VIIEPILOGUE

Plate LXXXVIII.THE VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACEAlinari

Plate LXXXVIII.THE VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE

Alinari

Ideal Republic. Before they have gone very far it is evident, and indeed it is admitted, that such a state as they envisage cannot exist upon earth, though it may be laid up in the heavens for an example. It is a small Greek city-state. Plato discerns three elements in every state, the producers, the warriors, and the thinking element. Of these he makes three rigid classes, though education, upon the importance of which Plato everywhere insists, is to provide the means of rising for all. Music and gymnastics are the twofold base of Platonic education. The thinking part of the community are to have the sole title to government. They are to live a simple communistic life, rather like the nobles of Sparta, but without their military activity. In order that nothing may disturb their absolute unity, Plato decrees that wives and children are to be held in common, as well as all property. These strange doctrines have caused Plato to be held as the father of Socialism, but it is to be observed that in Plato communism is only advocated for a restricted circle of aristocrats, and that it is based not upon economic considerations, but on ethics in a spirit of asceticism. In a later dialogue Plato regretfully admits that laws are necessary to a state, seeing that you cannot keep your philosophers on the throne when you have got them there. This admission may be occasioned by the failure of Plato to realise his ideals in actual practice. He had an extraordinary chance. He was invited over to Syracuse to mould the character and policy of the young tyrant Dionysius II. He argued that it was useless to place an ideal system of government before a young man who was not of sufficient education to appreciate it. He therefore determined to begin with the education of the prince, and began it with geometry. The issue may be easily guessed.

Aristotle approached Politics from a more practical standpoint. True to his inductive method, he first collected accounts of all the existing forms of government in the Greek world, more than a hundred in number. Unfortunately, the “Polity of Athens,” recently discovered, is the only surviving example. Then in his great treatise called “The Politics” he attempted tocriticise practical statesmanship from a scientific standpoint, and in his turn also constructed something like an ideal state. For him, as for all Greek thinkers, politics was only a branch of ethics. The state came into existence for the sake of enabling men to live; it survives for the purpose of enabling men to live well. The object, therefore, of the statesman is to get the right kind of people at the head of affairs—and that means Aristocracy. Viewing all Greek society from the philosopher’s standpoint, he regarded all those whose economic position required them to be mainly interested in gaining a livelihood as too much preoccupied with sordid cares to possess political virtue or to be fit to govern. His governing class is therefore necessarily the rich class, just as it was with Plato, though neither philosopher would admit wealth as the sole or even the main criterion. Aristotle regards Monarchy as a good form of government also, if you could secure that the monarch should be better than the people he rules, and should rule for their advantage, not his own. There is also a good form of Republic or Free Constitution, in which the whole body of the citizens take their turn in office. But each of these three sound forms of government has its own special danger—Aristocracy degenerates into Oligarchy when the few rule for their own advantage, Monarchy into Tyranny, and the Free Constitution into Democracy.

It is evident in all his writings that he regards the Athenian government as a bad one, but we must remember that he only saw it in its decline. The most valuable part of his teaching is that wherein he defines the state as a partnership, not in all things, but only in those things which concern itstelos—the good life. Also, it is made up, not of individuals, but of smaller partnerships such as the family. It is on these grounds that he criticises the doctrine of communism. Since the whole object of political life is to secure moral completeness, it is obvious that the citizen does not surrender his whole being to the state. Thus both philosophers are alike in putting aside the claims of the working classes, who, it must not be forgotten, largely

Plate LXXXIX.STATUE OF ARISTOTLEAnderson

Plate LXXXIX.STATUE OF ARISTOTLE

Anderson

consisted of slaves. Both are therefore aristocratic. Both look upon the state as existing for moral rather than economic ends. Both regard the laws and constitution as something sacred and clearly beyond the reach of the citizens. Neither of them has conceived the idea of political progress, which, indeed, is an idea of very modern origin. Such was the philosophic ideal of the city-state, in some respects better and in some respects worse than our own.

After Aristotle Greek political thinkers took up and developed the hints he drops as to the Mixed Constitution, in which the three elements Monarchic, Aristocratic, and Democratic are to be subtly mingled as they were in Sparta and Rome.

Other schools of philosophy arose at Athens which from their more vital influence upon the lives and actions of ordinary men are quite as important in the history of human civilisation. Zeno founded in the Stoa Poikile of Athens the Stoic philosophy, and Epicurus taught the doctrines which bore his name, at the same time when Aristotle was lecturing in the Lyceum and the successor of Plato in the Academy. Both were largely concerned with the rules for right conduct in life. The Stoics taught that wisdom and virtue are the true goal of man. Virtue consists in living according to Nature, and it becomes the business of the wise man to discover what is essential and distinguish it from what is merely accidental and ephemeral. Pleasure, praise, even life itself, are among things accidental. At its best Stoicism insisted very sternly upon duty, and the contempt of pain and death. In this way it seized upon all that was noblest in the Roman character and raised up under the Empire a series of martyrs who alone withstood the tyrants because they were not afraid of death. It approaches the sublime in the mouths of Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus. Filtering through the Asiatic temperament and mingling in its course with the higher teaching of Pharisaism, it did much to form the philosophy of a certain Jew of Tarsus, and through him has vitally influenced Christianity. In anothersphere its insistence upon Natural Law bore fruit in Roman jurisprudence and lies at the base of all the legal systems of Europe.

Epicurus, on the other hand, made pleasure the end of life, not the mere bodily pleasure with which his name has been associated, but that which in the sum of its moments goes to form what we call happiness. It was necessary to happiness that men should cast off all the degrading fears born of superstition and know that the gods—if indeed gods exist—are too much occupied themselves in enjoying celestial happiness to condescend to punish and afflict the mortals under their feet. So the Epicureans accepted a material theory, largely due to Democritus, which explained the universe on atomic principles. Death was merely the resolution of body and soul into its primordial atoms. The less noble spirits among them undoubtedly taught the maxim “Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die,” but in such a mind as that of the Roman poet Lucretius Epicureanism is a fine and lofty thing, with its fearless spirit of inquiry and its bitter scorn of superstition.

We should mention also the Cynics, whose chief teacher was Diogenes, for they inculcated a contempt for pleasure and an asceticism which led some of them to live a hermit life, or, like mendicant friars, to carry neither staff nor scrip and to take no thought for their raiment. Needless to say, Cynicism never became a popular doctrine.

It is evident, then, that intellectual life was still in full vigour at Athens in the third century. But there was a weakening already visible. These Greeks could still think clearly, even nobly, but it was not until they made Roman converts that noble thoughts could be translated into noble action. As for the Greeks, their restless tongues and subtle brains carried them away into logic-chopping and childish love of paradox. There was a day when Athens sent on an embassy to Rome the three heads of her chief schools of philosophy. Their brilliant discourses charmed and amazedthe simple Romans. Carneades proved that virtue was profitable, and the Romans were delighted. On the next day he proved that it was unprofitable, and the Romans were astonished. Cato, however, the truest Roman of them all, thought that Rome was better without such brilliant visitors. And he was probably right.

ἡ πόλις ἡμῶν ... τὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὄνομα πεποίηκεμηκέτι τοῦ γένους ἀλλὰ τῆς διανοίας δοκεῖν εἶναι.Isocrates.

IT was, according to Isocrates, the fruit of the activity of Athens that Hellas had ceased to be a geographical expression and had become the definition of an intellectual standpoint. In that very true sense Greek history cannot close. It falls into chapters which are ever to be continued as soon as man begins to think again. Whosoever from the beginning of his action already contemplates its final end and adapts his means thereto in earnest simplicity, whosoever knows that pride and vain ostentation will assuredly bring its own punishment, of whatever land or age he may be, he is a Greek. In that sense we cannot close Greek history. Greece, as Juvenal said in a very hackneyed phrase, vanquished the Roman, her barbarian conqueror, and the Roman took up the mission of extending Hellenism over the West. The history of Roman civilisation only begins in the second century, when Rome was first brought into contact with Greece. Elsewhere I hope we shall see how Greek culture permeated everything at Rome after that, supplied her with art and literature, taught her philosophy, overlaid and almost destroyed her native religion, and even wrote her history. Losing Hellas, Europe sank into ages of darkness: recovering her, the European nations began to think again.Shakespeare we trace through the Latins to Menander, Milton through Vergil to Homer and Theocritus, Bacon to Aristotle, Sir Thomas More to Plato, and so with the others. So that every one who reads books or enjoys art in Europe to-day is indirectly borrowing from Greece.

Moreover, it is fairly obvious that Greece has not ceased to exist as a geographical expression. The more we study modern Greece, the more we are convinced that the Hellenic race is by no means extinct. Greece was, it is true, conquered by the Romans in 146B.C.They had been forced partly by the aggression of Pyrrhus and partly by the expansion of their own empire to take some action in the Eastern Mediterranean. There they found themselves physically as men among children, intellectually as children among men. Nothing is more striking than the almost reverent spirit in which the Roman soldiers first moved about among the old cities of Greece. But the Greeks were impossible neighbours, and at last, after infinite forbearance, the Romans were compelled by their masculine sense of order to take the responsibility of controlling Greece. Corinth was destroyed for a warning, Macedonia made a province. But cities like Athens and Sparta were left to govern themselves, though, of course, their foreign policy was subject to Roman control. Athens still continued to talk and write and teach. She became a sort of university town to which noble Romans were sent for their studies. Even when Achaia was added to the list of Roman provinces in the days of Augustus it did not mean that Athens ceased to be a free city. In the days of the Empire the more cultured emperors, like Nero and Hadrian, loved to pass their time in Greece, in the attempt to share in her intellectual prestige. So we have Nero performing in the Olympian Games, and Hadrian rebuilding a large part of Athens. It was Hadrian who attempted to complete the gigantic temple of Olympian Zeus begun by Peisistratus. The Athenian schools of philosophy continued to attract strangers from all parts of the world, until Christianity began to see its bitterest foe in the Stoics, who taught many of its doctrines.Julian the Apostate dreamed for a moment of reviving Greek philosophy, so as to overcome Christianity by borrowing many of its doctrines, but at last a decree of Justinian closed the Athenian schools of philosophy inA.D.529. Meanwhile clouds of barbarian invaders were continually passing over the land. The Goths ravaged Greece under Alaric. The Slavs conquered and peopled a great part of it without, in the long run, materially altering its nationality. Norman invaders conquered it, and not long before our own conquest Harold Hardrada entered Athens in triumph. Then came the Latin crusaders and Venetians. All through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there were Frankish Dukes of Athens. In 1456 the Caliph Omar conquered her, and thenceforth, with a temporary period of Venetian triumph, the Turks ruled Greece with a heavy hand until the glorious War of Independence, in which Lord Byron played a part of prophet and warrior. In 1830 Greece was declared an independent kingdom, and shortly afterwards provided with a youthful European king from Bavaria. The experiment was not a success. The Greeks succeeded in getting rid of one king, and Europe obligingly furnished another from her inexhaustible stock of younger sons. Even yet the bed of a Greek king is not altogether a bed of roses. In 1897 the little kingdom plunged into a war with her big neighbour, Turkey, for which she lacked resources and organisation. Her flanks were turned, her armies miserably routed, and she lost a great deal of the credit she had won in the War of Independence. But her true element is still, as it was in ancient times, the sea.

We have already seen that Greek art still crops out in occasional masterpieces down to imperial times. With literature this is still more the case. Long after the best of Roman literature was over and done with, Greece kept putting forth new products. The Greek novel, for example, in Lucian and Heliodorus is something entirely fresh and of great importance in literary history. The biographies of Plutarch are a new departure; so are the guide-books of such writers as Pausanias.

Plate XC.THE PORTLAND VASEMansell & Co.

Plate XC.THE PORTLAND VASE

Mansell & Co.

The case of Lucian, in particular, shows that a Syrian of the second centuryA.D.could write in pure Attic Greek. In him we have the prototype of Swift and Sterne, a brilliant mocker and a creative genius. With him Greek literature expired laughing.

It only remains to glance at the decadence of Greek art and to see what form it took. The Romans, when they plundered and sacked Corinth, transported enormous quantities of plunder to Rome, and a taste for Greek art quickly sprang up among the wealthy senators. To meet their tastes, Greek artists were set to work. Some of their works, in the form of portraits, we shall meet again when we come to deal with Rome. Greek architects also evolved a Græco-Roman style, in which they blended, sometimes with the happiest results, massive Roman strength with Greek elegance and grace. In minor crafts such as gem-engraving Greek artists continued to produce exquisite work for the Roman market. The famous Portland Vase is a good example of this sort of work.[115]Although the material is glass, it is genuine cameo-engraving, and must have involved infinite labour. The material of the vase was composed of two layers of glass, white over dark blue, and then the white was ground away by hand, so as to leave the design in white upon the blue background, a scheme of decoration imitated with great success by the Wedgwood artists. It is one of the tragedies of the British Museum that this priceless treasure was smashed to pieces by an insane visitor. It has, however, been repaired with great skill. In the Greek cities of South Italy where the taste of the patrons remained Greek we find preserved, as at Pompeii and Herculaneum, works thoroughly Greek in all branches of art, produced at various dates down to the first centuryA.D.Given good taste in the patron, Greek artists did not cease to be capable of fine art.

But every national virtue has its characteristic defect which will come to the surface as soon as the stimulus of national self-respect is removed. A strong conquering breed is apt to

The Laocoön Group

become cruel and vicious when it loses the power to conquer. A sensitive, artistic people is prone to sensuality and weakness in its latter days. An industrous commercial race degenerates into sordid greed. That is why a loss of national pride is such a serious loss in history. A characteristic virtue of the Greeks was, as we have seen, their supple facility of intellect, their

Plate XCI.THE FARNESE BULLBrogi

Plate XCI.THE FARNESE BULL

Brogi

adaptability to environment. This made them, in the days of their decline, sink readily to the position of flatterers and parasites. We find this character attached to the “Hungry Greekling” of Juvenal’s days. In history we meet him as the hanger-on of aristocracy or the crafty tool of emperors. The Romans started as a virile race of warriors, and ended as brutal gluttons with a craving for sensationalism, which the Greeks were only too ready to supply. Hence we get Græco-Roman art in the worst sense of the term, wretched stuff made by sneaks to satisfy the taste of bullies. Most of the sculpture galleries of Europe can supply examples. The Vatican and the Naples Museum are full of them. In the nineteenth century, when the taste of Europe had sunk to its lowest depth of artificiality, work of this kind appealed very strongly to critics. It is only fair to them to say that they had not much opportunity of knowing better, since genuine Greek work of the best periods was mostly lying below the surface unexcavated. Out of this mass of inferior material critics picked one or two examples for admiration. Even great men like Lessing and Winckelmann based excellent maxims of criticism on these rotten foundations. The “Laocoön,” a sensational work by Rhodian sculptors of the first centuryB.C., was taken by Lessing as the text of his great discourse on the proper functions of the arts. We, on the other hand, can see that this tangled triangle of writhing forms expressing violent emotion of pain and terror has a theatrical and sensational character abhorrent to the very spirit of Greek moderation. Exactly the same is true of the two Farnese masterpieces, the Bull[116]and the Hercules. Such facts as these give one cause to ponder on the mutability of taste and the fallibility of artistic criticism. Restlessness, the symptom of nerves overwrought, is a feature of decadence, which we can observe in the late Greek vase-paintings. The spaces are covered with trivial ornament, the drawing is slack, the sole aim is prettiness. The vigour of the composition is frittered away upon trivial details.In short, the name of the disease from which Greek art was to perish is Vulgarity. Idealism without romanticism was the secret of Greek art at its best. When we find romance without ideals we have reached the nadir.

Late Greek Vase-painting: from aPelikein the British Museum.

THE PRAYING BOYMansell & Co.

THE PRAYING BOY

Mansell & Co.

For explanation of words marked A refer to the architectural diagrams on page 107.

Acroterion, A.Ægis, a breastplate adorned with the head of a Gorgon and a fringe of serpents, an attribute of Zeus and Athena.Agora, market-place.Amphictyony, neighbouring states grouped in a religious union.Amphiprostyle, a building with columned porch at both ends.Aniconic, without images, an early stage of religion.Anthropomorphism, the religious habit of representing gods as men.Architrave, A.Archon, a ruler or magistrate; a board of nine at Athens.Aretē, virtue; strictly, the quality of a man.Aulētris, female player on the clarinets.Βασιλεἴς, kings or chiefs.Caduceus, the snake-wreathed wand carried by Hermes.Caryatid, a column carved to represent a maiden.Cella, the nave or main chamber of a temple.Chiton, a tunic fastened on the left shoulder.Chlamys, a short mantle worn by Spartans and soldiers.Chthonic animism, worship of subterranean spirits, generally including cult of the dead and of the reproductive powers of Nature.Choregus, the man who equipped a chorus for a stage play; generally a man of wealth on whom this duty was laid as a sort of tax.Chryselephantine, made of gold and ivory.Decadrachm, a coin of ten drachms (francs).Deme, a parish.Dōma, house-place, resembling the medieval hall.Ecclesia, the Athenian assembly.Echinus, A.Entablature, that part of a classical building which rests upon the columns and supports the roof; it includes architrave and frieze.Entasis, a system of optical correction employed in Greek architecture (see page 161).Ephebus, a youth of about eighteen.Ephorate, the board of “overseers” at Sparta.ἦθος, character, spiritual quality.Gerousia, Senate and senators of Sparta.Gerontes, Senate and senators of Sparta.Guttæ, A.Harmosts, Spartan governors of conquered cities.Hegemony, leadership, undefined suzerainty.Hexastyle, with six columns.Hierophant, a priest of the mysteries.Hoplites, heavy armed infantry.In antis, columns at the end of a building, between the ends of the side walls produced, are said to be in antis.Iconic, with images, a stage of religious worship.Kuanos, a blue transparent paste, resembling glass.Kylix, a goblet.Lecythus, oil-jar, a certain shape of Greek pottery.Liturgy, a public duty imposed as a tax upon the rich.Megaron, hall.Metopes, A.Palæstra, wrestling-ground.Parabasis, an ode sung by the chorus in Greek drama at their entrance on the stage.Peplos, a long female robe or mantle.Perioikoi, neighbours, the second class in the Spartan caste system.Peripteral, surrounded with colonnades.Peristyle, the colonnades surrounding a building.Pictographic script, a form of writing in which the symbols are rudimentary pictures.Pnyx, a hill at Athens, where the Assembly met.Prodomos, fore-court.Satrap, a Persian viceroy.Skolion, a drinking-song in which the guests took part in turns.Stasis, civil strife, party-feeling, treason.Stēlē, a monument in the form of an erect slab, a gravestone.Strategoi, generals, an Athenian magistracy.Strigil, an instrument used by athletes for scraping off the oil and sand of the palæstra.Stylobate, the floor from which the columns rise (A).Telos, goal or end in view.Thalamos, inner chamber, bed-chamber of the master of the house.Thalassocracy, maritime supremacy.Tholos, a vault or dome, any round building.Triglyphs, A.Xoanon, an image mainly in the form of a tree-trunk.

Acroterion, A.

Ægis, a breastplate adorned with the head of a Gorgon and a fringe of serpents, an attribute of Zeus and Athena.

Agora, market-place.

Amphictyony, neighbouring states grouped in a religious union.

Amphiprostyle, a building with columned porch at both ends.

Aniconic, without images, an early stage of religion.

Anthropomorphism, the religious habit of representing gods as men.

Architrave, A.

Archon, a ruler or magistrate; a board of nine at Athens.

Aretē, virtue; strictly, the quality of a man.

Aulētris, female player on the clarinets.

Βασιλεἴς, kings or chiefs.

Caduceus, the snake-wreathed wand carried by Hermes.

Caryatid, a column carved to represent a maiden.

Cella, the nave or main chamber of a temple.

Chiton, a tunic fastened on the left shoulder.

Chlamys, a short mantle worn by Spartans and soldiers.

Chthonic animism, worship of subterranean spirits, generally including cult of the dead and of the reproductive powers of Nature.

Choregus, the man who equipped a chorus for a stage play; generally a man of wealth on whom this duty was laid as a sort of tax.

Chryselephantine, made of gold and ivory.

Decadrachm, a coin of ten drachms (francs).

Deme, a parish.

Dōma, house-place, resembling the medieval hall.

Ecclesia, the Athenian assembly.

Echinus, A.

Entablature, that part of a classical building which rests upon the columns and supports the roof; it includes architrave and frieze.

Entasis, a system of optical correction employed in Greek architecture (see page 161).

Ephebus, a youth of about eighteen.

Ephorate, the board of “overseers” at Sparta.

ἦθος, character, spiritual quality.

Gerousia, Senate and senators of Sparta.

Gerontes, Senate and senators of Sparta.

Guttæ, A.

Harmosts, Spartan governors of conquered cities.

Hegemony, leadership, undefined suzerainty.

Hexastyle, with six columns.

Hierophant, a priest of the mysteries.

Hoplites, heavy armed infantry.

In antis, columns at the end of a building, between the ends of the side walls produced, are said to be in antis.

Iconic, with images, a stage of religious worship.

Kuanos, a blue transparent paste, resembling glass.

Kylix, a goblet.

Lecythus, oil-jar, a certain shape of Greek pottery.

Liturgy, a public duty imposed as a tax upon the rich.

Megaron, hall.

Metopes, A.

Palæstra, wrestling-ground.

Parabasis, an ode sung by the chorus in Greek drama at their entrance on the stage.

Peplos, a long female robe or mantle.

Perioikoi, neighbours, the second class in the Spartan caste system.

Peripteral, surrounded with colonnades.

Peristyle, the colonnades surrounding a building.

Pictographic script, a form of writing in which the symbols are rudimentary pictures.

Pnyx, a hill at Athens, where the Assembly met.

Prodomos, fore-court.

Satrap, a Persian viceroy.

Skolion, a drinking-song in which the guests took part in turns.

Stasis, civil strife, party-feeling, treason.

Stēlē, a monument in the form of an erect slab, a gravestone.

Strategoi, generals, an Athenian magistracy.

Strigil, an instrument used by athletes for scraping off the oil and sand of the palæstra.

Stylobate, the floor from which the columns rise (A).

Telos, goal or end in view.

Thalamos, inner chamber, bed-chamber of the master of the house.

Thalassocracy, maritime supremacy.

Tholos, a vault or dome, any round building.

Triglyphs, A.

Xoanon, an image mainly in the form of a tree-trunk.

[The following list of books will serve two purposes, as a guide to the reader who wishes to inquire further on any special point, and as an acknowledgment of some of the obligations of the writer. Only works in English are here included.]

General Histories of Greece

Bury, Professor J. B.A History of Greece. Macmillan.

The most up-to-date “student’s history”; copiously illustrated; a storehouse of facts in narrow compass.

Grote, G.History of Greece. From the Earliest Times to the Death of Alexander. 10 vols. Murray.

Holm, Adolf.The History of Greece from its Commencement to the Close of the Independence of the Greek Nation. Translated by F. Clarke. 4 vols. Macmillan.

Short chapters with elaborate notes, written from a liberal and sympathetic point of view.

Special Works on the Early Periods

Burrows, Professor R. M.The Discoveries in Crete and their Bearing on the History of Ancient Civilisation. Murray.

Evans, Sir Arthur.Principal work of, is to be found in the Annuals of the British School at Athens. Macmillan.

Grundy, Dr. G. B.The Great Persian War and its Preliminaries. A Study of the Evidence, Literary and Topographical. Murray.

Lang, Andrew.Homer and his Age. Longmans.

Mosso, Angelo.The Palaces of Crete and their Builders. Fisher Unwin.

Murray, Professor Gilbert.The Rise of the Greek Epic. Clarendon Press.

Ridgeway, Professor W.The Early Age of Greece. 2 vols. Cambridge University Press.

—— Minos the Destroyer rather than the Creator of the so-called Minoan Culture of Cnossos. (A lecture delivered before the British Academy, May 26, 1909.)

Politics

Barker, E.The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle. Methuen.

Fowler, W. Warde.The City State of the Greeks and Romans. Macmillan.

Greenidge, A. H. J.A Handbook of Greek Constitutional History. Macmillan.

Whibley, L.Greek Oligarchies: their Organisation and Character. Methuen.

—— Political Parties in Athens during the Peloponnesian War. Prince Consort Dissertation. 1888. Cambridge University Press.

Mythology and Religion

Farnell, L. R.The Cults of the Greek States. 5 vols. Clarendon Press.

Frazer, J. G.Adonis, Attis, Osiris. Macmillan.

Harrison, Jane E., andVerrall, M. de G.Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens. 1890.

Lawson, J. C.Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion. Cambridge University Press.

Reinach, Salomon.Orpheus. A General History of Religions. Heinemann.

Sculpture and Art

Gardner, Professor E. A.A Handbook of Greek Sculpture. New Edition, with Appendix. In two Parts; Appendix separately. Macmillan.

Jones, H. Stuart.Select Passages from Ancient Writers, Illustrative of the History of Greek Sculpture. Macmillan.

Murray, A. S.A Handbook of Greek Archæology. Murray.

Perrot and Chipiez.History of Art in Primitive Greece. 2 vols. Chapman and Hall.

Waldstein, Charles.Essays on the Art of Pheidias. Cambridge University Press.

Walters, H. B.Greek Art. Methuen.

—— The Art of the Greeks. Methuen.

Coinage

Head, B. V.Historia Numorum. A Manual of Greek Numismatics. Clarendon Press.

Hill, G. F.Greek and Roman Coins. Macmillan.

Bronzes

Murray, A. S.Greek Bronzes. Seeley.

British Museum Catalogue.

Vases

British Museum Catalogues: Greek and Etruscan, White Athenian Vases.

Literature

Jebb, Sir Richard.A Primer of Greek Literature. Macmillan.

Jevons, F. B.A History of Greek Literature from the Earliest Period to the Death of Demosthenes. Griffin.

Topography, Social Life, &c.

Baedeker’sGreece. Fisher Unwin.

Becker, W. A.Charicles: or, Illustrations of the Private Life of the Ancient Greeks. Translated by the Rev. F. Metcalfe. Longmans.

Frazer, J. G.Pausanias’ Description of Greece. 6 vols. Macmillan.

Freeman, K. J.Schools of Hellas. Macmillan.

Gardiner, E. Norman.Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals. Macmillan.

A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Z

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