(1716–1771)
After studying at Eton and at Cambridge University, Gray made the customary tour of the Continent and then settled down to a retired life among his books. His circle of friends was small but intellectual. He spent most of his life at Cambridge, reading and thinking.
In disposition he was very reserved, seldom revealing his feelings. As he was sensitive and also rather melancholy it was natural that he should find few intimates. Always a student, he none the less applied himself to those topics only which attracted him, neglecting such portions of the subject as did not appeal to him, so that although one of the most learned men of his time he did not receive public recognition until his appointment as regius professor of history and modern languages at Cambridge, three years before his death.
The Age of Classicism, in which he lived, was repugnant to him; its formal standards, as expressed especially by the poetry of Pope, offended his fastidious taste, which was charmed by the wild beauty of nature and longed for freedom of expression and avoidance of convention in literary art.
He was the forerunner of the Romantic spirit. Had he lived forty years later he would have been far more productive; the poetry of Wordsworth, Byron, and the rest of that dazzling group of poets would have strengthened and enthused him.
What little he wrote bears witness to the scholarship, refinement, and depth of feeling of the recluse. His "Elegy," meditated in Stoke Pogis churchyard near his mother's home, where he spent the summer, is probably the most thoroughly English poem ever written. It was begun in 1742 and finished in 1750; during the interval it was polished and revised so effectively that not a word can be altered without detracting from its symmetry and splendor. The dignity of the classic spirit and the wistful grace of Romanticism are both apparent, but the keynote is quiet, simple love of everyday life tinged with moral reflection, the note sounded again and again in English poetry and prose.
THE MAN
1. What was Gray's education; did he travel?
2. What was his nature?
3. How did he spend his life?
4. What was the character of the age in which he lived?
5. What influence did this period have upon Gray?
6. In what period would he have been more active?
7. How did he show national tendencies in his work?
"ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD"
1. Select stanzas representative of the Romantic spirit.
2. Select stanzas that are Classic in tone.
3. Point out the ideas or phrases in each which lead you to make the classification.
4. Sketch roughly on separate sheets of paper the outlines of the pictures in each stanza.
5. Compare the pictures in the poem with those in Milton's "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso," IX, 110.
6. Compare the poem also with Goldsmith's "Deserted Village," VI, 94.
7. What phrases or passages impress you as being especially English in tone? Why?
8. What changes would you expect to find in a modern English village neighborhood?
9. Where do you observe traces of Gray's scholarship?
10. Select the best stanzas and explain their superiority.
11. Do any lines suggest Gray's sensitive dislike of the spirit of his times and the melancholy reserve in his nature? Which lines?
FOR REFERENCE
"Life of Gray."—Mason.
"Life of Gray" ("English Men of Letters").—Gosse.
"Gray and his Friends."—Tovey.
"Essays."—Lowell.
"Letters."—Ed.Rideout.
(1729–1797)
Edmund Burke was a native of Dublin, Ireland. After a careful preparatory training, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he showed marked ability in eloquence, history, poetry, and philosophy. After receiving his master's degree, he went to England, with the intention of becoming a barrister, but found the profession not to his taste. He accordingly spent the next six years making the tour of Great Britain and the Continent, and forming the acquaintance of the leading literary men.
The first years after his return to England were devoted to literary work, resulting in two philosophical essays, "Vindication of Natural Society," and "The Sublime and Beautiful." He also collaborated with his cousin William Burke in "An Account of the European Settlements in America."
But he soon turned his attention to politics. In 1766 he was elected to Parliament, of which he remained a member for twenty-eight years. He held many other positions under the Government, and his actions were always distinguished by the strictest integrity. He labored earnestly in the cause of humanity, against the slave trade and the oppression of India and the American Colonies. His most widely read works are his "Speech at the Trial of Warren Hastings," and the speech on "Conciliation with America." But owing to his increasing conservatism he failed to appreciate the causes of the French Revolution and his "Reflections on the Revolution in France" is of little critical value.
Burke was distinguished by great nobility of mind and purity of life, both public and private. He possessed great oratorical powers, a vigorous imagination, a rare gift of observation, and prodigious industry.
Yet on the other hand, he appears not to have known how to contain himself, but scattered his eloquence on all occasions, until the public ear became dulled. He was also of a passionate and intractable disposition, qualities which in the course of time left him in political isolation.
Among his friends were Dr. Johnson, Goldsmith, Boswell, Sir Joshua Reynolds, the famous painter, and Garrick, the great actor. These were members of the Club, a society of the most brilliant intellects in England at that day. Burke's learning and power were greatly venerated by them, and by none more than by Johnson, who admitted that he must be at his best to meet Burke in argument.
THE MAN
1. Of what city was Burke a native?
2. In what branches of learning did he achieve distinction?
3. State the mode he adopted for completing his education.
4. Were his first years in England devoted to oratory?
5. What was the extent of his connection with the British Parliament?
6. Give his views with regard to contemporary conditions in India, France, and the American Colonies.
7. Where did he die?
8. What was his social environment?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. What qualities distinguished Burke's oratory? V, 424.
2. Taking his utterances out of their forensic setting, how would they compare with the finest of Milton's prose passages? VIII, 394.
3. Were his rhetorical sallies always in good taste? XI, 199.
4. What great service did he render to the British Constitution? XI, 204.
5. Aside from his oration on Conciliation with the Colonies, what evidence have we that Burke was thoroughly informed on American affairs?
6. What great works did he compose in addition to speeches?
7. What are the principal elements of beauty and power in his productions?
8. What characteristics detracted from permanent popularity?
9. Is his work characteristic of the Age of Classicism?
FROM "CONCILIATION WITH THE AMERICAN COLONIES"
1. What reasons does Burke give for concession on England's part toward the American colonies?
2. Why did this statesman consider the use of force impractical?
3. What nation was very likely meant by "foreign enemy"?
4. Account for the excessive spirit of liberty which predominates in the character of most Americans.
5. In what respect was England at a great disadvantage in governing her colonies? How is this remedied now?
6. How was religion instrumental in making the colonists more dissatisfied with English rule?
7. What was the condition of education in America at this time?
8. If England had followed Burke's plan of conciliation, is it likely that the American Colonies would have revolted either then or in a subsequent generation?
FOR REFERENCE
"Posthumous Essays."—Collins.
"Obiter Dicta."—Birrell.
"Edmund Burke; an Historical Sketch."—Morley.
"Appreciations and Addresses."—Rosebery.
(1782–1852)
Born at Salisbury (now Franklin), New Hampshire, Daniel Webster received his education at Dartmouth College. He afterward studied law and then removed to Massachusetts, where he soon obtained distinction as a politician, and was in 1812 sent to Congress. He championed the New England cause against the embargo and the other measures of the administration, yet although his great oratorical powers were already manifest, he displayed little of that breadth of character which afterwards distinguished him.
To the years which followed we owe some of his most popular forensic efforts and public addresses, the "Dartmouth College Case," the "Girard Will," and the addresses at Plymouth and Bunker Hill.
In 1827 he was elected to the United States Senate. Three years later he delivered his masterpiece, "The Reply to Hayne," on the floor of the Senate. Under Presidents Harrison and Tyler he was Secretary of State, and was instrumental in negotiating the celebrated "Webster-Ashburton Treaty."
For many years the leading man of the Whig party, his presidential aspirations were doomed to disappointment. His last years in the Senate were, like those of Clay, consecrated to the effort to preserve the Union. But his pleas for compromise fell in the North on dull ears, and his pleas for concessions to the South were looked on as treason. The time for compromise was passing.
The Whigs being returned to power in 1850, Webster again became Secretary of State, but again failing to secure the nomination for President, he returned to Marshfield, where, after a brief illness, he died in October, 1852.
THE MAN
1. Of what college was Webster a graduate?
2. State the extent to which he filled the public eye at the time of his death. III, 271.
3. In what respect did he "wear the double wreath of professional and public supremacy"? III, 273.
4. What ties bound him to New Hampshire, and what to Massachusetts? III, 275.
5. As a statesman, what division of the country did Webster especially represent?
6. To what political party did he adhere?
7. To what do you ascribe the unpopularity which embittered his declining years?
8. What important public positions did he fill?
FROM "REPLY TO HAYNE"
1. State the "nullification doctrine" propounded by Senator Hayne.
2. Why does Webster defend Massachusetts against the charge of having formerly attempted to nullify an act of Congress?
3. Explain theimpracticalityof state nullification.
4. Was the federal government created by the States?
5. State how the mere existence of the federal constitution implies the subordination of the States.
6. Show how Webster brings ridicule of his opponent to the aid of his argument.
7. What would be the inevitable and direct result of nullification?
8. Do you think the statement of Webster that he was "drawn into the debate, with no previous deliberation," etc., to be literally true?
9. Read carefully the peroration, pp. 281-283; one of the grandest passages in American eloquence.
10. Does Webster show the influence of the classics as well as the moderns? Compare his style with that of Demosthenes, IV, 161.
FOR REFERENCE
"Famous American Statesmen."—Bolton.
"The True Daniel Webster."—Fisher.
"Daniel Webster."—McCall.
"John Adams, and Other Essays."—Chamberlain.
"Daniel Webster, the Expounder of the Constitution."—Wheeler.
"American Literature and other Papers."—Whipple.
(427B.C.–347B.C.)
An Athenian by birth, Plato's youth was spent in the midst of the tumult and gloom in which Athens, the flower of Greek civilization, fell victim to her greed and arrogance and succumbed to the sturdy, rising power of Sparta. But his maturity and later years saw the growth of a purified and enlightened spirit of culture which raised Greek thought above local pettiness and prepared for the day of alliance with Roman enterprise.
His youth was passed under the inspiring guidance of Socrates, whose searching inquiries into the depths of human nature marked the beginning of the loftiest philosophy of ancient times. Plato, and Aristotle, his pupil, carried on the work begun by Socrates, involving the discussion of the entire experience of Greek life and the criticism of its principles.
Upon the condemnation and death of Socrates in 399B.C.the circle of his disciples was broken up, Plato fleeing with others to Megara. He spent the next twelve years in travel, visiting most of the centers of learning of the ancient world. On his return to Athens about 388B.C.he founded the famous school of the Academy, and settled down to the study and teaching of philosophy.
His teachings have come down to us in the form of dialogues between Socrates and his disciples, but as they were written for the purpose of setting forth Plato's system of philosophy, which differed in some respects from that of Socrates, we do not of course know to what extent the narrative is colored. It would appear, however, that in the simpler dialogues, suchas the "Apology," "Crito," "Laches," and "Charmides," we may possess the unvarnished teachings of Socrates.
In some of his later dialogues the speculative interest is allowed to become so absorbing that the dialogue form is rather inappropriate; but the others have been generally acknowledged as comprising the greatest masterpieces of dialogue that literature has to show, in the skill with which the scene is suggested, the charm of the conversation, and the artistic truth with which the characters are set forth in the changing course of the discussion.
The "Republic" is the best summing up of his philosophy. In it is best represented his Theory of Ideas, which has made his work the great type of idealistic philosophy.
He ranks with Aristotle and Kant as one of the three greatest thinkers of all ages.
THE MAN
1. During what period of the world's history did Plato live?
2. From what sources did he derive the principles set forth in his teachings?
3. Of whom was he the disciple, and who in turn was his disciple?
4. What rank is generally accorded him as a philosopher?
5. How did Plato look upon pleasure? III, 291.
6. What is said to have been the manner of his death? III, 281.
7. By what name is his school of philosophy known?
8. Who are the three greatest philosophers of the ages?
9. What was the nature of his education?
STYLE AND WORKS
1. Are Plato's writings addressed to the select few, or to the people of all classes? III, 253.
2. Give Milton's estimate of the "Republic." IX, 126.
3. What were Plato's views as to the proper age for marriage? IX, 190.
4. And what his views anent the right of the owner of property to devise or bequeath it, as he sees fit? IX, 200.
5. Did the use of dialogue render his writings more effective than they otherwise would have been?
6. Which of his dialogues are most read at the present day, and why?
7. Would Plato have made a successful dramatist if he had turned his energies in that direction? Your reason for so thinking?
8. Which is his greatest work from a philosophical point of view?
9. Explain his parable of the cave, in the selection from the "Republic."
"THE TRIAL OF SOCRATES"
1. Why was Socrates brought to trial?
2. What was his refutation to these charges?
3. What was Socrates's view of death?
4. Does it seem likely that he might have been acquitted if he had used ordinary methods of defense?
5. Wherein did Socrates's methods of teaching differ from ordinary methods of to-day?
6. What were the customary penalties inflicted for serious crimes?
7. Did Socrates practise what he preached?
8. How do the teachings of Socrates compare with those of Christianity?
9. What is the fundamental difference, in your understanding, between philosophy and religion?
10. Did Socrates believe in one God or in many?
FOR REFERENCE
"Plato" ("The World's Epoch-Makers").—Ritchie.
"Dialogues," translated byJowett.
"Plato the Teacher."—Bryan.
"Representative Men."—Emerson.
"The Myths of Plato."—Stewart.
"Plato's Republic" ("Historical and Critical Essays").—De Quincey.
(121A.D.–180A.D.)
Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), emperor and philosopher, was the child of noble parents. His wonderful character, both intellectual and moral, early attracted the attention of the emperor, Hadrian, who, when Marcus had attained his seventeenth year, adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor, upon the condition that the latter adopt Marcus.
Accordingly Marcus was adopted by Pius, who proceeded to lavish upon him as heir presumptive to the Empire every position for which his high character and thorough education fitted him; and upon the death of Pius he ascended the throne, at the age of forty.
His reign covered a period of nineteen years, over two-thirds of which he spent on the borders of the empire in ceaseless struggles to sustain the tottering empire against the ravages of the outer barbarians.
It was during these campaigns that his "Meditations," or "Thoughts," his only work, was written. In its present form, at least, it was never intended for publication, nor is it probable that it was, as some think, written for the instruction of his son, Commodus. It was written in Greek, and consists of mere memoranda, disconnected thoughts, and confessions, evidently hastily noted, a circumstance which accounts for its repetitions, its obscurity, and its elliptical form of expression. But in spite of this it has been an inspiration to the despondent in all ages. Its tone and temper are sweet yet dignified, courageous yet resigned, philosophical and speculative yet intensely practical. It stands preëminent among those world-books which teach men how to live and how to die.
The great blots on his memory, in popular estimation, are the massacres of Christians in his reign, and his blindness to the frailty of his wife and the worthlessness of his son. But the Christians were in those days commonly looked upon as a pernicious secret cult, and those who comprehend his philosophy will know why he could see only good in the members of his family.
THE MAN
1. What circumstance illustrates the great value he set upon time?
2. Was he considered a man of letters by his contemporaries?
3. What two others deserve to be remembered with him as Roman stoics? V, 90; X, 419.
4. Why would one hardly expect to find a great philosopher in Marcus Aurelius?
5. Under what circumstances did he become Emperor of Rome?
6. How were his early years spent?
7. What was the extent of his education?
8. Why did he permit the persecution of the Christians?
9. What circumstances indicate the nobility of his character?
10. What other author wrote a work for the instruction of his son, and, like Aurelius, was blind to the son's faults? III, 240.
11. Summarize his character.
STYLE AND WORKS
1. To what are his literary remains confined?
2. Were they written in Latin?
3. Under what circumstances were the "Meditations" composed?
4. For what purpose were they written?
5. In what form have they come down to us?
6. Does Aurelius consider that the absence of an overruling Providence would relax moral obligations?
7. What position do the "Meditations" hold in the world's literature?
8. What is the spirit of the philosophy which they breathe?
9. Probably no other book of the ancients is as widely read to-day. Why is this?
10. Do its defects of form detract from its value?
FROM "MEDITATIONS"
1. From the viewpoint of this philosopher, are poverty, death, and sickness inflicted on people as punishment for sins?
2. To what frame of mind does a righteous person school himself?
3. What prescription is given for the making of a happy man?
4. Would Marcus Aurelius have been in sympathy with the medieval custom of pious people who shut themselves up in monasteries or other secluded places?
5. Explain the relationship of man to his fellow beings.
6. Does this environment have an influence in the altering of an adult's character?
7. Why does each of us live a complete life, whether we die young or old?
8. Judging the Emperor's character from his writings, would you consider him a wise ruler?
FOR REFERENCE
"Essays in Criticism."—Arnold.
"Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics."—Bussell.
"Seekers after God."—Farrar.
"Glimpses of Truth."—Spalding.
"Excursions in Art and Letters."—Story.