learned man who could collect an audience.

(ii). Salát-ul-Musáfir.—Prayers said by a traveller. A person who makes a journey which lasts three days or three nights is, for this purpose, considered a traveller.[208]The length of a day's journey is estimated at the distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a traveller intends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat the usual Namáz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the journey, he can shorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats. He may omit the sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the three witr rak'ats he must recite at the Salát-ul-'Ishá. If a traveller passing through a place is, for the time being, the most suitable person to act as Imám, he being a traveller will only recite two rak'ats. The rest of the worshippers then complete the Namáz. In the case where a permanent resident of the place is the Imám and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imám is bound to recite the whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the whole after him. The principle on which this is based is that the worshippers must not recite less than the Imám.[209]

(iii). Salát-ul-Khauf.—Prayers of fear. This is a Namáz said during the time of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemy the Imám should divide the army into two bodies; one of which should be placed in a position towards the enemy, the other should recite, if they are on the march, one rak'at; if stationaryin a place, two rak'ats. This division will then march towards the enemy and the first division will recite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namáz. The Salám (Ante. p.197) will be recited by the Imám alone. The first division of troops will not say the qir,at,i.e.the Fátiha and the other verses of the Qurán recited after it (Ante. p.195); but the second division will supply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not dismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, and make the rukú' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards the Qibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction most convenient. During the recital of the Namáz he must not fight, or allow his horse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. "When ye go forth to war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers, if ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the infidels are your undoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be among them, and shalt pray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, but let them take their arms; and when they shall have made their prostrations, let them retire to your rear: then let another party that hath not prayed come forward, and let them pray with you." (Súra iv. 102, 103).

(iv). Salát-ut-Taráwíh.—This is a special set of twenty rak'ats recited every night during the month of Ramazán. They must be said after the farz and sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the Salát-ul-'Ishá. The Salát-ut-Taráwíh is considered of sunnat obligation. The practice dates from the time of the Khalíf Omar. Abd-ur-Rahmán, a Traditionist, states that one night in Ramazán he went with Omar to the Mosque. They saw some persons saying the Namáz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar said: "If I gather them all together, so that they may recite it after one Imám it will be good." He did so, and the next night the people of their own accord came in great numbers and united together. Then said Omar: "thisbid'at is good." This is good authority for the institution, for the Prophet said: "Follow my Sunnat and that of the Khulafá-i-Rashídín." There is also a Hadís-i-Sahíh to the effect that "God has made the fast of Ramazán farz, and its qíám[210]sunnat." (Kutiba 'alaikum síámu Ramazána wa sunna qíámuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tiráwíh Namáz should become farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two successive nights in Ramazán, he stayed away on the third, giving as his reason for so doing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered a farz and not a sunnat duty.[211]The number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty, as that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalíf Omar. The Shía'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on such occasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the four Khalífs—the first three of whom they hate.

(v). Salát-ul-Kusúf and Salát-ul-Khusúf—Prayer said when an eclipse of the sun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the Imám recites with the congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azán and the Iqámat are both omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one rukú' is read. The Sháfa'ítes read two. After the rak'ats are completed those present remain in prayer (Du'á) until the eclipse is at an end. The Namáz during an eclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, with this exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation. Each Muslim can say the Namáz privately in his own house. The practice is founded on the Prophet's saying: "When you see an eclipse then remember God, pray (Du'á) and recite the Namáz until it becomes light again."

(vi). Salát-ul-Istisqá.—Prayer in time of drought. Whenthere is a scarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer up prayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be taken that no Zimmí[212]is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer for a blessing; but God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmí is present.

These prayers are simple Du'á and not a Namáz. There is no well-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said Namáz on such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made Du'á. This is a very good example of the use of the term Salát as aMushtarikword,i.e.one which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning is Namáz; here it means Du'á.

(vii). Salát-ul-Janáza.—Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is about to die, the attendants should place him on his right side with his face Qibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the "Kalima-i-Shahádat," the creed of testimony: "I confess that God is one, without a partner; that truly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle." After death has taken place, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumed anoddnumber of times. A tradition states that an odd number is fixed upon, because the number one which represents the unity of God is odd and not even. The lesser lustration (wazú) is then made. The head and beard are washed with a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greater lustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used when making sijda (prostration)i.e., forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbed with camphor.

To recite the Salát-ul-Janáza is a duty called Farz-i-kifáya, that is, if some few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if no one repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namáz is farz the following verse is quoted: "Take alms of their substance, that thou mayestcleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them; for thy prayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, knoweth." (Súra ix. 104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain (i.e., incumbent on all), but Farz-i-kifáya is drawn from an account given in a Hadís, to the effect that the Prophet one day did not recite the Namáz over one of his deceased followers. Now, if the Namáz had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet could not have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of the farz command contained in the verse of the Qurán just quoted.

The Namáz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited in the open space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: never in the graveyard.

When all are assembled the Imám or leader says: "Here begins the Namáz for the dead."

The company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the direction of Mecca. The Imám stands a little in front, near the head or waist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then all assume the Qíám, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows:—

"I recite Namáz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'á) for this deceased person, and I follow the Imám (who is about to officiate.)"

Then all at the first[213]Takbír put the hands to the lobe of the ears and say: "God is Great!"

Then they say the Saná (Ante, p.195.):—

"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! Great is Thy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but Thee!"

Then follows the second Takbír: "God is Great!"

Then all say the Darud-i-Ibráhím:—

"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness uponAbraham and upon his descendants." "Thou art praised, and Thou art Great!" "O God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless, and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants."

Then follows the third Takbír: "God is Great!"

The Du'á is then repeated:—

"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those o£ us who are present, and those who are absent, and our children and our full grown persons, our men and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep alive in Islám, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the Faith."[214]

Then follows the fourth Takbír: "God is Great!"

Then all say:—

"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thy mercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell."

Then each one in a low voice says the Salám, as in an ordinary Namáz. (Ante, p.197.)[215]

The Namáz is now over and the people make another Du'á thus:—

"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast once guided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art He who giveth.' (Súra iii. 6.) O God, Thou art his[216]Master, and Thou createdst him, and Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islám, and Thou hast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life. Provide intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, the most Merciful."

Then going towards the head of the corpse, they say:—

"No doubt is there about this Book (Qurán.) It is a guidance to the God-fearing, who believe in the unseen,[217]who observe prayer (salát), and out of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe in that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath been sent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: these are guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well." (Súra ii. 1-4).

Then coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:—

"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his Lord, as do the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and His Books and His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His Apostles.[218]And they say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; for unto Thee must we return.' God will not burden any soul beyond its power. It shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for the acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if we forget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like that which Thou hast laid on those who have been before us[219]; O our Lord! and lay not on us that for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins and forgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victory therefore over the infidel nations." (Súra ii. 285, 286).

The chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Ámm, that is, he says:—

"All have permission to depart."

Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard. When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, the people say:—

"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the Prophet."

If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of the grave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkir and Nakír come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in the lower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a position that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the face towards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people say:—

"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us not in trouble."

Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says; "Bismilláh" (in the name of God), and the Súrat-ul-Iklás (Súra cxii) and then places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or boards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons present with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The first time they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second time, "and into it will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it will We bring you a second time." (Súra xx. 57).

Then they say this Du'á: "O God I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not to trouble the deceased."

When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:—

"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments of the grave."

When the grave is completely filled up, one man pourswater three, or five, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.[220]

One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the Talqín (instruction):—

"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God.

O son of (such an one),[221]remember the faith you professed on earth to the very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but God, and that certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment, and say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islám my religion, Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Qurán my guide, the K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O God, keep him (the deceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination (by Munkir and Nakír) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thou most Merciful."

The other persons present then offer a Fátiha.[222]

After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Súrat-ul-Yá Sín (xxxvi) and the Súrat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fátiha, for by this time the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is one of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally that night in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two nafl rak'ats of a Namáz should be said. After the Fátiha in each rak'at the worshipper should repeat the Áyat-ul-Kursí(Throne-verse)[223]three times; then the Súrat-ut-Takísur (102) eleven times; then the Súrat-ul-Iklás (112) three times.

After the Salám and the Darúd the worshipper lifts up both hands, and with great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be bestowed on the deceased.

(viii). Salát-ul-Istikhára.—This is a Namáz said before undertaking any special work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he says the following Du'á: "O God, make me know what is best for me, and keep me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what is best for me." He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects to receive a special inspiration (Ilhám) which will give him the needed directions and guide him aright as to the matter in hand.

(ix). Salát-ut-Taráwih.—This consists of twenty rak'ats recited each evening during the month of Ramazán. An account of these will be given in the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazán fast are described.

3.Roza, the thirty days' fast of Ramazán.—Fasting is defined to be abstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There must also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should say: "O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and future sin." When the fast is ended he says: "O God I fasted for Thy sake and had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftár) the fast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act."

It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazán. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you." "As to the month Ramazán, in which the Qurán was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of thatillumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Súra ii. 179-181). The Ijmá' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time. "He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days. God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil the number of days." (Súra ii. 181). This is called a qazá fast, that is, a fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted.

If a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will fast (roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed (roza-i-kafára), in both cases it is a wájib duty to keep the fast. Some hold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse: "Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them pay their vows." (Súra xxii. 30).

All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p.199). Such are the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyám-i-Bíz (bright days)—the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'abán, that is, the day following the night called Shab-Barát, and on the 30th of each month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the person who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. According to Bukhárí, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her husband. The reverse is not the case, for "Men are superior to women on account of the qualities with which God hath gifted the one above the other, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for them." (Súra iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophet and said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him for doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent from heaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of the inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words "chide those(wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them into beds apart, and scourge them." It is mustahab to fast some days in the month Shawwál, for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps the fast of Ramazán and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwál, it is as if his whole life were a fast."

If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person who declares that Ramazán has commenced. Imám Sháfa'í requires two, but the following Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the Prophet and said: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believe that there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His Apostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billál, the Mu,azzin, said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'" This proves that the evidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter.

The fast is destroyed in the following cases:—if when cleansing the teeth a little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten under compulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose or a wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it was night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazán fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night a portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in a cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a qazá fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken.

In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atone for his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot be done, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, he must give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such meals daily for sixty days.

The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, byapplying antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by kissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things during the day-time. The Imám As-Sháfa'í declared that it was very wrong indeed to do either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the following Tradition handed down by Tabrání. "The Prophet said: 'when you fast, cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him who fasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day of judgment.'"

If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast, he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion is based on a sentence in the Qurán, which has caused a good deal of dispute: "As for those who are able (to keep it and yet break it), the expiation of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." (Súra ii. 180). This seems to make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admit that at first it was so, but they say that the words have been abrogated[224]by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse: "As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." Others say that the negative particle "not" must be understood before "able," in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explain the expression "those who are able" as equivalent to "those who have great difficulty therein," such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be the best interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on.

In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children, sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it is sufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when convenient make a qazá fast.In these cases the sadqa or feeding of the poor is not required. Thus Abu Dáúd says: "The Prophet said, 'God allows travellers to shorten the Namáz and to postpone the fast. Women also are allowed to fast another time.'" The Qurán is also clear on the point: "He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days." (Súra ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to fast. These are, 'Íd-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'íd and the three following days,viz: the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazán, a person arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keep the fast during the remaining days of the month.

To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of Ramazán, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhárí, Muslim and Tirmízí, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is a blessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of the Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra."

The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftár, or the breaking of the fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruit is not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as the fruit with which the fast should be broken.

The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast during the day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of its rigour.

They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must be done in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalmán world is strongly against a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast of Ramazán. In this matter it may be said

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