B.C. 240 Livius begins to exhibit. 239 Ennius born. 235 Naevius begins to exhibit. 234 Cato born. 225 Fabius Pictor served in the Gallic War. 219 Pacuvius born. 218 Cincius Alimentus described the passage of Hannibal into Italy. 217 Cato begins to be known. 216 Fabius Pictor sent as ambassador to Delphi. 207 The poem on the victory of Sena entrusted to Livius. 204 Cato quaestor; brings Ennius to Rome. 201 Naevius dies (?). 191 Cato military tribune. 190 Cincius still writes. 189 Ennius goes with Fulvius into Aetolia. 185 Terence born. [2] 184 Cato censor. Plautus dies. 179 Caecilius flourished. 173 Ennius wrote the twelfth book of theAnnals. 170 Accius born. 169 Ennius dies. Cato's speechpro lege Voconia. 168 Caecilius dies. 166 Terence'sAndria. 165 Terence'sHecyra. 163 Terence'sHautontimorumenos. 161 Terence'sEunuchusandPhormio. 160 Terence'sAdelphoe. 159 Terence dies. 154 Pacuvius flourished. 151 Albinus, the consul, writes history (Gell. xi. 8). 150 Cato finishes theOrigines. 149 Cato, aged 85, accuses Galba. Dies in the same year. C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, the historian. 148 Lucilius born. 146 Cassius Hemina flourished. C. Fannius, the historian, serves at Carthage. 142 Antonius, the orator, born. 140 Crassus, the orator, born. Accius, aged 30, Pacuvius, aged 80, exhibit together. 134 Sempronius Asellio served at Numantia. Lucilius begins to write. 123 Caelius Antipater flourished. 119 Crassus accuses Carbo. 116 Varro born. 115 Hortensius born. 111 Crassus and Scaevola quaestors. [3] 109 Atticus born. 107 Crassus tribune. 106 Cicero born. 103 The Tereus of Accius. Death of Turpilius. 102 Furius Bibaculus born at Cremona. 100 Aelius Stilo. 98 Antonius defends Aquillius. 95 First public appearance of Hortensius. Lucretius born (?). 92 Crassus censor. Opilius teaches rhetoric. 91 Crassus dies. Pomponius flourished. 90 Scaurus flourished. 89 Cicero serves under the consul Pompeius. 88 Cicero hears Philo and Molo at Rome. Rutilius resident at Mitylene. Plotius Gallus first Latin teacher of Rhetoric. 87 Antonius slain. Sisenna the historian. Catullus born (?). 86 Sallust born. 82 Varro of Atax born. Calvus born. 81 Ciceropro Quinctio. Valerius Cato Grammaticus. Otacilius, first freedman who attempts history. 80Pro Roscio.79 Cicero at Athens; hears Antiochus and Zeno. 78 Cicero hears Molo at Rhodes. 77 Cicero returns to Rome. 76 Asinius Pollio born (?). 75 Cicero quaestor in Sicily. 74 Cicero again in Rome. 70DivinatioandActio I. in Verrem. Virgil born. 69 Cicero aedile. 67 Varro wins a naval crown under Pompey in the Piratic War (Plin.N. H.xvi. 4). 66 Cicero praetor.Pro lege Manilia. Pro Cluentio.M. Antonius Gnipho flourished. 65Pro Cornelia.Horace born. 64In toga candida.63 Consular orations of Cicero.Pro Murena.62Pro P. Sulla.61 Annaeus Seneca born. 59 Livy born(?). Aelius Tubero with Cicero in Asia.Pro A. Thermo. Pro L. Flacco.58 Cicero goes into exile. 57 Cicero recalled. Calidius a good speaker. 56Pro Sextio. In Vatinium. De Provinciis Consularibus.55In Calpurnium Pisonem. De Oratore.Virgil assumes thetoga virilis. 54Pro Vatinio. Pro Scauro. De Republica.52Pro Milone.Lucretius dies(?). [4] 51 Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. 50 Death of Hortensius. Sallust expelled from the senate. 49 Cicero at Rome. Varro lieutenant of Pompey in Spain. 48 Lenaeus satirizes Sallust. Cicero in Italy. 47 Cicero at Brundisium. Hyginus brought to Rome by Caesar. Catullus still living (C. 52). 46 TheBrutuswritten. Calvus dies. Sallust praetor.Pro Marcello. Pro Ligario.45 Cicero'sOrator.Pro Deiolaro.44 The first four Philippics. Death of Caesar. 43 The later Philippics. Death of Cicero. Birth of Ovid. 42 Horace at Philippi. 40 Cornelius Nepos flourished. Perhaps Hor. Sat. i. 2. Epod. xiii. 39 Ateius Philologus born at Athens. Perhaps Virg. Ecl. vi. viii. Hor. Od. ii. 7. Epod iv. 38 Perhaps Ecl. vii. Hor. Sat. i. 3. 37 Varro (aet. 80) writesde Re Rustica.Perh. Ecl. x. Sat. i. 5 and 6. Epod. v. 36 Cornelius Severus(?) Hor. Sat. i. 8, 35 Bavius dies. Hor. Sat. i. 4, 9, 10. 34 Sallust dies. Sat. ii. 2. Epod. iii. 33 Sat. ii. 3. Epod. xi. xiv. 32 Atticus dies. Sat. ii. 4, 5. Epod. vii. 31 Messala consul. Sat. ii. 6. Epod. i. and ix. 30 Gallus made praefect of Egypt. Cassius Severus dies. Tibullus El. i. 3. TheGeorgicspublished. Hor. Sat. ii. 7, 8, and perhaps 1, Epod ii. 29 Livy writing his first book. Propertius I. 6. 28 Varro dies. 27 Od. i. 35. Vitruvius writing his work. 26 Gallus dies (aet. 40). Second book of Propertius published (?). [5] 25 Livy's first book completed before this year. Hor. Od. ii. 4. 24 Quintil. Varus dies (= the poet of Cremona, mentioned in the ninth Eclogue [?]). 23 The first three books of the Odes published. 22 Marcellus dies. Virgil reads the sixth Aeneid to Augustus and Livia. Third book of Propertius (?). 21 Hor. writes Ep. i. 20 (aet. 44). 20 First book of Epistles. 19 Virgil dies at Brundisium. His epitaph:
"Mantua me genuit: Calabri rapuere: tenet nuncParthenope: cecini pascua rura duces."
Tibullus dies. Domitius Marsus writes.18 Livy working at his fifty-ninth book.17 Porcius Latro. TheCarmen Saeculare. Varius and Tucca edit theAeneid.16 Aemilius Macer of Verona dies. Od. iv. 9, to Lollius.15 Death of Propertius. Victories of Drusus. Od. iv. 4.14 The fourth book of the Odes(?).13 Cestius of Smyrna teaches rhetoric.12 Death of Agrippa.11 The Epistle to Augustus (Ep. ii. 1).10 Passienus and Hyginus Polyhistor.9 Ovid'sAmores.8 Death of Horace.7 Birth of Seneca (?).6 Albucius Silo a professor of rhetoric.5 Tiro, Cicero's freedman, dies (aet. 100).4 Porcius Latro commits suicide. Ovid now in his fortieth year.2 Ovid'sArt of Love.
A.D.1 TheRemedium Amoris.2 Velleius Paterculus serves under C. Caesar.4 Pollio dies. Velleius serves with Tiberius in Germany.7 Velleius quaestor.8 Verrius Flaccus, the grammarian, flourished. Ovid banished to Tomi, inDecember (Tr. 1, 10, 3).
"Aut hanc me gelidi tremerem cum mense DecembrisScribentem mediis Adria vidita quis."
9 TheIbisof Ovid.11 Death of Messala. [6]12 TheTristiafinished.13 The Epistles from Pontus were being written.14 Death of Augustus. Velleius praetor.18 Death of Ovid at 60; of Livy at 76. Valerius Maximus accompanied Sex.Pompeius to Asia.19 The elder Seneca writes his "recollections."24 Cassius Severus in exile. Pliny the elder born (?).25 Death of Cremutius Cordus. Votienus banished.26 Haterius flourished.30 Asinius Gallus imprisoned.31 Valerius Maximus wrote ix. 11, 4 (extern.), soon after thedeath of Sejanus.33 Death of Cassius Severus the orator. His works proscribed. Death ofAsinius Gallus.34 Persius born.40 Lucan brought to Rome.41 Seneca'sde Ira. Exile of Seneca at the close of this year.42 Asconius Pedianus flourished.43 Martial born.45 Domitius Afer flourished.48 Remmius Palaemon in vogue as a grammarian.49 Seneca recalled from exile, and made Nero's tutor.56 Seneca'sde Clementia.57 Probus Berytius a celebrated grammarian.59 Death of Domitius Afer.61 Pliny the younger born (?).62 Death of Persius. Seneca in danger, Burrus being dead.63 TheNaturales Quaestionesof Seneca.65 Death of Seneca (Ann.xv. 60).66 Martial comes to Rome.68 Quintilian accompanies Galba to Rome. Silius Italicus consul.69 Silius in Rome.75 The dialoguede Oratoribus, written (C. 17).77 Pliny'sNatural History. Gabinianus, the rhetorician,flourished.79 Death of the elder Pliny.80 Pliny the younger begins to plead.88 Suetonius now a young man, Tacitus praetor.89 Quintilian teaches at Rome. His professional career extends over 20years.90 Philosophers banished. Pliny praetor.Sulpiciae Satira(ifgenuine).95 Statii Silv. iv. 1. TheThebaidwas nearly finished.96 Pliny's accusation of Publicius Certus.97 Frontinus curator aquarum. Tacitus consul suffectus.98 Trajan.99 The tenth book of Martial. Silius at Naples.100 Pliny and Tacitus accuse Marius Priscus. Pliny's panegyric.103 Pliny at his province of Bithynia.104 His letter about the Christians. Martial goes to Bilbilis.109 Pliny (aet. 48) at the zenith of his fame.118 Juvenal wrote Satire xiii. this year.132 Salvius Julianus's Perpetual Edict.138 Death of Hadrian.143 Fronto consul suffectus.164 Height of Fronto's fame.166 Fronto proposes to describe the Parthian war.180 Death of Marcus Aurelius.
A large number of other dates will be found in the body of the work, especially for the later period; but as they are not absolutely certain, they have not been inserted here.
WORDSWORTH. Fragments and Specimens of early Latin. 1874.LIVIUS ANDRONICUS. H. Düntzer. Berlin. 1835.NAEVIUS. Ribbeck.Trag. Lat. Relliquiae, p. 5.PLAUTUS. Ritschl or Fleckeisen. Unfinished.ENNIUS. Vahlen.Ennianae Poëseos Relliquiae.PACUVIUS. Ribbeck, as above.TERENCE. Wagner. Cambridge. 1869. Text by Umpfenbach. 1870TURPILIUS. Fragments in Bothe (Poet. Scen.V. 2, p. 58-76), andRibbeck'sComic. Lat. Relliq.THE EARLY HISTORIANS. Peter (Veterum Historicorum RomanorumRelliquiae.Lips. 1870).CATO. De Re Rustica.Scriptores rei rusticae veteres Latini,curanteI. M. Gesnero. Lips. 1735 Vol. 1.CATO. Fragmenta praeter libros de Re Rustica. Jordan. Lips. 1860.THE OLD ORATORS TO HORTENSIUS. H. Meyer. _Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta.Zürich. 1842.ACCIUS. Tragedies. Fragments in Ribbeck, as above.——- Praeter Scenica. Lucian Müller.Lucilii Saturaran Relliquiae.Lips. 1872. Lachmann.ATTA. Fragments. Bothe.Scen. Lat.v. 2, p. 97-102. Ribbeck.AFRANIUS. Bothe, p. 156-9. Ribbeck.LUCILIUS. Lucian Müller, as above.SUEVIUS. Lucian Müller, as above.ATELLANAE. Fr. in Ribbeck.Com. Lat. Rel.p. 192.AUCTOR AD HERENNIUM. Kayser.Lips.1854.
VARRO. Saturae Menippeae. Riese. Lips. 1865.——- Antiquities. Fragments in R. Merkel. Introduction to Ovid'sFasti.——- De Vita Populi Romani. Fragments in Kettner. Halle. 1863.——- De Lingua Latina. C. O. Müller. Lips, 1833.——- De Re Rustica. Gesner, as above. SeeCato.CICERO. Speeches. G. Long. London. 1862. In four volumes.——- Verrine Orations. Long, as above. Zumpt. Berlin. 1831.CICERO. Pro Cluentio. Classen. Bonn. 1831. Ramsay. Clarendon Press.——- In Catilinam. Halm. Lips.——- Pro Plancio. E. Wunder. 1830.——- Pro Murena. Zumpt. Berlin. 1859.——- Pro Roscio. Büchner. Lips. 1835.——- Pro Sestio. Halm. Lips. 1845. And Teubner edition.——- Pro Milone. Orelli. Lips. 1826. School edition by Purton. Cambridge.1873.——- Second Philippic, with notes from Halm, by J. E. B. Mayor.——- De Inventione. Lindemann. Lips. 1829.——- De Oratore. Ellendt. Königsberg. 1840.——- Brutus. Ellendt. 1844.——- Philosophical Writings. Orelli. Vol. IV.——- De Finibus. Madvig. Copenhagen. Second Edition. 1871. F. G. Otto.1839.——- Academica (with De Fin.). Orelli. Zürich. 1827.——- Tusculanae Disputationes (with Paradoxa). Orelli. 1829.——- De Natura Deorum. Schömann. Berlin. 1850.——- De Senectute. Long. London. 1861.——- De Amicitia. Nauck. Berlin. 1867.——- De Officiis. 0. Heine. Berlin. 1857.——- De Republica. Heinrich. Bonn. 1828.——- De Legibus. Vahlen. 1871.——- De Divinatione. Giese. Lips. 1829.——- Select Letters. Watson. Oxford.——- Entire Works. Orelli. Zür. 1845. Nobbe. Lips. 1828.LABERIUS. Ribbeck.Com. Lot. Relliquiae, p. 237.FURIUS BIBACULUS. Weichert.Poet. Lat. Rell., p. 325.SYRI. Sententiae. Woelfflin. 1869.CAESAR. Speeches. Meyer.Orat. Rom. Fragmenta.——- Letters. Nipperdey.Caesar, p. 766-599.——- Commentaries. Nipperdey. Lips. 1847-1856.——- Gallic War. Long. London. 1859.NEPOS. Nipperdey. Lips. 1849. School edition by 0. Browning.LUCRETIUS. Munro. Cambridge. 1866.SALLUST. All his extant works. Gerlach. Basle. 1828-31.VARRO ATACINUS. Fragments in Riese,Sat. Menippeae.CHINA. Weichert.Poetarum Lat. Vitae, p. 187.CATULLUS. R. Ellis. Oxford. 1867——- Commentary. R. Ellis. Oxford. 1876.POLLIO. Fragments in Meyer.Orat Rom. Fragmenta.VARIUS. Ribbeck'sTragic. Lat. Relliquiae.VIRGIL. Ribbeck. 4 vols. With an Appendix Virgiliana. Conington. 3 vols.Oxford. A good school edition by Bryce. (Glasgow University Classics.)London.HORACE. Orelli. Third edition, 1850. 2 vols. School editions, by Macleaneand Currie, both with good English Notes. Odes and Epodes, by Wickham.1874.TIBULLUS and PROPERTIUS. Lachmann. Berlin. 1829.TIBULLUS. Dissen.PROPERTIUS. Paley.OVID. Entire Works. R. Merkel. Lips. 1851. 3 vols.——- Fasti. Paley.——- Heroides. Terpstra. 1829. Arthur Palmer. Longman. 1874.——- Tristia and Ibis. Merkel. 1837.——- Metamorphoses. Bach. 1831-6. 2 vols.GRATIUS. Haupt. Lips. 1838. Including the Halieuticon, &c.MANILIUS. Scaliger. 1579. Bentley. 1739. Jacob. Berlin. 1846.LIVY. Drakenborg. 7 vols. Teubner text. Weissenbom, with an excellentGerman Commentary.——- Book I. Professor Seeley. Cambridge.JUSTIN (Trogus). Jeep. Lips. 1859.VERRIUS FLACCUS. C. O. Müller. Lips. 1839.VITRUVIUS. Schneider. Lips. 1807. 3 vols. Rose. 1867.SENECA (the elder). Keissling (Teubner series). Oratorum et Rhetorumsententiae divisiones colores. Bursian. 1857.
GERMANICUS (translation of Aratus). Breysig. Berlin. 1867.VELLEIUS. Kritz. Lips. 1840. Halm.VALERIUS MAXIMUS. Kempf. Berl. 1854.CELSUS. Daremberg. Lips. Teubner.PHAEDRUS. Orelli. Zür. 1831. Lucian Müller. 1876.SENECA. Tragedies. Peiper and Richter. Lips, 1867.——- Entire Works. Fr. Haase. 3 vols. 1862-71. (Teubner.)——- Naturales Quaestiones. Koeler. 1818.CURTIUS. Zumpt. Brunsw. 1849.COLUMELLA. In Gesner,Scriptures Rei Rusticae.MELA. Parthey. Berl. 1867.VALERIUS PROBUS. In KeilGrammatici Latini. Vol. I. 1857.PERSIUS. Jahn. Lips. 1843. Conington. Oxford. 1869.LUCAN. C. F. Weber. Lips. 1821. C. H. Weisse. Lips. 1835.PETRONIUS. Bücheler. Berl. 1871. Second edition.CALPURNIUS. Glaeser. Göttingen. 1842,ETNA. Munro. Cambridge. 1867.PLINY. Sillig. Lips. 8 vols.——- Chrestomathia Pliniana, a useful text-book by Urlichs. Berlin. 1857.VALERIUS FLACCUS. Lemaire. Paris. 1824. Schenkl. 1871.SILIUS. Ruperti. Göttingen. 1795.STATIUS. Silvae. Markland. Lips. 1827.——- Entire works. Queck. 1854.——- Thebaid and Achilleid. Vol. I. 0. Müller. Lips. 1871.MARTIAL. Schneidevin. 1842.——- Select Epigrams. Paley. London. 1875.QUINTILIAN. Bonnell. (Teubner.) 1861.——- Halm. 2 vols. 1869.——- Lexicon to, by Bonnell. 1834.FRONTINUS. Text by Dederich, in Teubner edition. 1855.JUVENAL. Heinrich. Bonn. 1839. Mayor. London. 1872. Vol. I. (for schools).Otto Iahn. 1868.TACITUS. Works. Orelli. 1846. Ritter. 1864.——- Dialogue. Ritter. Bonn. 1836.——- Agricola. Kritz. Berlin. 1865.——- Germania. Kritz. Berlin. 1869. Latham. London. 1851.——- Annales. Nipperdey. Berlin. 1864.PLINY the younger. Keil. Lips. 1870.——- Letters. G. E. Gierig. 2 vols. 1800-2.——- Letters and Panegyric. Gierig. 1806.SUETONIUS. Roth. Teubner. 1858.——- Praeter Caesarum Libros. D. Reifferscheid. Lips. 1860.FLORUS. Jahn. Lips. 1856.FRONTO. Niebuhr. Berl. 1816. Supplement. 1832. S. A. Naber. (Teubner.)1867.PERVIGILIUM VENERIS. Bugheler. 1859. Riese's Anthologia Latina i. p. 144.GELLIUS. Hertz. Lips. 1853.GAIUS. Lachmann. Berlin. 1842.——- Institutes. Poste. Oxf. 1871.APULEIUS. Hildebrand. Lips. 1842. 2 vols.ITINERARIUM ANTONINI AUGUSTI ET HIEROSOLYMITANUM. G. Parthey and M.Finder. Berlin. 1848.
1. Trace the influence of conquest on Roman literature.
2. Examine Niebuhr's hypothesis of an old Roman epos.
3. Compare the Roman conception of law as manifested in an argument of Cicero, with that of the Athenians, as displayed in any of the great Attic orators.
4. Trace the causes of the special devotion to poetry during the Augustan Age.
5. The love of nature in Roman poetry.
6. What were theCollegia poetarum?In what connection are they mentioned?
7. What methods of appraising literary work existed at Rome? Was there anything analogous to our review system? If so, how did it differ at different epochs?
8. Sketch the development of theMime, and account for its decline.
9. Criticise the merits and defects of the various forms which historical composition assumed at Rome (Hegel,Philos. of History, Preface).
10. "Inveni lateritiam: reliqui marmoream" (Augustus). The material splendour of imperial Rome as affecting literary genius. (Contrast the Speech of Pericles. Thuc. ii. 37,sqq.)
11.Varro dicit Musas Plautino sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine loqui vellent(Quintil.). Can this encomium be justified? If so, show how.
12. "Cetera quae vacuas tenuissent carmine mentes." Is the true end of poetry to occupy a vacant hour? Illustrate by the chief Roman poets.
13. The vitality of Greek mythology in Latin and in modern poetry.
14. State succinctly the debt of Roman thought, in all its branches, to Greece.
15. What is the permanent contribution to human progress given by Latin literature?
16. Criticise Mommsen's remark, that the drama is, after all, the form of literature for which the Romans were best adapted.
17. Form some estimate of the historical value of the old annalists.
18. What sources of information were at Livy's command in writing his history? Did he rightly appreciate their relative value?
19. What influence did the old Roman system have in repressing poetical ideas?
20. In what sense is it true that the intellectual progress of a nation is measured by its prose writers?
21. Philosophy and poetry set before themselves the same problem. Illustrate from Roman literature.
22. Account for the notable deficiency in lyric inspiration among Roman poets.
23. Compare the influence on thought and action of the elder and younger Cato.
24. Examine the alleged incapacity of the Romans for speculative thought.
25. Compare or contrast the Italic, the Etruscan, the Greek, and the Vedic religions, as bearing on thought and literature.
26. Compare the circumstances of the diffusion of Greek and Latin beyond the limits within which they were originally spoken.
27. Analyse the various influences under which the poetical vocabulary of Latin was formed.
28. Give the rules of the Latin accent, and show how it has affected Latin Prosody. Is there any reason for thinking that it was once subjected to different rules?
29. "Latin literature lacks originality." How far is this criticism sound?
30. Examine the influence of the Alexandrine poets upon the literature of the later Republic, and of the Augustan Age.
31. What is the value of Horace as a literary critic?
32. Give a brief sketch of the various Roman writers on agriculture.
33. It has been remarked, that while every great Roman author expresses a hope of literary immortality, few, if any, of the great Greek authors mention it. How far is this difference suggestive of their respective national characters, and of radically distinct conceptions of art?
34 What instances do we find in Latin literature of the novel or romance? When and where did this style of composition first become common?
35. Trace accurately the rhythmical progress of the Latin hexameter, and indicate the principal differences between the rhythm of Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace's epistles.
36. Distinguish between the development and the corruption of a language. Illustrate from Latin literature.
37. "Virgilius amantissimus vetustatis." Examine in all its bearings the antiquarian enthusiasm of Virgil.
38. "Verum orthographia quoque consuetudini servit, ideoque saepe mutata est" (Quintil.). Whatprinciplesof spelling (if any), appear to be adopted by the best modern editors?
39. Show that the letterv, in Latin, had sometimes the sound ofw, sometimes that ofb; that the soundso u,e i,i u,e q, were frequently interchanged respectively.
40. Examine the traces of a satiric tendency in Roman literature, independent of professed satire.
41. How far did the Augustan poets consciously modify the Greek metres they adopted?
42. Is it a sound criticism to call the Romans a nation of grammarians? Give a short account of the labours of any two of the great Roman grammarians, and estimate their value.
43. Cicero (De Leg.i. 2, 5) says: "Abest historia a literis nostris." Quintilian (x. i. 101) says: "Historia non cesserit Graecis." Criticise these statements.
44. "O dimidiate Menander." By whom said? Of whom said? Criticise.
45. Examine and classify the various uses of the participles in Virgil.
46. What are the chief peculiarities of the style of Tacitus?
47. "Roman history ended where it had begun, in biography." (Merivale). Account for the predominance of biography in Latin literature.
48. The Greek schools of rhetoric in the Roman period. Examine their influence on the literature of Rome, and on the intellectual progress of the Roman world.
49. In what sense can Ennius rightly be called the father of Latin literature?
50. Can the same rules of quantity be applied to the Latin comedians as to the classical poets?
51. Mention any differences in syntax between Plautus and the Augustan writers.
62. Examine the chief defects of ancient criticism.
53. The value of Cicero's letters from a historical and from a literary point of view.
54. What evidence with regard to Latin pronunciation can be gathered from the writings of Plautus and Terence?
55. Examine the nature of the chief problems involved in the settlement of the text of Lucretius.
56. Compare the Homeric characters as they appear in Virgil with their originals in the Iliad and Odyssey, and with the same as treated by the Greek tragedians.
57. How far is it true that Latin is deficient in abstract terms? What new coinages were made by Cicero?
58. Contrast Latin with Greek (illustrating by any analogies that may occur to you in modern languages) as regards facility of composition. Did Latin vary in this respect at different periods?
59. What are the main differences in Latin between the language and constructions of poetry and those of prose?
60. The use oftmesis, asyndeton, anacoluthon, aposiopesis, hyperbaton, hyperbole, litotes, in Latin oratory and poetry.
61. What traces, are there of systematic division according to a number of lines in the poems of Catullus or any other Latin poet with whom you are familiar? (See Ellis'sCatullus).
62. Trace the history of theAtellanae, and account for their being superseded by the Mime.
63. Examine the influence of the other Italian nationalities on Roman literature.
64. Which of the great periods of Greek literature had the most direct or lasting influence upon that of Rome?
65. What has been the influence of Cicero on modern literature (1) as a philosophical and moral teacher; (2) as a stylist?
66. Give some account of the Ciceronianists.
67. What influence did the study of Virgil exercise (1) on later Latin literature; (2) on the Middle Ages; (3) on the poetry of the eighteenth century?
68. Who have been the most successful modern writers of Latin elegiac verse?
69. Distinguish accurately betweenoratoryandrhetoric. Discuss their relative predominance in Roman literature, and compare the latter in this respect with the literatures of England and France.
70. Give a succinct analysis of any speech of Cicero with which you are familiar, and show the principles involved in its construction.
71. Discuss the position and influence of the Epicurean and Stoic philosophies in the last age of the Republic.
72. State what plan and principle Livy lays down for himself in hisHistory. Discuss and illustrate his merits as a historian, showing how far he performs what he promises.
73. Give the political theory of Cicero as stated in hisDe RepublicaandDe Legibus, and contrast it with either that of Plato, Aristotle, Machiavel, or Sir Thomas More.
74. Analyse the main argument of theDe Natura Deorum. Has this treatise a permanent philosophical value?
75. How far did the greatest writers of the Empire understand the conditions under which they lived, and the various forces that acted around them?
76. Examine the importance of the tragedies ascribed to Seneca in the history of European literature. To whom else have they been ascribed?
77. How did the study of Greek literature at Rome affect the vocabulary and syntax of the Latin language?
78. The influence of patronage on literature. Consider chiefly with reference to Rome, but illustrate from other literatures.
79. Are there indications that Horace set before him, as a satirist, the object of superseding Lucilius?
80. Compare the relation of Persius to Horace with that of Lucan to Virgil.
81. Account for the imperfect success of Varro as an etymologist, and illustrate by examples.
82. What is known of Nigidius Figulus, the Sextii, Valerius Soranus, and Apuleius as teachers of philosophic doctrine?
83. Sketch the literary career of the poet Accius.
84 What were the main characteristics of the old Roman oratory? What classical authorities exist for its history?
85. Prove the assertion that jurisprudence was the only form of intellectual activity that Rome from first to last worked out in a thoroughly national manner.
86. Compare the portrait of Tiberius as given by Tacitus, with any of the other great creations of the historic imagination. How far is it to be considered truthful?
87. At what time did abridgments begin to be used at Rome? Account for their popularity throughout the Middle Ages, and mention some of the most important that have come down to us.
88. What remains of the writers on applied science do we possess?
89. Is it probable that the great developments of mathematical and physical science at Alexandria had any general effect upon the popular culture of the Roman world?
90. What are our chief authorities for the old Roman religion?
91. Account for the influence of Fronto, and give a list of his writings.
92. Which are the most important of the public, and which ef the private, orations of Cicero? Give a short account of one of each class, with date, place, and circumstances of delivery. How were such speeches preserved? Had the Romans any system of reporting?
93. A life of Silius Italicus with a short account of his poem.
94. Who, in your opinion, are the nearest modern representatives of Horace, Lucilius, and Juvenal?
95. In what particulars do the alcaic and sapphic metres of Horace differ from their Greek models? What are the different forms of the asclepiad metre in Horace? Have any of the Horatian metres been used by other writers?
96. Enumerate the chief imitations of Ennius in Virgil, noting the alterations where such occur.
97. Point out the main features of the Roman worship. (See index to Merivale'sRome, s. v.Religion.)
98. Write a life of Maecenas, showing his position as chief minister of the Empire, and as the centre of literary society of Rome during the Augustan Age.
99. Donaldson, in hisVarronianus, argues that the French rather than the Italian represents the more perfect form of the original Latin. Test this view by a comparison of words in both languages with the Latin forms.
100. Give a summary of the argument in any one of the following works:— Cicero'sDe Finibus, Tusculan disputations, De Officis, or the first and second books of Lucretius.
101. State the position and influence on thought and letters of the two Scipios, Laelius, and Cato the censor.
102. Give Caesar's account of the religion of the Gauls, and compare it with thelocus classicuson the subject in Lucan (I. 447). What were the national deities of the Britons, and to which of the Roman deities were they severally made to correspond?
103. Examine the chief differences between the Ciceronian and Post- Augustan syntax.
104. Trace the influence of the study of comparative philology on Latin scholarship.
105. "Italy remained without national poetry or art" (Mommsen). In what sense can this assertion be justified?
106. What passages can you collect from Virgil, Horace, Tacitus, and Juvenal, showing their beliefs on the great questions of philosophy and religion?
107. Examine the bearings of a highly-developed inflectional system like those of the Greek and Latin languages, upon the theory of prose composition.
108. To what periods of the life of Horace would you refer the composition of the Book of Epodes and the Books of Satires and Epistles? Confirm your view by quotations.
109. What is known of Suevius, Pompeius Trogus, Salvius Julianus, Gaius, and Celsus?
110. Who were the chief writers of encyclopaedias at Rome?
111. How do you account for the short duration of the legitimate drama at Rome?
112. Who were the greatest Latin scholars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries? In what department of scholarship did they mostly labour, and why?
113. Enumerate the chief losses which Latin literature has sustained.
114. Who were the original inhabitants of Italy? Give the main characteristics of the Italic family of languages. To which was it most nearly akin?
115. Illustrate from Juvenal the relations between patron and client.
116. Contrast briefly the life and occupations of an Athenian citizen in the time of Pericles and Plato, with those of a Roman in the age of Cicero and Augustus.
N.B.—Many other questions will be suggested by referring to the Index.
[1] Quint. I. 5, 72. The whole chapter is most interesting.
[2] How different has been the lot of Greek! An educated Greek at the present day would find little difficulty in understanding Xenophon or Menander. The language, though shaken by rude convulsions, has changed according to its own laws, and shown that natural vitality that belongs to a genuinely popular speech.
[3] See Conington on the Academical Study of Latin. Post. Works, i. 206.
[4] See esp. R. II. Bk. 1, ch. ix. and xv.
[1]E.g.Finns, Lapps, or other Turanian tribes.
[2] The Latin agrees with the Celtic in the retention of the dat. plur. inbus(Celt,ib),Rigaib = regibus; and the pass. inr,Berthar = fertur.
[3] Cf. Plaut. Cure. 150,Lydi(v. 1, ludii)barbari. SoVos, Tusci ac barbari, Tib. Gracch. apud Cic. de Div. ii. 4. Compare Virgil'sPinguis Tyrrhenus.
[4] It is probable that Sp. Carvilius merely popularised the use of this letter, and perhaps gave it its place in the alphabet as seventh letter.
[5] Inst. Or. 1, 7, 14.
[6] In Cicero's time the semi-voweljin the middle of words was often denoted byii; and the long vowelirepresented by the prolongation of the letter above and sometimes below the line.
[7] 1, 4, 7.
[8] This subject is well illustrated in the introduction to Masson's ed. of Todd's Milton.
[9] The reader should consult the introduction to Notes I. in Munro's Lucretius.
[10] Var. L. L. v. 85.
[11] Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 86.
[12]E.g. edepol, ecastor.
[13] Prob. an old optative, afterwards used as a fut.
[14] Cf.dic. fer.
[15] L. L. vii. 26, 27.
[16] Oscanestud. This is one of several points in which the oldest Latin approximates to the other Italian dialects, from which it gradually became more divergent. Cf.paricidas(Law of Numa) nom. sing. with Osc.Maras.
[17] Pol. iii. 22. Polybius lived in the time of the younger Scipio; but the antiquity of this treaty has recently been impugned.
[18] Inst. Or. i. 7, 12.
[19] Or, accentuating differently, "quoiús formá virtútei | párisumá fúit." We notice the strange quantity Lucius, which recalls the Homericuperopliae.
[20] From Thompson'sEssay on the Sources and Formation of the Latin Language; Hist. Of Roman Literature; Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.
[1] The Ludi Romani, as they were afterwards called.
[2] Satura.
[3] The early laws were called "carmina," a term applied to any set form of words, Liv. i. 25,Lex horrendi carminis. The theory that all laws were in the Saturnian rhythm is not by any means probable.
[4] The passages on which this theory was founded are chiefly the following:—"Cic. Brut.xix. utinam extarent illa carmina, quae multis saeculis ante suam aetatem in epulis esse cantitata a singulis convivis de clarorum virorum laudibus in Originibus seriptum reliquit Cato."Cf. Tusc.i. 2, 3, and iv. 2, s.f. Varro, as quoted by Non, says: "In conviviis pueri modesti ut cantarent carmina antiqua, in quibus laudes erant maiorum, et assa voce et cum tibicine." Horace alludes to the custom,Od.iv. 15, 27,sqq.
[5] Poeticae arti honos uon erat: si qui in ea re studebat, aut sese ad convivia adplicabat, grassator vocabatur.—Cato ap. Aul Gell. N.A.xi. 2, 5.
[6] In his epitaph.
[7] See Mommsen Hist. i. p. 240.
[8] It is a term of contempt in Ennius, "_quos olim Fauni vatesque canebant."
[9] Virg. Ecl. ix. 34.
[10] Fest. p. 333a, M.
[11] Ep. ii. 1, 162.
[12] It has been argued from a passage in Livy (ix. 36), "Habeo auctores vulgo tum Romanos pueros, sicut nunc Graecis, ita Etruscis literis erudiri solitos," that literature at Rome must be dated from the final conquest of Etruria (294 B.C.); but the Romans had long before this date been familiar with Etruscan literature, such as it was. We have no ground for supposing that they borrowed anything except the art of divination, and similar studies. Neither history nor dramatic poetry was cultivated by the Etruscans.
[13] Others, again, explainfascinumas =phallos, and regard the songs as connected with the worship of the reproductive power in nature. This seems alien from the Italian system of worship, though likely enough to have existed in Etruria. If it ever had this character, it must have lost it before its introduction into Rome.
[14] Ep. ii. 1, 139,sqq.
[15] vii. 2.
[16] Macr. S. ii. 4, 21.
[17] C. lii.
[18] C. lxi.
[19]Loc. cit.
[20] Juv. viii. 191.
[21] Some have imagined that, asSaturnia tellusis used for Italy, soSaturnius numerusmay simply mean the native or Italian rhythm. Bentley (Ep. Phal. xi.) shows that it is known to the Greeks.
[22] The nameprochaios, "the running metre," sufficiently indicates its applicability to early recitations, in which the rapidity of the singer's movements was essential to the desired effect.
[23] Attilius Fortunatianus,De Doctr. Metr.xxvi. Spengel (quoted Teuff. Rom. Lit. § 53, 3) assumes the following laws of Saturnian metre:— "(1) The Saturnian line is asynartetic; (2) in no line is it possible to omit more than onethesis, and then only the last but one, generally in the second half of the line; (3) the caesura must never be neglected, and falls after the fourththesisor the thirdarsis(this rule, however, is by no means universally observed); (4) hiatus is often permitted; (5) thearsismay be solved, and thethesisreplaced by pyrrhics or long syllables."
[24] The reader will find this question discussed in Wagner'sAulularia; where references are given to the original German authorities.
[25] Dactylic poetry is not here included, as its progress is somewhat different. In this metre we observe: (1) That when a dactyl or spondee ends a word, the natural and metrical accents coincide;e.g.—ómnia, súnt mihi, prorúmpunt. Hence the fondness for such easy and natural endings asclaudúntur lúmina nócte, common in all writers down to Manilius. (2) That the caesura is opposed to the accent,e.g.—árma virúmque cáno | Troiae | qui. These anti-accentual rhythms are continually found in Virgil, Ovid, &c. from a fondness for caesura, where the older writers havequi Troiae, and the like. (3) That it would be possible to avoid any collision between ictus and accent,e.g.—scílícet ómnibus ést labor ímpendéndus et ómnes: inveteráscit et aégro in corde senescit, &c. But the rarity of such lines after Lucretius shows that they do not conform to the genius of the language. The correspondence thus lost by improved caesura is partially re-established by more careful elision. Elision is used by Virgil to make the verse run smoothly without violating the natural pronunciation of the words;e.g.—mónstrum horréndum infórme; but this is only in the Aeneid. Such simple means of gaining this end as the Lucretiansive volúptas est, immortáli súnt, are altogether avoided by him. On the whole, however, among the Dactylic poets, from Ennius to Juvenal, the balance between natural and metrical accent remained unchanged.
[26] Most of the verses extant in this metre will be found in Wordsworth'sFragments and Specimens of Early Latin.
[27] A good essay on this subject is to be found in Wordsworth'sFragmentsp. 580,sqq.
[1] Scipio quoted Homer when he saw the flames of Carthage rising. He is described as having been profoundly moved. And according to one report Caesar's last words, when he saw Brutus among his assassins, werekahi se teknon.
[2] The reader will find them all in Wordsworth.
[3] Brut. xviii. 71,non digna sunt quae iterum legantur.
[4] Ep. ii. 1, 69.
[5] Liv. vii. 2.
[6] 19, 35. The lines are—
"Etiam purpureo suras include cothurno,Altius et revocet volueres in pectore sinus:Pressaque iam gravida crepitent tibi terga pharetra;Derige odorisequos ad certa cubilia canes."
In their present form these verses are obviously a century and a half at least later than Livius.
[7] Livy, xxvii. 37.
[8] Gell. xvii. 21, 45.
[9] See page 46.
[10] The reader may like to see one or two specimens. We give one from tragedy (theLycurgus):
"Vos qui regalis corporis custodiasAgitatis, ite actutum in frundiferos locos,Ingenio arbusta ubi nata sunt, non obsita;"
and one from comedy (theTarentilla), the description of a coquette—
"Quasi pilaIn choro ludens datatim dat se et communem facit;Alii adnutat, alii adnictat, alium amat, alium tenet.Alibi manus est occupata, alii percellit pedem,Anulum alii dat spectandum, a labris alium invocat,Alii cantat, attamen alii suo dat digito literas."
[11] TheHarioliusandLeo.
[12] Mil. Glor. 211.
[13] Brut. 19, 75.
[14] If immortals might weep for mortals, the divine Camenae would weep for Naevius the poet; thus it is that now he has been delivered into the treasure-house of Orcus, men have forgotten at Rome how to speak the Latin tongue.
[1] See Livy, vii. 2.
[2] The most celebrated was that erected by Scaurus in his aedileship 58 B.C., an almost incredible description of which is given by Pliny, N.H. xxxvi. 12. See Dict. Ant.Theatrum, whence this is taken.
[3] A temporary stone theatre was probably erected for the Apollinarian Games, 179 B.C. If so, it was soon pulled down; a remarkable instance of the determination of the Senate not to encourage dramatic performances.
[4] Done by Curio, 50 B.C.
[5]Primus subselliorum ordo.
[6] Otho's Law, 68 B.C.
[7] See Mommsen, Bk. iii. ch. xv.
[8] See prol. to Andria.
[9] Quint. x. 1,Comoedia maxime claudicamus.
[10] Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 170.
"At vestri proavi Plautinos et numeros etLaudavere sales: nimium patienter utrumqueNe dicamstultemirati."
[11] De Off. i. 29, 104.
[12] iii. 3, 14.
[13] This process is called contamination. It was necessitated by the fondness of a Roman audience for plenty of action, and their indifference to mere dialogue.
[14] Cic. de Sen. 50.
[15] ii. 2, 35.
[16] Poen. v. 1.
[17] Plautus himself calls it Tragico-comoedia.
[18] We find in Donatus the termcrepidata, which seems equivalent topalliata, though it probably was extended to tragedy, whichpalliataapparently was not.Trabeata, a term mentioned by Suet. in hisTreatise de Grammat., seems =praetextata, at all events it refers to a play with national characters of an exalted rank.
[19]E.g.trahax, perenniservus, contortiplicati, parcipromus, prognariter, and a hundred others. In Pseud. i. 5; ii. 4, 22, we havecharin touto poio, nal nam, kai touto dae, and other Greek modes of transition. Cf. Pers. ii. 1, 79.
[20] One needs but to mention forms likedanunt,ministreis,hibus,sacres,postidea dehibere, &c. and constructions likequicquam uti,istanc tactio,quid tute tecum?Nihil enim, and countless others, to understand the primary importance of Plautus's works for a historical study of the development of the Latin language.
[21] De Opt. Gen. Or. 1; cf. Att. vii. 3, 10.
[22] "in eis quas primum Caecili didici novasPartim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.* * * * *Perfeci ut spectarentur: ubi sunt cognitaePlacitae sunt"—Prol. 2, 14.
[23] 2 Hor. Ep, li. 1, 59.Vincere Caecilius gravitate.
[24] Adelph. prol.:
"Nam quod isti dicunt malevoli, homines nobilesHunc adiutare, assidueque una scribere;Quod illi maledictmn vehemens existimant,Eam laudem hic ducit maximam: cum illis placet,Qui vobis universis et populo placent:Quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotioSuo quisque tempore usus est sine superbia."
[25] See prol. to Andria.
[26] Suet. Vit. Ter.
[27] Tu quoque tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander, poneris, &c.—Ib.
[28] Possibly the following may be exceptions:—Andr. 218; Haut. 218, 356; Hec. 543. See Teuffel.
[29] See the first scene of theAdelphoe.
[30]Metriotaes, the quality so much admired by the Greek critics, in which Horace may be compared with Terence. Cf.Aul. Gell.vi. (or vii.) 14, 6.
[31] 1. 37,sqq.
[32] Suet. Vit. Ter.
[33] Sat. 1, 4, 53, referring to the scene in theAdelphoe.
[34] Except in the prologues to theEun.andHecyra.
[35] 805, "ut quimus"aiunt, "quando ut volumus non licet." The line of Caecilius is "Vivas ut possis quando non quis ut velis."
[36] Georg. iii. 9.
"Tentanda via est qua me quoque possimToll ere humovictorque virum volitare per ora."
He expresses his aspiration after immortality in the same terms thatEnnius had employed.
[37] Eun. v. iv.
[38] Or "Lanuvinus." Those who wish to know the inartistic expedients to which he resorted to gain applause should read the prologues of Terence, which are most valuable materials for literary criticism.
[39] Att. xiv. 20, 3.
[40] Teuffel 103.
[41] Sometimes calledTabernaria, Diomed iii. p. 488, though, strictly speaking, this denoted a lower and more provincial type.
[42] x. 1, 100.
[1]Quadrati versus.Gell. ii. 29.
[2] Cic. de Sen. 5, 14.
[3] Ep. I. xix. 7.
[4] Nunquam poetor nisi podager.
[5]Quintus Maeonides pavone ex Pythagoreo(Persius).
[6] Greek, Oscan, and Latin.
[7] Ep. II. i. 52.
[8] Fragment of theTelamo.
[9]Aufert Pacuvius docti famam senis.—Hor. Ep.ii. 1, 56.
[10] We learn from Pliny that he decorated his own scenes.
[11] We infer that he came to Rome not later than 169, as in that year he buried Ennius; but it is likely that he arrived much earlier.
[12] De Am. vii.
[13] 1, 77. "Antiopa aerumnis cor luctificabile fulta."
[14] Tusc. II. x. 48.
[15] The Antiopa and Dulorestes.
[16] Quint. I. V. 67-70.
[17] We give the reader an example of this feature of Pacuvius's style. In theAntiopa, Amphion gives a description of the tortoise: "Quadrupes tardigrada agrestis humilis aspera Capite brevi cervice anguina aspectu truci Eviscerata inanima, cum artimali sono." To which his hearers reply —"Ita saeptuosa dictione abs te datur, Quod coniectura sapiens aegre contulit. Non intelligimus nisi si aperte dixeris."
[18] Prob. 94 B.C. when Cic. was twelve years old. In Planc. 24, 59, he calls him "gravis et ingeniosus poeta."
[19] Cf. Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 56; Cv. Am. i. 15, 19. On the other hand, Hor. S. I. x. 53.
[20] Loco = decori, Non. 338, 22.
[21] Compare a similar subtle distinction in the Dulorestes, "Pigetpaternum nomen, maternumpudetprofari."
[22] Propria = perpetua, Non. 362, 2.
[1] Vahlen, quoted by Teuffel, § 90, 3; see Gell. xvii. 21, 43.
[2] Post. Works, i. p. 344.
[3] Inest in genere et sanctitas regum, qui plurimum inter nomines pollent, et caerimonia deorum, quorum ipsi in potestate sunt reges.—Suet. Jul.6.
[4] "Postquamst morte datus Plautus Comoedia luget:Scaenast deserta; dein Risus, Ludus, JocusqueEt numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumarunt."—Gell.i. 24, 3.
[5] "Amnem, Troiugena, Cannam Romane fuge hospes," is the best known of these lines. Many others have been collected, and have been arranged with less probability, in Saturnian verse by Hermann. The substance is given, Livy, xxv. 12. See Browne, Hist. Rom. Lit. p. 34, 35. Another is preserved by Ennius, Aio te, Aeacida, Romanes vincere posse.
[6] The shortening of finalo, ergo, pono, vigilando, through the influence of accent, is almost the only change made after Ennius except in a few proper names.
[7] Compare that of the horse (II. vi. 506), "Et tum sicut equus qui de praesepibu' fartus Vincla suis magnis animis abrupit, et inde Fert sese campi per caerula laetaque prata Celso pectore, saepe iubam quassat simul altam. Spiritus ex anima calida spumas agit albas," with Virg. Aen. xi. 492.
[8] Lucr. i. 111.
[9] Tr. ii. 424.
[10] Sat. vi. 1.
[12] Imitated respectively, Virg. A. iv. 585; A. i. 539; A. x. 361.
[1] Satira tota nostra est.—Quint.x. i.
[2] Aen. vi. 847,sqq.G. ii. 190;ib.461,sqq.
[3] On this subject the reader may be referred to Merivale's excellent remarks in the last chapter of his History of the Romans under the Empire.
[4] It is probable that there were two kinds of Greekdrama satyrikon; the tragic, of which we have an example in theCyclopsof Euripides, which represented the gods in a ludicrous light, and was abundantly furnished withSileni,Satyrs, &c.; and the comic, which was cultivated at Alexandria, and certainly represented the follies and vices of contemporary life under the dramatic guise of heroic incident. But it is the non-dramatic character of Roman Satire that at once distinguishes it from these forms.
[5] See Hor. S. i. iv. 1-6.
[6] These were of a somewhat different type, and will not be further discussed here. See p. 144. Cf. Quint, x. 1, 95.
[7] Not invariably, however, by Lucilius himself. He now and then employed the trochaic or iambic metres.
[8] Sat. i. iv. 39, and more to the same effect in the later part of the satire.
[9] "In hora saepe ducentos ut multum versus dictabat stans pede in uno."Sat. 1, iv. 9.
[10] Posthumous Works, vol. ii. on the Study of Latin.
[11] iii. p. 481, P. (Teuffel).
[13] As,e.g.the Precepts of Ofella, S. ii. 2, and theUnde et quo Catius?S. ii. 4.
[14] The words are, (1) "Hic est ille situs, cui nemo civis neque hostis Quivit pro factis reddere operae pretium," where "operae" must be pro nounced "op'rae;" (2) "A sole exoriente supra Mucotis paludes Nemo est qui factis me acquiparare queat. Si fas eudo plagas caelestum ascendere cuiquam est, Mi soli caeli maxima porta patet."
[15] Infra Lucili censum, Sat. ii. 1, 75.
[16] L. Corn. Lentulus Lupus.
[17] Pers. i. 115.
[18] "Primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,Scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis."—Hor. Sat.ii. 1, 69.
[19] Ense velut stricto quoties Lucilius ardens Infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est Criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.—Juv. i. 165.
[20] X. i. 93.
[21] Plin. N. H. Praef.
[22] De Fin. i. 3, 7.
[23] "Lucilianae humilitatis."—Petronius.
[24] Sat. i. x.
[25] Primus condidit stili nasum, N. H. Praef.
[26] As instances we may take "Has res ad te scriptas Luci misimus Aeli:" again, "Si minus delectat, quodatechnonet Eisocratiumst, _Laerodes_que simul totum ac summeirakiodes…" or worse still, "VillaLucanimox potierisaca" for "Lucaniaca," quoted by Ausonius, who adds "Lucili vati sic imitator eris."
[27] From which Hor. borrowed his Iter ad Brundisium.
[28] Hor. S. i. x.
[29] Cic. de Fin. i. 3, 7.
[1] Liv. vii. 2. The account, however, is extremely confused.
[2] Liv. x. 208,gnaros Oscae linguaeexploratum mittit.
[3] See Teuff. R. Lit. 9, § 4.
[4] Ad Fam. ix. 16, 7.
[5] Val. Max. ii. 1.
[6] Sat. i. 10, 3.
[7] The names are Aleones, Prostibulum, Pannuceatae, Nuptiae, Privignus, Piscatores, Ergastulum, Patruus, Asinaria, Rusticus, Dotata, Decuma Fullonis, Praeco, Bucco, Macci gemini, Verres aegrotus, Pistor, Syri, Medicus, Maialis, Sarcularius, Augur, Petitor, Anulus, Praefectus, Arista, Ilernia, Poraria, Marsupium, Aeditumus, Auctoratus, Satyra, Galli, Transalpini, Maccus miles, Maccus sequester, Pappus Agricola, Leno, Lar familiaris, &c.
[8] iii. 174, vi. 71.
[9] Viz. his own epitaph, and those on Scipio, p. 78, ii. 4.
[10] xix. 9, 14.
[11] De Nat. Deor. i. 28, 79.
[12] Vit. Ter.
[13] = Pacuvi.
[1] So says Servius, but this can hardly be correct. See the note at the end of the chapter.
[2]E.g.iv. 7, 13, 20.
[3] The Roman mind was much more impressible to rich colour, decoration, &c. than the Greek. Possibly painting may on this account have met with earlier countenance.
[4] R. H. vol. i. p. 272.
[5] Liv. xxi. 38. calls him "maximus auctor."
[6] Sat. i. 12.
[7] vii. 3.
[8] The question does not concern us here. The reader is referred to Niebuhr's chapter on the Era from the foundation of the city.
[9] Cic. de Off. iii. 32, 115.
[10] This is an inference, but a probable one, from a statement of Plutarch.
[11] Vide M. Catonis Reliquiae, H. Jordan, Lips. 1860.
[12] So he himself asserted; but they did not hold any Roman magistracy.
[13] Gell. xi. 2.
[14] Plin. N. H. vii. 27.
[15] Liv. xxxix. 40.
[16] De Sen. xvii. 65.
[17] Brut. xvi. 63.
[18] See H. Jordan's treatise.
[19] This was his age when he accused the perjured Galba after his return from Numantia (149 B.C.)—one of the finest of his speeches.
[20] Cato, 3, 2-4.
[21] See Wordsworth, Fr. of early Latin, p. 611, § 2.
[22] Serv. ad Virg. Aen. i. 267.
[23] Charis. ii. p. 181 (Jord).
[24] Serv. ad Virg. Aen. xi. 700.
[25] Gell. ii. 28, 6.
[26] Gell. iii. 7, 1.
[27] xii. 11, 23.
[28]Opikes. Cato's superficial knowledge of Greek prevented him from knowing that this word to Greek ears conveys no insult, but is a mere ethnographic appellation.
[29] Plin. N.H. xxix. 8, 15.
[30] De Sen. He gives the ground of it "quia multarum rerum usum habebat."
[31] Cic. de Or. 11, 33, 142.
[32] Cic. de Off. i. 11. 10.
[33] Plin. xiii. 37, 84, and xxix. 6.
[34] De Or. ii. 12. See Nieb. Introd. Lect. iv.
[35]Annales, alsoCommentarii.
[36]Exiliter scriptos, Brut. 27, 106.
[37] See Quint. x. 1, passim.
[38] Gell. vii. 9, 1; speaks in this way of Piso.
[39] See Liv. i. 55.
[40] Cato, doubtless reflecting on the difficulty with which he had formed his own style, says "Literarum radices amarae, fructus incundiores."
[41] Liv. lxxiv. Epit.
[42]aulo influxit vehementius … agrestis ille quidem et horridus.— Cic. leg. i. 2, 6. So "addidit historiae maiorem sonum," id. de Or. ii. 12, 54.
[43] xxix. 27.
[44] Plut. Numa. i.
[45] ix. 13. So Fronto ap. Gell. xiii. 29, 2.
[46]Aegis katestoaumenae, as distinct fromAegis eiromenae, Ar. Rhet.
[47] vii. 9.
[48] Liv. xxiii. 2.
[49] Id. xx. 8.
[50] iv. 7.
[1] The evil results of a judicial system like that of Rome are shown by the lax views of so good a man as Quintilian, who compares deceiving the judges to a painter producing illusions by perspective (ii. 17, 21). "Nec Cicero, cum se tenebras offudisse iudicibus in causa Cluentii gloriatus est, nihil ipse vidit. Et pictor, cum vi artis suae efficit, ut quaedam eminere in opere, quaedam recessisse credamus, ipse ea plana esse non nescit."
[2] x. 1. 32.
[3] See the articleJudicia Publicain Ramsay's Manual of Roman Antiquities.
[4] The reader is referred to the admirable account of the Atheniandicasteriesin Grote's History of Greece.
[5] See Forsyth's Life of Cicero, ch. 3.
[6] Brut. xiv. 53.
[7] Quint. ii. 16, 8.
[8]Peithoquam vocant Graeci, cuius effector est Orator, hanc Suadam appellavit Ennius.—Cic. Br. 58.
[9] Brut. 65.
[10] Brut. 293.
[11] Cic. Sen. ii. 38.
[12] viii. 7, 1.
[13] Diom. ii. p. 468.
[14] Ep. ad. Anton. i. 2, p. 99.
[15] Jordan, p. 41.
[16] Brut. 82.
[17] Wordsworth gives extracts from Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus (228-169 B.C.), C. Titius (161 B.C.), Metellus Macedonicus (140 B.C.), the latter apparently modernised.
[18] He and Scipio are thus admirably characterised by Horace:—
"Virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli."
[19] Brut. xxi. 83.
[20] Cic. Brut, xxiii. The narrator from whom Cicero heard it was Rutilius Rufus.
[21] He did not attempt to justify himself, but by parading his little children he appealed with success to the compassion of his judges!
[22] In 149 B.C. Piso established a permanent commission to sit throughout the year for hearing all charges under the lawde Repetundis. Before this every case was tried by a special commission. Under Sulla all crimes were brought under the jurisdiction of their respective commissions, which established the complete system of courts of law.
[23] Ch. 34.
[24] Brut. 97, 333.
[25] Hist. Rom. bk. iv. ch. iii.
[26] Cic. de Or. III. lx. 225.
[27] Brut. xxxiii. 125.
[28] The same will be observed in Greece. We are apt to think that the space devoted to personal abuse in theDe Coronais too long. But it was the universal custom.