Footnote 290:Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, § 7-10; Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 93-104.(Back)
Footnote 291:Art. 19. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 332.(Back)
Footnote 292:A. Lebon, La constitution allemande et l'hégémonie prussienne, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Jan., 1887.(Back)
Footnote 293:Arts. 61, 63, 64. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 345-347.(Back)
Footnote 294:The first of the Prussian military treaties, that concluded with Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, dates from 1861; the last, that with Brunswick, from 1885.(Back)
Footnote 295:Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 12; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 95-113; C. Morhain, De l'empire allemand (Paris, 1886), Chap. 15.(Back)
Footnote 296:Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 11-13.(Back)
Footnote 297:Art. 78. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 351.(Back)
Footnote 298:Art.ii. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330. It will be observed that the title is not "Emperor of Germany." The phrase selected was intended to denote that the Emperor is onlyprimus inter paresin a confederation of territorial sovereigns (Landesherren.) He is a territorial sovereign only in Prussia.(Back)
Footnote 299:Arts. 53-58 of the Prussian Constitution. See p.253.(Back)
Footnote 300:R. C. Brooks, Lèse Majesté, inThe Bookman, June, 1904.(Back)
Footnote 301:Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 12; Laband, Deutsches Reichsstaatsrecht, 345-359.(Back)
Footnote 302:Art. II. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330.(Back)
Footnote 303:Art. II, clause 3. Dodd, I., 331.(Back)
Footnote 304:Art. 12. Ibid.(Back)
Footnote 305:"The laws of the Empire shall receive their binding force by Imperial promulgation, through the medium of an Imperial Gazette. If no other time is designated for the published law to take effect it shall become effective on the fourteenth day after its publication in the Imperial Gazette at Berlin." Art. 2. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 326.(Back)
Footnote 306:Art. 19. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 332.(Back)
Footnote 307:Art. 18. Ibid.(Back)
Footnote 308:Art. 19. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 332. On the status and functions of the German Emperor see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 3; J. W. Burgess, The German Emperor, inPolitical Science Quarterly, June, 1888; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 24-26; ibid., Das deutsche Kaiserthum (Strassburg, 1896); R. Fischer, Das Recht des deutschen Kaisers (Berlin, 1895); K. Binding, Die rechtliche Stellung des Kaisers (Dresden, 1898); R. Steinbach, Die rechtliche Stellung des deutschen Kaisers verglichen mit des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (Leipzig, 1903).(Back)
Footnote 309:Arts. 15 and 17. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 331.(Back)
Footnote 310:For an excellent discussion of this general subject see W. J. Shepard, Tendencies toward Ministerial Responsibility in Germany, inAmerican Political Science Review, Feb., 1911. In the course of an impassioned speech in the Reichstag in 1912, occasioned by a storm of protest against the Emperor's alleged threat to withdraw the newly granted constitution of Alsace-Lorraine, Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg stated the theory and fact of the office which he holds in these sentences: "No situation has been created for which I cannot take the responsibility. As long as I stand in this place I shield the Emperor (trete ich vor den Kaiser). This not for courtiers' considerations, of which I know nothing, but as in duty bound. When I cannot satisfy this my duty you will see me no more in this place."(Back)
Footnote 311:Art. 15, cl. 2. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 331.(Back)
Footnote 312:At the same time it is to be observed that, in practice, the more important state secretaries are apt to sustain a relation with the other organs of government which is somewhat closer than might be inferred from what has been said. Not infrequently they sit in the Bundesrath, and are by reason of that fact privileged to defend their measures in person on the floor of the Reichstag. Not infrequently, too, they are members of the Prussian ministry.(Back)
Footnote 313:Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 41, 64-66.(Back)
Footnote 314:The law of 1878 was enacted on the occasion of Bismarck's prolonged absence from Berlin, during his retirement at Varzin. AGeneralstellvertretertakes the title ofReichsvicekanzler, or Imperial Vice-Chancellor.(Back)
Footnote 315:On the status and functions of the Chancellor see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 7; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, § 40; L. Dupriez, Les ministres dans les principaux pays d'Europe et d'Amérique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1892), I., 483-548; Hensel, Die stellung des Reichskanzlers nach dem Staatsrechte des deutschen Reiches, in Hirth,Annalen des deutschen Reiches, 1882; M. I. Tambaro, La transformation des pouvoirs en Allemagne, inRevue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1910.(Back)
Footnote 316:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 259.(Back)
Footnote 317:Under the Alsace-Lorraine Constitution Act of 1911 (see p.285), comprising for all practical purposes an amendment of the Imperial constitution, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has become nominally a state of the Empire, being accorded three votes in the Bundesrath. The whole number of votes was thus raised to sixty-one. The Alsatian delegates are appointed by the Statthalter, who is the immediate and responsible agent of the Emperor. Their votes are cast, however, under regulations which are inconsistent with full-fledged statehood.(Back)
Footnote 318:Art. 10. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330.(Back)
Footnote 319:Arts. 13 and 14. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 331.(Back)
Footnote 320:Art. 5. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 328.(Back)
Footnote 321:Art. 8. Ibid., I., 330. Strictly, the Bundesrath but indicates by ballot the states which shall be represented on each committee, leaving to the states themselves the right to name their representatives.(Back)
Footnote 322:Art. 5. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 328.(Back)
Footnote 323:Art. 7. Dodd, I., 329.(Back)
Footnote 324:Arts. 9 and 24. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330-333. It should be observed, however, that the members of the Bundesrath are authorized to appear in the Reichstag, not for the purpose of advocating a measure which the Bundesrath has enacted, or would be willing to enact, but simply to voice the interests or demands of their own states.(Back)
Footnote 325:Art. 77. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 350.(Back)
Footnote 326:Art. 76. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 350. On the Bundesrath see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 4; J. H. Robinson, The German Bundesrath, inPublications of University of Pennsylvania, III. (Philadelphia, 1891); P. Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 27-31; A. Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 137-151; Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 505-523; Zorn, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, I., 136-160; E. Kliemke, Die Staatsrechtliche Natur und Stellung des Bundesrathes (Berlin, 1894); A. Herwegen, Reichsverfassung und Bundesrat (Cologne, 1902).(Back)
Footnote 327:The term, originally three years, was made five by a law of 1888. The modification went into effect with the Reichstag elected in February, 1890.(Back)
Footnote 328:In Conservative East Prussia the average number of voters in a district is 121,000; in Socialist Berlin it is 345,000. Twelve of the most populous districts represented in the Reichstag contain 1,950,000 voters; twelve of the least populous, 170,000. The district of Schaumburg-Lippe has but 9,891.(Back)
Footnote 329:Art. 25. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.(Back)
Footnote 330:By reason of the multiplicity of parties the number of second ballotings required is invariably large. In 1890 it was 138; in 1893, 181; in 1898, 185; in 1903, 180; in 1907, 158; and in 1912, 191. It is calculated that the effect of forty per cent of the second ballotings is to prevent the election of the candidate obtaining originally the largest number of votes. The arrangement operates to the advantage principally of the National Liberals, the Radicals, and other essentially moderate parties, and to the disadvantage especially of the Social Democrats. On this subject see A. N. Holcombe, Direct Primaries and the Second Ballot, inAmerican Political Science Review, Nov., 1911.(Back)
Footnote 331:Art. 29. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.(Back)
Footnote 332:On the German Imperial electoral system see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 5; Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 70-83; ibid., Étude sur la législation électorale de l'empire d'Allemagne, inBulletin de Législation Comparée, 1879; G. Below, Das parlamentarische Wahlrecht in Deutschland (Berlin, 1909); and M. H. Nézard, L'Évolution du suffrage universel en Prusse et dans l'Empire allemand, inRevue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec., 1904.(Back)
Footnote 333:"The members of the Reichstag, as such, shall draw no salary or compensation." Art. 32. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 334.(Back)
Footnote 334:Cf. the Osborne Judgment of 1909 in England (see p.127).(Back)
Footnote 335:Arts. 30 and 31. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 334.(Back)
Footnote 336:Mention has been made of the regulation that, following a dissolution prior to the end of the five-year term, the chamber shall be convoked within ninety days. It will be recalled, also, that the Bundesrath may be convoked without the Reichstag.(Back)
Footnote 337:Nominally by a resolution of the Bundesrath, with the consent of the Emperor. Art. 24. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.(Back)
Footnote 338:Art. 27. Ibid.(Back)
Footnote 339:Art. 22. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.(Back)
Footnote 340:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 257.(Back)
Footnote 341:On the Reichstag see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 5; A. Lebon, Le Reichstag allemand, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, April, 1889; ibid., Études sur l'Allemagne politique, Chap. 2; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 32-38; H. Robalsky, Der deutsche Reichstag (Berlin, 1897); G. Leser, Untersuchungen über das Wahlprüfungsrecht des deutschen Reichstags (Leipzig, 1908). There is a full discussion of German methods of legislation in Laband,op. cit., §§ 54-59.(Back)
Footnote 342:To so great an extent is this true that, having described in this place the parties of the Empire, it will not be necessary subsequently to allude at length to those of Prussia.(Back)
Footnote 343:This measure provided that each year all proceeds from the Imperial customs and tobacco tax in excess of 130,000,000 marks should be distributed among the several states in proportion to their population. Its author was Frankenstein, a leader of the Centre.(Back)
Footnote 344:Conservatives 65, Free Conservatives 24, National Liberals 41.(Back)
Footnote 345:The total number of popular votes cast in the election was 10,857,000, of which number government candidates received 4,962,000, and opposition candidates 5,895,000. The numerical strength of the various elements composing the Reichstag consequent upon the elections of 1903 and 1907 was as follows:19031907Seats gainedSeats lostCentre10210420Conservatives535850Free Conservatives222200National Liberals515650Social Democrats7943036Radicals425080Antisemites and Economic Union223080Poles162040Liberal Union101330Volkspartei (Democrats of South)6710Alsatians10703Guelfs or Hanoverians5104Danes1160Independents0770————————Total3973974343(Back)
Footnote 345:The total number of popular votes cast in the election was 10,857,000, of which number government candidates received 4,962,000, and opposition candidates 5,895,000. The numerical strength of the various elements composing the Reichstag consequent upon the elections of 1903 and 1907 was as follows:
Footnote 346:The gravest abuse in connection with the conduct of campaigns and elections in Germany is the pressure which the Government brings to bear systematically upon the enormous official population and upon railway employees (alone numbering 600,000) to vote Conservative, or, in districts where there is no Conservative candidate, Centrist. This pressure is applied through the local bureaucratic organs, principally the Landrath of the Kreis, who not uncommonly is a youthful official of noble origin, related to some important landed family, and a rigid Conservative. It has been estimated that official influence controls a million votes at every national election.(Back)
Footnote 347:Many of the socialist victories were, of course, at the expense of the National Liberals and Radicals.(Back)
Footnote 348:The number of electors inscribed on the lists was 14,236,722. The number who actually voted was 12,188,337. The exact vote of the Social Democrats was 4,238,919; of the National Liberals, 1,671,297; of the Radicals, 1,556,549; of the Centre, 2,012,990; and of the Conservatives, 1,149,916.(Back)
Footnote 349:Herr Bebel died August 13, 1913.(Back)
Footnote 350:Two important works of recent date dealing with the history and character of political parties in Germany are C. Grotewald, Die Parteien des deutschen Reichstags. Band I. Der Politik des deutschen Reiches in Einzeldarstellungen (Leipzig, 1908); and O. Stillich, Die politischen Parteien in Deutschland. Band I. Die Konservativen (Leipzig, 1908), Band II. Der Liberalismus (Leipzig, 1911). The second is a portion of a scholarly work planned to be in five volumes. A brief treatise is F. Wegener, Die deutschkonservative Partei und ihre Aufgaben für die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1908). An admirable study of the Centre is L. Goetze, Das Zentrum, eine Konfessionelle Partie; Beiträge zur seiner Geschichte (Bonn, 1906). The rise of the Centre is well described in L. Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfes (Berlin, 1881). On the rise and progress of the Social Democracy see E. Milhaud, La démocratie socialiste allemande (Paris, 1903); C. Andler, Origines du socialisme d'état en Allemagne (Paris, 1906); E. Kirkup, History of Socialism (London, 1906); W. Sombart, Socialism (New York, 1898); W. Dawson, Bismarck and State Socialism (London, 1891); J. Perrin, The German Social Democracy, inNorth American Review, Oct., 1910. Under the title "Chroniques politiques" there is printed in theAnnales(since 1911 theRevue)des Sciences Politiquesevery year an excellent review of the current politics of Germany, as of other European nations. Other articles of value are: M. Caudel, Les élections allemandes du 16 juin, 1898, et le nouveau Reichstag, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Nov., 1898; J. Hahn, Une élection au Reichstag allemand, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, Nov., 1903; G. Isambert, Le parti du centre en Allemagne et les élections de janvier-février 1907, ibid., March, 1907; P. Matter, La crise du chancelier en Allemagne, ibid., Sept., 1909; A. Marvaud, La presse politique allemande, inQuestions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, March 16 and April 1, 1910. There are valuable chapters on German politics in W. Dawson, The Evolution of Modern Germany (London, 1908) and O. Eltzbacher (or J. Ellis Barker), Modern Germany, her Political and Economic Problems (new ed., London, 1912). For a sketch of party history during the period 1871-1894 see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., Chap. 7. An excellent survey of the period 1906-1911 is contained in P. Matter, D'un Reichstag à l'autre, inRevue des Sciences Politiques, July-Aug., 1911. On the elections of 1912 see G. Blondel, Les élections au Reichstag et la situation nouvelle des partis, inLe Correspondant, Jan. 25, 1912; J. W. Jenks, The German Elections, inReview of Reviews, Jan., 1912; A. Quist, Les élections du Reichstag allemand, inRevue Socialiste, Feb. 15, 1912; and W. Martin, La crise constitutionelle et politique en Allemagne, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Aug. 10, 1912.(Back)
Footnote 351:Art. 4. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 328.(Back)
Footnote 352:It was replaced by a new code May 10, 1897.(Back)
Footnote 353:A convenient manual for English readers is E. M. Borchard, Guide to the Law and Legal Literature of Germany (Washington, 1912), the first of a series of guides to European law in preparation in the Library of Congress.(Back)
Footnote 354:In Bavaria alone there is an Oberste Landesgericht, with twenty-one judges. Its relation to the Bavarian Oberlandesgerichte is that of an appellate tribunal.(Back)
Footnote 355:The highest administrative court is the Oberverwaltungsgericht, whose members are appointed for life. Under specified conditions, the "committees" of circles, cities, and districts exercise inferior administrative jurisdiction. For the adjustment of disputed or doubtful jurisdictions there stands between the ordinary and the administrative tribunals a Gerichtshof für Kompetenz-konflikte, or Court of Conflicts, consisting of eleven judges appointed for life.(Back)
Footnote 356:On the German judiciary see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 9; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 83-94; C. Morhain, De l'empire allemand (Paris, 1886), Chap. 9.(Back)
Footnote 357:The best survey in English of the governments of the German states is that in Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., Chap. 6. Fuller and more recent is G. Combes de Lestrade, Les monarchies de l'empire allemand (Paris, 1904). The most elaborate treatment of the subject is to be found in an excellent series of studies edited by H. von Marquardsen and M. von Seydel under the title Handbuch des Oeffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart in Monographien (Freiburg and Tübingen, 1883-1909). A new series of monographs, comprising substantially a revision of this collection, is at present in course of publication by J. C. B. Mohr at Tübingen. The texts of the various constitutions are printed in F. Stoerk, Handbuch der deutschen Verfassungen (Leipzig, 1884).(Back)
Footnote 358:See pp.200-201, 207.(Back)
Footnote 359:L. A. Himly, Histoire de la formation territoriale des états de l'Europe centrale, 2 vols. (Paris, 1876), I., 93-110.(Back)
Footnote 360:It is to be observed that while Stein was officially the author of this reform, the substance of the changes introduced had been agreed upon by the king and his advisers before Stein's accession to office (October 4, 1807). The Edict of Emancipation was promulgated October 9, 1807. It made the abolition of serfdom final and absolute on and after October 8, 1810.(Back)
Footnote 361:E. Meier, Reform der Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg (Leipzig, 1881); J. R. Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, 3 vols. (Boston, 1879), Pt. III., Chaps. 3-4, Pt. V., Chaps. 1-3.(Back)
Footnote 362:The system was created by royal patent June 5, 1823.(Back)
Footnote 363:See p.198.(Back)
Footnote 364:Known technically as Versammlung zur Vereinbarung der preussischen Verfassung.(Back)
Footnote 365:The confusion of constitutional and ordinary statutory law inherent in this arrangement has influenced profoundly the thought of German jurists.(Back)
Footnote 366:On the establishment of constitutionalism in Prussia see (in addition to works mentioned on p.201) P. Matter, La Prusse et la révolution de 1848, inRevue Historique, Sept.-Oct., 1902; P. Devinat, Le mouvement constitutionnel en Prusse de 1840 à 1847, ibid., Sept.-Oct. and Nov.-Dec., 1911; Klaczko, L'agitation allemande et la Prusse, inRevue des Deux Mondes, Dec., 1862, and Jan., 1863; C. Bornhak, Preussische Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte (Berlin, 1903); H. von Petersdorff, König Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (Stuttgart, 1900); and H. G. Prutz, Preussische Geschichte, 4 vols. to 1888 (Stuttgart, 1900-1902). For full bibliography see Cambridge Modern History, XI., 893-898.(Back)
Footnote 367:As is true in governmental systems generally, by no means all of the essential features of the working constitution are to be found in the formal documents, much less in the written constitution alone. In Prussia ordinances, legislative acts, and administrative procedure, dating from both before and after 1850, have to be taken into account continually if one would understand the constitutional order in its entirety.(Back)
Footnote 368:Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 350.(Back)
Footnote 369:Arts. 3-42. Robinson, Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 27-34.(Back)
Footnote 370:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 286.(Back)
Footnote 371:There is an annotated English version of the Prussian constitution, edited by J. H. Robinson, in theAnnals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Supplement, Sept., 1894. The original text will be found in F. Stoerk, Handbuch der deutschen Verfassungen (Leipzig, 1884), 44-63; also, with elaborate notes, in A. Arndt, Die Verfassungs-Urkunde für den preussischen Staat nebst Erganzungs-und Ausführungs-Gesetzen, mit Einleitung, Kommentar und Sachregister (Berlin, 1889). The principal treatises on the Prussian constitutional system are H. Schulze, Das preussisches Staatsrecht, auf Grundlage des deutschen Staatsrechtes (Leipzig, 1872-1874); ibid., Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Preussen, in Marquardsen's Handbuch (Freiburg, 1884); L. von Rönne, Das Staatsrecht der preussischen Monarchie (Leipzig, 1881-1884); and H. de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen und dem deutschen Reiche (11th ed., Berlin, 1896). A good brief account is that in A. Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, Chap. 4.(Back)
Footnote 372:They are enumerated in articles 45-52 of the constitution. Robinson, Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 36-37.(Back)
Footnote 373:Schulze, Preussisches Staatsrecht, I., 158.(Back)
Footnote 374:The Minister of Foreign Affairs is at the same time the Minister-President of Prussia and the Chancellor of the Empire. On the functions of the various ministries see Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 448-462.(Back)
Footnote 375:Art. 44.(Back)
Footnote 376:Art. 61. Robinson, Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 40. In the words of a German jurist, "the anomaly continues to exist in Prussia of ministerial responsibility solemnly enunciated in the constitution, the character of the responsibility, the accuser and the court specified, and at the same time a complete lack of any legal means by which the representatives of the people can protect even the constitution itself against the most flagrant violations and the most dangerous attacks." Schulze, Preussisches Staatsrecht, II., 694.(Back)
Footnote 377:The office of Chancellor was discontinued with the death of Hardenberg and that of Minister-President substituted. The Chancellor possessed substantial authority over his colleagues. Since 1871, the Minister-President has been a Chancellor, but of the Empire, not of Prussia.(Back)
Footnote 378:The Staats-Ministerium was called into being, to replace the old Council of State, by an ordinance of October 27, 1810. Its functions were further elaborated in cabinet orders of June 3, 1814, and November 3, 1817. The constitution of 1850 preserved it and assigned it some new duties.(Back)
Footnote 379:On the organization and functions of the Prussian ministry see Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 345-462; von Seydel, Preussisches Staatsrecht, 91-104; von Rönne, Das Staatsrecht der preussischen Monarchie, 4th ed., III.; Schulze, Das preussische Staatsrecht, II.(Back)
Footnote 380:Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 187-197.(Back)
Footnote 381:Prior to 1906 the Berlin representatives were chosen in four electoral districts, but in the year mentioned the city was divided into twelve single-member constituencies.(Back)
Footnote 382:As stipulated in articles 69-75 of the constitution. Robinson, The Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 42-44.(Back)
Footnote 383:In the event that, between elections, a seat falls vacant, a new member is chosen forthwith by this same body of Wahlmänner without a fresh appeal to the original electorate of the district.(Back)
Footnote 384:For a brief exposition of the practical effects of the system, especially on political parties, see Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 305-308. The system as it operates in the cities is described in Munro, The Government of European Cities, 128-135, and in R. C. Brooks, The Three-Class System in Prussian Cities, inMunicipal Affairs, II., 396ff. Among special treatises may be mentioned H. Nézard, L'Évolution du suffrage universel en Prusse et dans l'Empire allemand (Paris, 1905); I. Jastrow, Das Dreiklassensystem (Berlin, 1894); R. von Gneist, Die nationale Rechtsidee von den Ständen und das preussische Dreiklassensystem (Berlin, 1904); and G. Evert, Die Dreiklassenwahl in den preussischen Stadt-und Landgemeinden (Berlin, 1901).(Back)
Footnote 385:P. Matter, La réforme électorale en Prusse, inAnnales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1910; C. Brocard, La réforme électorale en Prusse et les partis, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Feb., 1912.(Back)
Footnote 386:Art. 76.(Back)
Footnote 387:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 298.(Back)
Footnote 388:The judicial system of Prussia, regulated in common with that of the other states by Imperial law, is described in Chapter 11, pp. 241-244. Articles 86-97 of the Prussian constitution deal with the subject of the judiciary, but many of their provisions have been rendered obsolete by Imperial statutes.(Back)
Footnote 389:The text of the law of 1853 is printed in the appendix of A. W. Jebens, Die Städtverordneten (Berlin, 1905).(Back)
Footnote 390:E. Meier, Die Reform der Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg (Leipzig, 1881).(Back)
Footnote 391:The most important of Gneist's works in this connection are: Geschichte des self-government in England (1863); Verwaltung, Justiz, Rechtsweg (1867); Die preussische Kreis-Ordnung (1871); and Der Rechtsstaat (1872).(Back)
Footnote 392:Ashley, Local and Central Government, 130-132.(Back)
Footnote 393:For all practical purposes the city of Berlin and the district of Hohenzollern form each a province. If they be counted, the total is fourteen.(Back)
Footnote 394:Schulze, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Preussen, 63.(Back)
Footnote 395:Towns of twenty-five thousand inhabitants or more may, by ministerial decree, be set off as separate circles. In such circles Landtag members are chosen by the municipal officials.(Back)
Footnote 396:The province of Schleswig-Holstein, however, contains but a single district. The largest number of districts in a province is six, in Hanover.(Back)
Footnote 397:The immediate legal basis of the organization of the district is the Landesverwaltungsgesetz of 1883.(Back)
Footnote 398:Approximately one hundred towns have been so constituted.(Back)
Footnote 399:For a fuller statement of the electoral system see Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 325.(Back)
Footnote 400:The Amtsbezirk is essentially a judicial district. See p.243. In the eastern provinces it is utilized also for purposes of police administration.(Back)
Footnote 401:For an annotated edition of this important instrument see F. Keil, Die Landgemeinde-ordnung (Leipzig, 1890).(Back)
Footnote 402:On Prussian local government see Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 308-333; F. J. Goodnow, Comparative Administrative Law (2d ed., New York, 1903), I., 295-338; and Ashley, Local and Central Government (London, 1906), 125-186, 263-287. Fuller accounts are contained in Schulze, Das preussische Staatsrecht, I., 436-538; K. Stengel, Organisation der preussischen Verwaltung, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1884); C. Bornhak, Preussisches Staatsrecht, 3 vols. (Freiburg, 1888-1890), and Hue de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen, etc. (17th ed., Berlin, 1906). Texts of local government acts are printed in G. Anschutz, Organisations-gesetze der innern Verwaltung in Preussen (Berlin, 1897). The best description in English of Prussian municipal government is that in Munro, The Government of European Cities, 109-208. A good brief sketch is Ashley, Local and Central Government, 153-164. The best account of some length in German is H. Kappleman, Die Verfassung und Verwaltungsorganisation der preussischen Städte, in Schriften des Vereins für Sozialpolitik (Leipzig, 1905-1908), vols. 117-119. Mention may be made of A. Shaw, Municipal Government in Continental Europe (New York, 1895), Chaps. 5-6; E. J. James, Municipal Administration in Germany (Chicago, 1901); and Leclerc, La Vie municipale en Prusse, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Oct., 1888. For ample bibliography see Munro,op. cit., 389-395.(Back)
Footnote 403:The texts of these constitutions, in the form in which they existed in 1884, are printed in Stoerk, Handbuch der deutschen Verfassungen. Even in the Mecklenburgs there are certain written instruments by which the curiously mediæval system of government there prevailing is in a measure regulated.(Back)
Footnote 404:Among amendments the most notable have been that of March 9, 1828, relating to the composition of the upper legislative chamber; those of June 4, 1848, and March 21, 1881, by which was modified the composition of the lower house; and that of April 8, 1906, whereby direct elections were substituted for indirect.(Back)
Footnote 405:The crown is hereditary in the house of Wittelbach, by which it was acquired as early as 1180. From 1886, the king, Otto I., being insane, the powers of the sovereign were exercised by the prince regent Luitpold, until his death December 12, 1912.(Back)
Footnote 406:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 338.(Back)
Footnote 407:Grassman, Die bayerische Landtagswahlgesetz vom 8 April, 1906, in Jahrbuch des Oeffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart, I., 242. A law of April 15, 1908, introduced the principle of proportional representation in Bavarian municipal elections.(Back)
Footnote 408:M. von Seydel, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Bayern, (Freiburg, 1888), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; E. Junod, La Bavière et l'Empire allemande, inAnnales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Apr. 15, 1892.(Back)
Footnote 409:The crown is hereditary in the Albertine line of the house of Wettin, with reversion to the Ernestine line, of which the duke of Saxe-Weimar is now the head. The present sovereign is Frederick August III.(Back)
Footnote 410:O. Mayer, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Sachsen (Tübingen, 1909).(Back)
Footnote 411:The reigning sovereign is William II.(Back)
Footnote 412:J. Fontaine, La représentation proportionnelle en Württemberg, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Jan., 1911; ibid., La représentation proportionnelle en Württemberg (Paris, 1909).(Back)
Footnote 413:G. Combes de Lestrade, Monarchies de l'Empire allemand, 181; L. Gaupp, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Württemberg (Freiburg and Tübingen, 1884), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; W. Bazille, Das Staats-und Verwaltungsrecht des Königreichs Württemberg (Hanover, 1908), in Bibliothek des Oeffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart. The monograph of Gaupp, revised by him in 1895 and by K. Göz in 1904, has been re-issued as essentially a new volume by Göz (Tübingen, 1908).(Back)
Footnote 414:Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 345; K. Schenkel, Das Staatsrecht des Grossherzogthums Baden (Freiburg and Tübingen, 1884), in Marquardsen's Handbuch.(Back)
Footnote 415:The dates of the original promulgation of constitutions at present in operation are: Saxe-Weimar, 1816; Hesse, 1820; Saxe-Meiningen, 1829; Saxe-Altenburg, 1832; Brunswick, 1832; Lippe, 1836; Oldenburg, 1852; Waldeck, 1852; Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1852; Reuss Jüngerer Linie, 1852 and 1856; Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, 1854; Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen, 1857; Anhalt, 1859; Reuss Älterer Linie, 1867; and Schaumburg-Lippe, 1868.(Back)
Footnote 416:Repeated attempts to bring about a modernization of the Mecklenburg constitutional system have failed. Several times the liberal elements in the Reichstag have carried a proposal that to the Imperial constitution there should be added a clause requiring that in every state of the Empire there shall be an assembly representative of the whole people. On the ground that such an amendment would comprise an admission that the constitutions of the states are subject to revision at the hand of the Empire, the Bundesrath has invariably rejected the proposal. In 1907 the grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin inaugurated a movement for political reform, and in 1908 there was drafted a constitution providing for the establishment of a Landtag whose members should be chosen in part by the landed, industrial, professional, and official classes and in part by manhood suffrage. Late in 1909 the Ritterschaft (i.e., the estate comprising owners of knights' fees) rejected the proposal, as, indeed, it had rejected similar ones on earlier occasions.(Back)
Footnote 417:The presiding officer of the Senate is a burgomaster, chosen for one year by the senators from their own number. The burgomaster as such, however, possesses no administrative power.(Back)
Footnote 418:The party which had contended most vigorously for Alsatian autonomy.(Back)
Footnote 419:On the organization of Alsace-Lorraine prior to 1911 see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 10; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 67-69; P. Gerber, La condition de l'Alsace-Lorraine dans l'Empire allemand (Lille, 1906), and L'Administration en Alsace-Lorraine, inRevue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec, 1909. On the problem of reform and the legislation of 1911 see R. Henry, La question d'Alsace-Lorraine, inQuestions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Feb. 1 and March 16, 1904; P. Braun, Alsace-Lorraine—La réforme de la constitution, ibid., Nov. 16, 1905, and Jan. 1, 1906; Alsace-Lorraine en 1908, ibid., March 1, 1909; Alsace-Lorraine—les préludes d'une lutte nationale, ibid., April 16, 1910; La constitution d'Alsace-Lorraine, ibid., March 16, 1911; A. Wetterlé, L'Autonomie de Alsace-Lorraine, inLe Correspondant, Aug. 25, 1910, La nouvelle loi constitutionnelle de l'Alsace-Lorraine, ibid., June 10, 1911, and Les élections en Alsace-Lorraine, ibid., Nov. 25, 1911; Eccard, L'Autonomie de l'Alsace-Lorraine, inRevue Politique et Parlementaire, Nov. 10, 1910: G. Bruck, Die Reform der Verfassung von Elsass Lothringen, inAnnalen des deutschen Reichs, 1911, I; and P. Heitz, La loi constitutionnelle de l'Alsace-Lorraine du 31 mai, 1911, inRevue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1911, containing French translations of the documents. See alsoAnnual Registerfor 1911, 328-332.(Back)
Footnote 420:A constitutional committee of five had been appointed the previous July 14; but, its recommendation proving unacceptable to the Assembly, it had resigned, September 11.(Back)
Footnote 421:Of the whole number of deputies, 247 were apportioned according to departmental areas and 249 according each to population and tax quotas.(Back)
Footnote 422:The texts of all French constitutions and fundamental laws since 1789 are printed in several collections, of which the best is L. Duguit et H. Monnier, Les constitutions et les principales lois politiques de la France depuis 1789 (Paris, 1898). Other serviceable collections are F. Hélie, Les constitutions de la France (Paris, 1880) and E. Pierre, Organisation des pouvoirs publics; recueil des lois constitutionnelles et organiques (Paris, 1902). For English versions see F. M. Anderson, The Constitutions and other Select Documents illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1907 (2d ed., Minneapolis, 1908). The various constitutions are excellently summarized in M. Block, Dictionnaire général de la politique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1884), I., 494-518. For the text of the constitution of 1791 see Duguit et Monnier, 1-35; Hélie, 268-294; Anderson, 58-95. For summary, Block, I., 494-497. Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 253-269; Cambridge Modern History, VIII., Chap. 7.(Back)
Footnote 423:The members of the Convention were elected by manhood suffrage, one of the last acts of the Legislative Body having been the repeal of the tax qualification required by the constitution of 1791.(Back)
Footnote 424:September 22 was reckoned the first day of the Year I. of French liberty, and the fundamental law of June 24, 1793, was known as the constitution of the Year I. For an illuminating sketch of the rise of the republic see H. A. L. Fisher, The Republican Tradition in Europe (New York, 1911), Chap. 4.(Back)
Footnote 425:Text in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 66-78; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 376-384; Anderson, Constitutions, 171-184. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, 497-498.(Back)
Footnote 426:For the text of the constitution of 1795 see Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 78-118; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 436-466; Anderson, Constitutions, 212-254. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, 498-500. Cambridge Modern History, VIII., Chap. 13; G. Dodu, Le parlementarisme et les parlementaires sous la Révolution, 1789-1799; origines du régime représentatif en France (Paris, 1911); Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 5.(Back)
Footnote 427:In favor of the new constitution there were cast 3,011,007 votes; against it, 1,562.(Back)
Footnote 428:The constitution of the Year III., containing 377 articles, is one of the lengthiest documents of the sort on record.(Back)
Footnote 429:Under this system the primary electors numbered about 5,000,000; the district notables, 500,000; the departmental notables, 50,000; and the national list, 5,000.(Back)
Footnote 430:The text of the constitution of the Year VIII. is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 118-129; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 577-585; and Anderson, Constitutions, 270-281. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 500-505. Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 1.(Back)
Footnote 431:Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 179-182; Anderson, Constitutions, 446-450; Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 505-506.(Back)
Footnote 432:By law of December 29, 1831, it was stipulated that only life peers might thereafter be appointed, and the king was required to take all appointees from a prescribed list of dignitaries. Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 231-232.(Back)
Footnote 433:A law of June 9, 1824, stipulated that thereafter the Chamber of Deputies should be elected integrally for a period of seven years. Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 211.(Back)
Footnote 434:The text of the Charter of 1814 may be found in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, I., 183-190; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 884-890; and, in English translation, in Anderson, Constitutions, 457-465, and University of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, I., No. 3. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 506-508. Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 18.(Back)
Footnote 435:Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 206-209; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 934-936.(Back)
Footnote 436:For the act of the Chambers relative to the modification of the Constitutional Charter and to the accession of Louis Philippe, see Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 213-218; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 987-992; and Anderson, Constitutions, 507-513. The electoral law of 1831 is in Duguit et Monnier, 219-230. Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 15; G. Weill, La France sous la monarchic constitutionnelle, 1814-1848 (new ed., Paris, 1912).(Back)
Footnote 437:Including representatives of Algeria and the colonies.(Back)
Footnote 438:Electoral law of March 15, 1849. Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 247-265.(Back)
Footnote 439:Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 308-312. The text of the Constitution of 1848 is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 232-246; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1102-1113; and Anderson, Constitutions, 522-537. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 510-513. Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 5; V. Pierre, Histoire de la république de 1848, 2 vols. (Paris, 1873-1878); P. de la Gorce, Histoire de la deuxième république française, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); E. Spuller, Histoire parlementaire de la deuxième république (Paris, 1893); Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 8.(Back)
Footnote 440:Hazen, Europe since 1815, 201.(Back)
Footnote 441:The text of this measure is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 265-268, and Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1149-1150. H. Laferrière, La loi électorale du 31 mai 1850 (Paris, 1910).(Back)
Footnote 442:Anderson, Constitutions, 538-543.(Back)
Footnote 443:Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 290-292; Anderson, Constitutions, 560-561.(Back)
Footnote 444:Drawn up by a commission of five, under date of January 14, 1852.(Back)
Footnote 445:The text of the constitution of 1852 is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 274-280; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1167-1171; Anderson, Constitutions, 543-549. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 513-515. Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 5, 10.(Back)
Footnote 446:Text in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 307-308; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1314-1315; and Anderson, Constitutions, 579-580.(Back)
Footnote 447:The text of the measure of April 20, 1870, is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 308-314; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1315-1327; and Anderson, Constitutions, 581-586. Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 17; H. Berton, L'évolution constitutionnelle du second empire (Paris, 1900). An important larger work is P. de la Gorce, Histoire du second empire, 7 vols. (Paris, 1894-1905).(Back)
Footnote 448:The best account of the beginnings of the Third Republic is that in G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la France contemporaine, 4 vols. (Paris, 1903-1909), I. There is an English translation of this important work by J. C. Tarver. A recent book of value is A. Bertrand, Les origines de la troisième république, 1871-1876 (Paris, 1911). Mention may be made also of E. Zevort, Histoire de la troisième république, 4 vols. (Paris, 1896-1901), I.; C. Duret, Histoire de France de 1870 à 1873 (Paris, 1901); A. Callet, Les origines de la troisième république (Paris, 1889); F. Littré, L'établissement de la troisième république (Paris, 1880); L. E. Benoit, Histoire de quinze ans, 1870-1885 (Paris, 1886); F. T. Marzials, Léon Gambetta (London, 1890); and P. B. Ghensi, Gambetta: Life and Letters (New York, 1910). There is an interesting interpretation in Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 11.(Back)
Footnote 449:Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, cxvi.(Back)
Footnote 450:Most of the disqualifications for voting which were enumerated in the law of 1849 were declared inapplicable in the present election.(Back)
Footnote 451:G. Weill, Histoire du parti républicain en France de 1814 à 1870 (Paris, 1900).(Back)
Footnote 452:Of pure Legitimists there were in the Assembly about 150; of Bonapartists, not over 30; of Republicans, about 250. The remaining members were Orleanists or men of indecisive inclination. At no time was the full membership of the Assembly in attendance.(Back)
Footnote 453:In March the Assembly had transferred its sittings from Bordeaux to Versailles.(Back)
Footnote 454:Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 315-316; Anderson, Constitutions, 604-606.(Back)
Footnote 455:Anderson, Constitutions, 622-627; A. Lefèvre Pontalis, L'Assemblée nationale et M. Thiers, inLe Correspondant, Feb. 10, 1879; A. Thiers, Notes et Souvenirs de 1870 à 1873 (Paris, 1903); J. Simon, Le gouvernement de M. Thiers (Paris, 1878); E. de Marcère, L'Assemblée nationale de 1871 (Paris, 1904).(Back)
Footnote 456:Marquis de Castallane, Le dernier essai de restauration monarchique de 1873, inNouvelle Revue, Nov. 1, 1895.(Back)
Footnote 457:Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 319; Anderson, Constitutions, 630.(Back)
Footnote 458:Anderson, Constitutions, 633.(Back)
Footnote 459:The original texts of these documents are printed in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 319-350, and Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1348-1456. For English versions see Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 286-319; C. F. A. Currier, Constitutional and Organic Laws of France, inAnnals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1893, supplement; and Anderson, Constitutions, 633-640. Albert Duc de Broglie, Histoire et Politique: Étude sur la constitution de 1875 (Paris, 1897); R. Saleilles, The Development of the Present Constitution of France, inAnnals of Amer. Academy, July, 1895.(Back)
Footnote 460:Among French writers upon constitutional law there has been no small amount of difference of opinion as to whether the National Assembly is to be regarded as having been entitled to the exercise of constituent powers. For a brief affirmative argument see Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, cxvii. Cf. Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 121, note.(Back)
Footnote 461:It is to be observed, however, that many authorities agree with Professor Duguit in his contention that although the individual rights enumerated in the Declaration of Rights of 1789 are passed without mention in the constitutional laws of 1875, they are to be considered as lying at the basis of the French governmental system to-day. Any measure enacted by the national parliament in contravention of them, says Professor Duguit, would be unconstitutional. They are not mere dogmas or theories, but rather positive laws, binding upon not only the legislative chambers but upon the constituent National Assembly. Traité de droit constitutionnel (Paris, 1911), II., 13.(Back)