Plumbing
Purpose and Requisites for House Plumbing.—A system of house plumbing presupposes the existence of a street sewer, and a water-supply distribution within the house. While the former is not absolutely essential, as a house may have a system of plumbing without there being a sewer in the street, still in the water-carriage system of disposal of sewage the street sewer is the outlet for the various waste and excrementitious matter of the house. The house-water distribution serves for the purpose of flushing and cleaning the various pipes in the house plumbing.
The purposes of house plumbing are: (1) to get rid of all excreta and waste water; (2) to prevent any foreign matter and gases in the sewer from entering the house through the pipes; and (3) to dilute the air in the pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innocuous.
To accomplish these results, house plumbing demands the following requisites:
(1)Receptaclesfor collecting the waste and excreta. These receptacles, or plumbing fixtures, mustbe adequate for the purpose, small, noncorrosive, self-cleansing, well flushed, accessible, and so constructed as to easily dispose of their contents.
(2)Separate Vertical Pipesfor sewage proper, for waste water, and for rain water; upright, direct, straight, noncorrosive, water- and gas-tight, well flushed, and ventilated.
(3) Short, direct, clean, well-flushed, gas-tight branch pipes to connect receptacles with vertical pipes.
(4)Disconnectionof the house sewer from the house pipes by the main trap on house drain, and disconnection of house from the house pipes by traps on all fixtures.
(5)Ventilationof the whole system by the fresh-air inlet, vent pipes, and the extension of all vertical pipes.
Definitions.—TheHouse Drainis the horizontal main pipe receiving all waste water and sewage from the vertical pipes, and conducting them outside of the foundation walls, where it joins the house sewer.
TheSoil Pipeis the vertical pipe or pipes receiving sewage matter from the water-closets in the house.
TheMain Waste Pipeis the pipe receiving waste water from any fixtures except the water-closets.
Branch Soil and Waste Pipesare the short pipes between the fixtures in the house and the main soil and waste pipes.
Trapsare bends in pipes, so constructed as to hold a certain volume of water, called the water seal; this water seal serves as a barrier to prevent air and gases from the sewer from entering the house.
Vent Pipesare the special pipes to which the traps or fixtures are connected by short-branch vent pipes, and serve to ventilate the air in the pipes, and prevent siphonage.
TheRain Leaderis the pipe receiving rain and storm water from the roof of the house.
Materials Used for Plumbing Pipes.—The materials from which the different pipes used in house plumbing are made differ according to the use of each pipe, its position, size, etc. The following materials are used: cement, vitrified pipe, lead; cast, wrought, and galvanized iron; brass, steel, nickel, sheet metal, etc.
Cement and Vitrified Pipesare used for the manufacture of street and house sewers. In some places vitrified pipe is used for house drains, but in most cities this is strongly objected to; and in New York City no earthenware pipes are permitted within the house. The objection to earthenware pipes is that they are not strong enough for the purpose, break easily, and cannot be made gas-tight.
Lead Pipeis used for all branch waste pipes and short lengths of water pipes. The advantage of lead pipes is that they can be easily bent and shaped, hence their use for traps and connections. The disadvantage of lead for pipes is the softness of the material, which is easily broken into by nails, gnawed through by rats, etc.
Brass, Nickel, Steel, and other such materials are used in the manufacture of expensive plumbing, but are not commonly employed.
Sheet MetalandGalvanized Ironare used for rain leaders, refrigerator pipes, etc.
Wrought Ironis used in the so-called Durham system of plumbing. Wrought iron is very strong; the sections of pipe are twenty feet long, the connections are made by screw joints, and a system of house plumbing made of this material is very durable, unyielding, strong, and perfectly gas-tight. The objections to wrought iron for plumbing pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily repaired and that it is too expensive.
Cast Ironis the material universally used for all vertical and horizontal pipes in the house. There are two kinds of cast-iron pipes manufactured for plumbing uses, the "standard and the extra heavy."
The following are the relative weights of each:
The light-weight pipe, though extensively used by plumbers, is generally prohibited by most municipalities, as it is not strong enough for the purpose, and it is difficult to make a gas-tight joint with these pipes without breaking them.
Cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of five feet each, with an enlargement on one end of the pipe, called the "hub" or "socket," into which the other, or "spigot," end is fitted. All cast-iron pipe must be straight, sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from sand holes, cracks, and other defects, and of a uniform thickness.
The thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows:
Cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into hot tar, or by some other process. Tar coating is, however, not allowed in New York, because it conceals the sand holes and other flaws in the pipes.
Joints and Connections.—To facilitate connections of cast-iron pipes, short and convenient forms and fittings are cast. Some of these connections are named according to their shape, such as L, T, Y, etc.
Fig. 16.Fig. 16.DIFFERENT FORMS AND FITTINGS.
DIFFERENT FORMS AND FITTINGS.
Iron Pipeis joined toIron Pipeby lead-calked joints. These joints are made as follows: the spigotend of one pipe is inserted into the enlarged end, or the "hub," of the next pipe. The space between the spigot and hub is half filled with oakum or dry hemp. The remaining space is filled with hot molten lead, which, on cooling, is well rammed and calked in by special tools made for the purpose. To make a good, gas-tight, lead-calked joint, experience and skill are necessary. The ring of lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be from 1 to 2 inches deep, and from1/2to3/4of an inch thick; 12 ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the diameter of the pipe. Iron pipes are sometimes connected by means of so-called rust joints. Instead of lead, the space between the socket and spigot is filled in with an iron cement consisting of 98 parts of cast-iron borings, 1 part of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of sal ammoniac.
Fig. 17.Fig. 17.
All connections betweenLead Pipesand betweenLeadandBrassorCopperpipes must be made by means of "wiped" solder joints. A wiped joint is made by solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes, the solder being worked about the joint, shaped into an oval lump, and wiped around with a cloth, giving the joint a bulbous form.
All connections betweenLead PipesandIron Pipesare made by means of brass ferrules. Lead cannot be soldered to iron, so a brass fitting or ferrule is used; it is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped joint, and to the iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint.
Putty,Cement, andSlipjoints should not be tolerated on any pipes.
Fig. 18.Fig. 18.
Traps.—We have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe so constructed as to hold a quantity of water sufficient to interpose a barrier between the sewer and the fixture. There are many and various kinds of traps, some depending on water alone as their "seal," others employing mechanical means, such as balls, valves, lips, also mercury, etc., to assist in the disconnection between the house and sewer ends of the pipe system.
The value of a trap depends: (1) on the depth of its water seal; (2) on the strengths and permanency of the seal; (3) on the diameter and uniformity of the trap; (4) on its simplicity; (5) on its accessibility; and (6) on its self-cleansing character.
The depth of a trap should be about three inches for water-closet traps, and about two inches for sink and other traps.
Traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe to which they are attached.
The simpler the trap, the better it is.
Traps should be provided with cleanout screw openings, caps, etc., to facilitate cleaning.
The shapes of traps vary, and the number of the various kinds of traps manufactured is very great.
Traps are named according to their use: gully, grease, sediment, intercepting, etc.; according to their shape: D, P, S, V, bell, bottle, pot, globe, etc.;and according to the name of their inventor: Buchan, Cottam, Dodd, Antill, Renk, Hellyer, Croydon, and others too numerous to mention.
The S trap is the best for sink waste pipes; the running trap is the best on house drains.
Fig. 19.Fig. 19.FORMS OF TRAPS.
FORMS OF TRAPS.
Fig. 20.Fig. 20.FORMS OF TRAPS.
FORMS OF TRAPS.
Loss of Seal by Traps.—The seals of traps are not always secure, and the causes of unsealing of traps are as follows:
(1)Evaporation.—If a fixture in a house is not used for a long time, the water constituting the seal in the trap of the fixture will evaporate; the seal will thus be lost, and ingress of sewer air will result. To guard against evaporation, fixtures must be frequently flushed; and during summer, or at such times as the house is unoccupied and the fixtures not used, the traps are to be filled with oil or glycerin, either of which will serve as an efficient seal.
(2)Momentum.—A sudden flow of water from the fixture may, by the force of its momentum, empty all water in the trap and thus leave it unsealed. To prevent the unsealing of traps by momentum, they must be of a proper size, not less than the waste pipe of the fixture, the seal must be deep, and the trap in a perfectly straight position, as a slight inclination will favor its emptying. Care should also be taken while emptying the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal.
(3)Capillary Attraction.—If a piece of paper, cotton, thread, hair, etc., remain in the trap, and a partof the paper, etc., projects into the lumen of the pipe, a part of the water will be withdrawn by capillary attraction from the trap and may unseal it. To guard against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction, traps should be of a uniform diameter, without nooks and corners, and of not too large a size, and should also be well flushed, so that nothing but water remains in the trap.
Siphonage and Back Pressure.—The water in the trap, or the "seal," is suspended between two columns of air, that from the fixture to the seal, and from the seal of the trap to the seal of the main trap on house drain. The seal in the trap is therefore not very secure, as it is influenced by any and all currents and agitations of air from both sides, and especially from its distal side. Any heating of the air in the pipes with which the trap is connected, any increase of temperature in the air contents of the vertical pipes with which the trap is connected, and any evolution of gases within those pipes will naturally increase the weight and pressure of the air within them, with the result that the increased pressure will influence the contents of the trap, or the "seal," and may dislodge the seal backward, if the pressure is very great, or, at any rate, may force the foul air from the pipes through the seal of the traps and foul the water therein, thus allowing foul odors to enter the rooms from the traps of the fixtures. This condition, which in practice exists oftener than it is ordinarily thought,is called "back pressure." By "back pressure" is therefore understood theforcing back, or, at least, thefouling, of the water in traps, due to the increased pressure of the air within the pipes back of the traps; the increase in air pressure being due to heating of pipes by the hot water occasionally circulating within them, or by the evolution of gases due to the decomposition of organic matter within the pipes.
Fig. 21.Fig. 21.NON-SYPHONING TRAP.Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works.
NON-SYPHONING TRAP.
Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works.
A condition somewhat similar, but acting in a reverse way, is presented in what is commonly termed "siphonage." Just as well as the seal in traps maybe forced back by the increased pressure of the air within the pipes, the same seal may beforced out, pulled out, aspirated, or siphoned out by a sudden withdrawal of a large quantity of air from the pipes with which the trap is connected. Such a sudden withdrawal of large quantities of air is occasioned every time there is a rush of large column of water through the pipes, e. g., when a water-closet or similar fixture is suddenly discharged; the water rushes through the pipes with a great velocity and creates a strong down current of air, with the result that where the down-rushing column passes by a trap, the air in the trap and, later, its seal are aspirated or siphoned out, thus leaving the trap without a seal. By "siphonage" is therefore meant the emptying of the seal in a trap by the aspiration of the water in the trap due to the downward rush of water and air in the pipes with which the trap is connected.
To guard against the loss of seal through siphonage "nonsiphoning" traps have been invented, that is, the traps are so constructed that the seal therein is very large, and the shape of the traps made so that siphonage is difficult. These traps are, however, open to the objection that in the first place they do not prevent the fouling of the seals by back pressure, and in the second place they are not easily cleansable and may retain dirt in their large pockets. The universal method of preventing both siphonage and back pressure is by the system of vent pipes, orwhat plumbers call "back-air" pipes. Every trap is connected by branches leading from the crown or near the crown of the trap to a main vertical pipe which runs through the house the same as the waste and soil pipes, and which contains nothing but air, which air serves as a medium to be pressed upon by the "back-pressure" air, or to be drawn upon by the siphoning, and thus preventing any agitation and influence upon the seal in the traps; for it is self evident that as long as there is plenty of air at the distal part of the seal, the seal itself will remain uninfluenced by any agitation or condition of the air within the pipes with which the trap is connected.
The vent-pipe system is also an additional means of ventilating the plumbing system of the house, already partly ventilated by the extension of the vertical pipes above the roof and by the fresh-air inlet. The principal objection urged against the installation of the vent-pipe system is the added expense, which is considerable; and plumbers have sought therefore to substitute for the vent pipes various mechanical traps, also nonsiphoning traps. The vent pipes are, however, worth the additional expense, as they are certainly the best means to prevent siphonage and back pressure, and are free from the objections against the cumbersome mechanical traps and the filthy nonsiphoning traps.
Plumbing Pipes
The House Drain.—All waste and soil matter in the house is carried from the receptacles into the waste and soil pipes, and from these into the house drain, the main pipe of the house, which carries all waste and soil into the street sewer. The house drain extends from the junction of the soil and waste pipes of the house through the house to outside of the foundations two to five feet, whence it is called "house sewer." The house drain is a very important part of the house-plumbing system, and great care must be taken to make its construction perfect.
Material.—The material of which house drains are manufactured is extra heavy cast iron. Lighter pipes should never be used, and the use of vitrified pipes for this purpose should not be allowed.
Size.—The size of the house drain must be proportional to the work to be performed. Too large a pipe will not be self-cleansing, and the bottom of it will fill with sediment and slime. Were it not for the need of carrying off large volumes of storm water, the house drain could be a great deal smaller than itusually is. A three-inch pipe is sufficient for a small house, though a four-inch pipe is made obligatory in most cities. In New York City no house drains are allowed of smaller diameter than six inches.
Fig. 22.Fig. 22.SYSTEM OF HOUSE DRAINAGE, SHOWING THE PLUMBING OF A HOUSE. (H. Bramley.)
SYSTEM OF HOUSE DRAINAGE, SHOWING THE PLUMBING OF A HOUSE. (H. Bramley.)
Fall.—The fall or inclination of the house drain depends on its size. Every house drain must be laid so that it should have a certain inclination toward the house sewer, so as to increase the velocity of flow in it and make it self-flushing and self-cleansing. The rate of fall should be as follows:
Position.—The house drain lies in a horizontal position in the cellar, and should, if possible, be exposed to view. It should be hung on the cellar wall or ceiling, unless this is impracticable, as when fixtures in the cellar discharge into it; in this case, it must be laid in a trench cut in a uniform grade, walled upon the sides with bricks laid in cement, and provided with movable covers and with a hydraulic-cement base four inches thick, on which the pipe is to rest. The house drain must be laid in straight lines, if possible; all changes in direction must be made with curved pipes, the curves to be of a large radius.
Connections.—The house drain must properly connect with the house sewer at a point about two feet outside of the outer front vault or area wall of thebuilding. An arched or other proper opening in the wall must be provided for the drain to prevent damage by settling.
All joints of the pipe must be gas-tight, lead-calked joints, as stated before. The junction of the vertical soil, waste, and rain-leader pipes must not be made by right-angle joints, but by a curved elbow fitting of a large radius, or by "Y" branches and 45° bends.
When the house drain does not rest on the floor, but is hung on the wall or ceiling of the cellar, the connection of the vertical soil and waste pipes must have suitable supports, the best support being a brick pier laid nine inches in cement and securely fastened to the wall.
Near all bends, traps, and connections of other pipes with the house drain suitable hand-holes should be provided, these hand-holes to be tightly covered by brass screw ferrules, screwed in, and fitted with red lead.
"No steam exhaust, boiler blow-off, or drip pipe shall be connected with the house drain or sewer. Such pipes must first discharge into a proper condensing tank, and from this a proper outlet to the house sewer outside of the building must be provided."
Main Traps.—The disconnection of the house pipes from the street sewer is accomplished by a trap on the house drain near the front wall, inside the house, or just outside the foundation wall butusually inside of the house. The best trap for this purpose is the siphon or running trap. This trap must be constructed with a cleaning hand-hole on the inside or house side of the trap, or on both sides, and the hand-holes are to be covered gas-tight by brass screw ferrules.
Extension of Vertical Pipes.—By the main trap the house-plumbing system is disconnected from the sewer, and by the traps on each fixture from the air in the rooms; still, as the soil, waste, and drain pipes usually contain offensive solids and liquids which contaminate the air in the pipes, it is a good method to ventilate these pipes. This ventilation of the soil, waste, and house drain pipes prevents the bad effects on health from the odors, etc., given off by the slime and excreta adhering in the pipes, and it is accomplished by two means: (1) by extension of the vertical pipes to the fresh air above the roof, and (2) by the fresh-air inlet on the house drain.
By these means a current of air is established through the vertical and horizontal pipes.
Every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof at least two feet above the highest coping of the roof or chimney. The extension must be far from the air shafts, windows, ventilators, and mouths of chimneys, so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into them. The extension must be not less than the full size of each pipe, so as to avoid friction from the circulation of air. The use of covers, cowls,return bends, etc., is reprehensible, as they interfere with the free circulation of air. A wire basket may be inserted to prevent foreign substances from falling into pipes.
Fresh-air Inlet.—The fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about four inches in diameter; it enters the house drain on the house side of the main trap, and extends to the external air at or near the curb, or at any convenient place, at least fifteen feet from the nearest window. The fresh-air inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by an iron grating, and should be far from the cold-air box of any hot-air furnace. When clean, properly cared for, and extended above the ground, the fresh-air inlet, in conjunction with the open extended vertical pipe, is an efficient means of ventilating the air in the house pipes; unfortunately most fresh-air inlets are constantly obstructed, and do not serve the purpose for which they are made.
The Soil and Waste Pipes.—The soil pipe receives liquid and solid sewage from the water-closets and urinals; the waste pipe receives all waste water from sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, etc.
The material of which the vertical soil and waste pipes are made is cast iron.
The size of main waste pipes is from three to four inches; of main soil pipes, from four to five inches. In tenement houses with five water-closets or more, not less than five inches.
The joints of the waste and soil pipe should be lead calked. The connections of the lead branch pipes or traps with the vertical lines must be by Y joints, and by means of brass ferrules, as explained above.
The location of the vertical pipes must never be within the wall, built in, nor outside the house, but preferably in a special three-foot square shaft adjacent to the fixtures, extending from the cellar to the roof, where the air shaft should be covered by a louvered skylight; that is, with a skylight with slats outwardly inclined, so as to favor ventilation.
The vertical pipes must be accessible, exposed to view in all their lengths, and, when covered with boards, so fitted that the boards may be readily removed.
Vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in full diameter, as previously stated. When less than four inches in diameter, they must be enlarged to four inches at a point not less than one foot below the roof surface by an "increaser," of not less than nine inches long.
All soil and waste pipes must, whenever necessary, be securely fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps.
Vertical soil and waste pipes must not be trapped at their base, as the trap would not serve any purpose, and would prevent a perfect flow of the contents.
Branch Soil and Waste Pipes.—The fixtures must be near the vertical soil and waste pipes in order that the branch waste and soil pipes should be as short aspossible. The trap of the branch soil and waste pipes must not be far from the fixture, not more than two feet from it, otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in the waste and soil branch will emit bad odors.
The minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as follows:
Branch soil and waste pipes must have a fall of at least one-quarter inch to one foot.
The branch waste and soil pipes and traps must be exposed, accessible, and provided with screw caps, etc., for inspection and cleaning purposes.
Each fixture should be separately trapped as close to the fixture as possible, as two traps on the same line of branch waste or soil pipes will cause the air between the traps to be closed in, forming a so-called "cushion," that will prevent the ready flow of contents.
"All traps must be well supported and rest true with respect to their water level."
Vent Pipes and Their Branches.—The purpose of vent pipes, we have seen, is to prevent siphoning of traps and to ventilate the air in the traps and pipes. The material of which vent pipes are made is cast iron.
The size of vent pipes depends on the number oftraps with which they are connected; it is usually two or three inches. The connection of the branch vent to the trap must be at the crown of the trap, and the connection of the branch vent to the main vent pipe must be above the trap, so as to prevent friction of air. The vent pipes are not perfectly vertical, but with a continuous slope, so as to prevent condensation of air or vapor therein.
The vent pipes should be extended above the roof, several feet above the coping, etc.; and the extension above the roof should not be of less than four inches diameter, so as to avoid obstruction by frost. No return bends or cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent pipes. Sometimes the vent, instead of running above the roof, is connected with the soil pipe several feet above all fixtures.
Fig. 23.Fig. 23.LEADER PIPE.
LEADER PIPE.
Rain Leaders.—The rain leader serves to collect the rain water from the roof and eaves gutter. It usually discharges its contents into the house drain, although some leaders are led to the street gutter, while others are connected with school sinks in the yard. The latter practice is objectionable, as it may lead the foul air from the school sink into the rooms, the windowsof which are near the rain leader; besides, the stirring up of the contents of the school sink produces bad odors. When the rain leader is placed within the house, it must be made of cast iron with lead-calked joints; when outside, as is the rule, it may be of sheet metal or galvanized-iron pipe with soldered joints. When the rain leader is run near windows, the rules and practice are that it should be trapped at its base, the trap to be a deep one to prevent evaporation, and it should be placed several feet below the ground, so as to prevent freezing.
Plumbing Fixtures
The receptacles or fixtures within the house for receiving the waste and excrementitious matter and carrying it off through the pipes to the sewer are very important parts of house plumbing. Great care must be bestowed upon the construction, material, fitting, etc., of the plumbing fixtures, that they be a source of comfort in the house instead of becoming a curse to the occupants.
Sinks.—The waste water from the kitchen is disposed of by means of sinks. Sinks are usually made of cast iron, painted, enameled, or galvanized. They are also made of wrought iron, as well as of earthenware and porcelain. Sinks must be set level, and provided with a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of kitchen refuse from being swept into the pipe and obstructing it. If possible the back and sides of a sink should be cast from one piece; the back and sides, when of wood, should be covered by nonabsorbent material, to prevent the wood from becoming saturated with waste water.[18]No woodwork shouldinclose sinks; they should be supported on iron legs and be open beneath and around. The trap of a sink is usually two inches in diameter, and should be near the sink; it should have a screw cap for cleaning and inspection, and the branch vent pipe should be at the crown of the trap.
Washbasins.—Washbasins are placed in bathrooms, and, when properly constructed and fitted, are a source of comfort. They should not be located in bedrooms, and should be open, without any woodwork around them. The washbowls are made of porcelain or marble, with a socket at the outlet, into which a plug is fitted.
Wash Tubs.—For laundry purposes wooden, iron-enameled, stone, and porcelain tubs are fitted in the kitchen or laundry room. Porcelain is the best material, although very expensive. The soapstone tub is the next best; it is clean, nonabsorbent, and not too expensive. Wood should never be used, as it soon becomes saturated, is foul, leaks, and is offensive. In old houses, wherever there are wooden tubs, they should be covered with zinc or some nonabsorbent material. The wash tubs are placed in pairs, sometimes three in a row, and they are generally connected with one lead waste pipe one and a half to two inches in diameter, with one trap for all the tubs.
Bath Tubs.—Bath tubs are made of enameled iron or porcelain, and should not be covered or inclosed by any woodwork. The branch waste pipe should betrapped and connected with the main waste or soil pipe. The floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of nonabsorbent material.[19]
Refrigerators.—The waste pipes of refrigerators should not connect with any of the house pipes, but should be emptied into a basin or pail; or, if the refrigerator is large, its waste pipe should be conducted to the cellar, where it should discharge into a properly trapped, sewer-connected and water-supplied open sink.
Boilers.—The so-called sediment pipe from the hot-water boiler in the kitchen should be connected with the sink trap at the inlet side of the trap.
Urinals.—As a rule, no urinals should be tolerated within a house; they are permissible only in factories and office buildings. The material is enameled iron or porcelain. They must be provided with a proper water supply to flush them.
Overflows.—To guard against overflow of washbasins, bath tubs, etc., overflow pipes from the upper portion of the fixtures are commonly provided. These pipes are connected with the inlet side of the trap of the same fixture. They are, however, liable to become a nuisance by being obstructed with dirt and not being constantly flushed; whenever possible they should be dispensed with.
Safes and Wastes.—A common usage with plumbers in the past has been to provide sinks, washbasins, bath tubs, and water-closets, not only with overflow pipes, but also with so-called safes, which consist of sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edge so as to catch all drippings and overflow from fixtures; from these safes a drip pipe or waste is conducted to the cellar, where it empties into a sink. Of course, when such safe wastes are connected with the soil or waste pipes, they become a source of danger, even if they are trapped, as they are not properly cared for or flushed; and their traps are usually not sealed. Even when discharging into a sink in the cellar, safes and safe waste are very unsightly, dirty, liable to accumulate filth, and are offensive. With open plumbing, and with the floors under the fixtures of nonabsorbent material, they are useless.
Water-closets.—The most important plumbing fixtures within the house are the water-closets. Upon the proper construction and location of the water-closets greatly depends the health of the inhabitants of the house. Water-closets should be placed in separate, well-lighted, perfectly ventilated, damp-proof, and clean compartments, and no water-closet should be used by more than one family in a tenement house. The type and construction of the water-closets should be carefully attended to, as the many existing, old, and obsolete types of water-closets are still being installed in houses, or are left there to foul the air of rooms and apartments. There are many water-closetson the market, some of which will be described; the best are those made of one piece, of porcelain or enameled earthenware, and so constructed as always to be and remain clean.
Fig. 24.Fig. 24.PAN WATER-CLOSET. (Gerhard.)
PAN WATER-CLOSET. (Gerhard.)
The Pan Closet.—The water-closet most commonly used in former times was a representative of the group of water-closets with mechanical contrivances. This is thepan closet, now universally condemned and prohibited from further use. The pan closet consists of four principal parts: (1) basin of china, small and round; (2) a copper six-inch pan under the basin; (3) a large iron container, into which the basin with the pan under it is placed; and (4) a D trap, to which the container is joined. The pan is attached with a lever to a handle, which, when pulled, moves the pan; this describes a half circle and drops the contents into thecontainer and trap. The objections to pan closets are the following:
(1) There being a number of parts and mechanical contrivances, they are liable to get out of order.
(2) The bowl is set into the container and cannot be inspected, and is usually very dirty beneath.
(3) The pan is often missing, gets out of order, and is liable to be soiled by adhering excreta.
(4) The container is large, excreta adhere to its upper parts, and the iron becomes corroded and coated with filth.
(5) With every pull of the handle and pan, foul air enters rooms.
(6) The junctions between the bowl and container, and the container and trap, are usually not gas-tight.
(7) The pan breaks the force of the water flush, and the trap is usually not completely emptied.
Valve and Plunger Closetsare an improvement upon the pan closets, but are not free from several objections enumerated above. As a rule, all water-closets with mechanical parts are objectionable.
Hopper Closetsare made of iron or earthenware. Iron hopper closets easily corrode; they are usually enameled on the inside. Earthenware hoppers are preferable to iron ones. Hopper closets are either long or short; when long, they expose a very large surface to be fouled, require a trap below the floor, and are, as a rule, very difficult to clean or to keep clean. Short hopper closets are preferable, as they are easily keptclean and are well flushed. When provided with flushing rim, and with a good water-supply cistern and large supply pipe, the short hopper closet is a good form of water-closet.
The washout and washdown water-closets are an improvement upon the hopper closets. They are manufactured from earthenware or porcelain, and are so shaped that they contain a water seal, obviating the necessity of a separate trap under the closet.
Fig. 25.Fig. 25.LONG HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (Gerhard.)
LONG HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (Gerhard.)
Fig. 26.Fig. 26.SHORT HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (Gerhard.)
SHORT HOPPER WATER-CLOSET. (Gerhard.)
Fig. 27.Fig. 27.STYLES OF WATER-CLOSETS.
STYLES OF WATER-CLOSETS.
Flush Tanks.—Water-closets must not be flushed directly from the water-supply pipes, as there is a possibility of contaminating the water supply. Water-closets should be flushed from flush tanks, either of iron or of wood, metal lined; these cisterns should beplaced not less than four feet above the water-closet, and provided with a straight flush pipe of at least one and one-quarter inch diameter.
The cistern is fitted with plug and handle, so that by pulling at the handle the plug is lifted out of the socket of the cistern and the contents permitted to rush through the pipe and flush the water-closet. A separate ball arrangement is made for closing the water supply when the cistern is full. The cistern must have a capacity of at least three to five gallons of water; the flush pipe must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quarter inch, and the pipe must be straight, without bends, and the arrangement within the closets such as to flush all parts of the bowl at the same time.
Fig. 28.Fig. 28.FLUSHING CISTERN.
FLUSHING CISTERN.
Yard Closets.—In many old houses the water-closet accommodations are placed in the yard. There are two forms of these yard closets commonly used—the school sink and the yard hopper.
Theschool sinkis an iron trough from five to twelve or more feet long, and one to two feet wide and one foot deep, set in a trench several feet below the surface with an inclination toward the exit; on one end of the trough there is a socket fitted with a plug, and on the other a flushing apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe. Above the iron trough brick walls are built up, inclosing it; over it are placed wooden seats, and surrounding the whole is a woodenshed with compartments for every seat. The excreta are allowed to fall into the trough, which is partly filled with water, and once a day, or as often as the caretaker chooses, the plug is pulled up and the excreta allowed to flow into the sewer with which the school sink is connected. These school sinks are, as a rule, a nuisance, and are dangerous to health. The objections to them are the following:
(1) The excreta lies exposed in the iron trough, and may decompose even in one day; and it is always offensive.
(2) The iron trough is easily corroded.
(3) The iron trough, being large, presents a large surface for adherence of excreta.
(4) The brickwork above the trough is not flushed when the school sink is emptied, and excreta, which usually adheres to it, decomposes, creating offensive odors.
(5) The junction of the iron trough with the brickwork, and the brickwork itself, is usually defective, or becomes defective, and allows foul water and sewage to pass into the yard, or into the wall adjacent to the school sink. By the Tenement House Law of New York, the use of school sinks is prohibited even in old buildings.