Chapter 14

[489]Nat. Hist., lib. 18, cap. 28.[490]Wheat, which, is now the bread corn of twelve European nations and is fast supplanting maize in America and several inferior grains in India, was no doubt widely grown in the prehistoric world. The Chinese cultivated it 2700 B. C. as a gift direct from Heaven; the Egyptians attributed its origin to Isis and the Greeks to Ceres. A classic account of the distribution of wheat over the primeval world shows that Ceres, having taught her favorite Triptolemus agriculture and the art of bread-making, gave him her chariot, a celestial vehicle which he used in useful travels for the purpose of distributing corn to all nations.Ancient monuments show that the cultivation of wheat had been established in Egypt before the invasion of the shepherds, and there is evidence that more productive varieties of wheat have taken the place of one, at least, of the ancient sorts. Innumerable varieties exist of common wheat. Colonel Le Couteur, of Jersey, cultivated 150 varieties; Mr. Darwin mentions a French gentleman who had collected 322 varieties, and the great firm of French seed merchants, Vilmorin-Andrieux et Cie, cultivate about twice as many in their trial ground near Paris. In their recent work on Les meilleurs blés M. Henry L. de Vilmorin has described sixty-eight varieties of best wheat, which he has classed into seven groups, though these groups can hardly be called distinct species, since M. Henry L. de Vilmorin has crossbred three of them,Triticum vulgare,Triticum turgidumandTriticum durum, and has found the offspring fertile.Three small-grained varieties of common wheat were cultivated by the first lake dwellers of Switzerland (time of Trojan war), as well as by the less ancient lake dwellers of western Switzerland and of Italy, by the people of Hungary in the stone age, and by the Egyptians, on evidence of a brick of a pyramid in which a grain was embedded and to which the date of 3359 B. C. has been assigned.The existence of names for wheat in the most ancient languages confirms this evidence of the antiquity of its culture in all the more temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but it seems improbable that wheat has ever been found growing persistently in a wild state, although the fact has often been asserted by poets, travelers, and historians. In the Odyssey, for example, we are told that wheat grew in Sicily without the aid of man, but a blind poet could not have seen this himself, and a botanical fact can hardly be accepted from a writer whose own existence has been contested. Diodorus repeats the tradition that Osiris found wheat and barley growing promiscuously in Palestine, but neither this nor other discoveries of persistent wild wheat seem to us to be credible, seeing that wheat does not appear to be endowed with a power of persistency except under culture.—Edinburgh Review.The origin of baking precedes the period of history and is involved in the obscurity of the early ages of the human race. Excavations made in Switzerland gave evidence that the art of making bread was practiced by our prehistoric ancestors as early as the stone period. From the shape of loaves it is thought that no ovens were used at that time, but the dough was rolled into small round cakes and laid on hot stones, being covered with glowing ashes. Bread is mentioned in the book of Genesis, where Abraham, wishing to entertain three angels, offered to "fetch a morsel of bread." Baking is again referred to where Sarah has instructions to "make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it and make cakes upon the hearth." Lot entertained two angels by giving them unleavened bread. The mere mention of unleavened bread shows that there were two kinds of bread made even at that time.The art of baking was carried on to a high perfection among the Egyptians, who are said to have baked cakes in many fantastic shapes, using several kinds of flour. The Romans took up the art of baking, and public bakeries were numerous on the streets of Rome. In England the business of the baker was considered to be one so closely affecting the interests of the public that in 1266 an act of Parliament was passed regulating the price to be charged for bread. This regulation continued in operation until 1822 in London and until 1836 in the rest of the country. The art of making bread has not yet reached some countries in Europe and Asia. In the rural parts of Sweden no bread is made, but rye cakes are baked twice a year and are as hard as flint. It is less than a century ago that bread was used in Scotland, the Scotch people of every class living on barley bannocks and oaten cakes.—Chicago News.[491]Pop. Antiq., vol. 1, p. 96.[492]Shâyast lâ-Shâyast, par. 32, note 6, pp. 283, 284 (Max Müller's ed., Oxford, 1880).[493]Ibid., p. 315, note 3.[494]"And if thou bring an oblation of a meat offering baken in the oven, it shall be unleavened cakes of fine flour" (Levit., II, 4); "With all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt" (Ibid., 13)—Brand, Pop. Ant., vol. 2, p. 82.[495]Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 441.[496]Ibid., p. 447.[497]Brand, Pop. Antiq., vol. 1, pp. 345, 346, quoting Gen. Vallencey's Essay on the Antiquity of the Irish Language.[498]Ibid., p. 345.[499]Ibid., p. 154.[500]Ibid., pp. 155, 156.[501]See also "Buns" in Inman's Ancient Faiths.[502]"Ofrecian el pan al ídolo, hincados de rodillas. Bendezianlo los sacerdotes, y repartian como pan bendito, con lo qual se acabaua la fiesta. Guardauan aquel pan todo el año, teniendo por desdichada, y sugeta a muchos peligros la casa que sin el estaua."—Padre Fray Alonso Fernandez (Dominican). Historia Eclesiastica de Nuestros Tiempos, Toledo, 1611, p. 16.[503]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, pp. 100 et seq., quoting Blount, Moffet, and Moresin.[504]Torquemada, Monarchia Indiana, vol. 2, lib. 7, cap. 9, p. 100.[505]Nat. Hist., lib. xviii, caps 10 et seq. and 39.[506]"Var (from the Hebrew wordvar frumentum) Grain. It not only means a particular kind of grain, between wheat and barley, less nourishing than the former, but more so than the latter, according to Vossius; but it means bread corn, grain of any kind. Ætius gives this application to any kind of frumentaceous grain, decorticated, cleansed from the husks, and afterwards bruised and dried." London Medical Dictionary, Bartholomew Parr, M. D., Philadelphia, 1820, article "Far"."AdororAthorwas the most sacred wheat, without beard, offered at adoration of gods. In LatinAdoreawas a present of such after a victory, andAd-orois 'I adore,' fromoro, 'I pray to.'"—Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 473, footnote, speaking of both Greeks and Romans.[507]Sacred Books of the East, edition of Max Müller, vol. 14, pp. 131, 205.[508]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, pp. 391 et seq., article "Allhallow even."[509]Ibid., p. 391.[510]Ibid., p. 392.[511]Ibid., p. 393.[512]Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 237 et seq.[513]Ibid., p. 244.[514]Strabo, Geography, Bohn's edition, London, 1854, vol. 1, pp. 341, 342, footnote.[515]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, p. 460.[516]Ibid., p. 7.[517]Strutt, Sports and Pastimes, pp. 3, 180. On the same page: "Dumb cake, a species of dreaming bread prepared by unmarried females with ingredients traditionally suggested in witching doggerel. When baked, it is cut into three divisions; a part of each to be eaten and the remainder put under the pillow. When the clock strikes twelve, each votary must go to bed backwards and keep a profound silence, whatever may appear."[518]A writer in the Gentleman's Magazine for July, 1783, inquires: "May not theminced pye, a compound of the choicest productions of the East, have in view the offerings made by the wise men who came from afar to worship, bringingspices, etc." Quoted in Brand, Pop. Ant., vol. 1, p. 526. The mince pie was before the Reformation made in the form of a crib, to represent the manger in which the holy child lay in the stable. Ibid., p. 178.[519]Heath, A Hoosier in Russia, p. 109.[520]Alvar Nuñez Cabeça de Vaca, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., vol. 7, p. 220.[521]See also Davis, Conquest of New Mexico, p. 90.[522]William Coxe, Russian Discoveries between Asia and America, London, 1803, p. 57, quoting Steller.[523]Barcia, Ensayo Cronologico, Madrid, 1723.[524]Arabian Nights, Burton's edition, vol. 8, p. 10, footnote.[525]American Antiquarian, September, 1886, p. 281.[526]Maurice, Indian Antiquities, London, 1801, vol. 5, pp. 82 and 83.[527]Ibid., vol. 5, p. 85.[528]Schultze, Fetichism, N. Y., 1885, p. 32.[529]Paper by Dr. John G. Henderson on "Aboriginal remains near Naples, Ill.," Smith. Rept., 1882.[530]J. F. Snyder, "Indian remains in Cass County, Illinois," Smith. Rept., 1881, p. 575.[531]Rau, in Sm. Rept., 1872, p. 356.[532]"Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley," in Smithsonian Contributions, vol. 1, p. 160.[533]Relation of the Voyage of Don Fernando Alarcon, in Hakluyt's Voyages, vol. 3, p. 508.[534]Davis, Conquest of New Mexico, p. 288.[535]Davis, ibid., pp. 280, 284, 285.[536]Ibid., pp. 277, 292.[537]Catlin, North American Indians, London, 1845, vol. 2, p. 117.[538]Tanner's Narrative, p. 188.[539]Journal, p. 289.[540]North American Indians, London, 1845, vol. 1, p. 135.[541]Schultze, Fetichism, New York, 1885, p. 32, quoting Bastian.[542]Coxe, Russian Discoveries between America and Asia, London, 1803, p. 254.[543]Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, vol. 1, pp. xxix, 112.[544]Ibid., vol. 1, p. 68.[545]Pettigrew, Medical Superstitions, Philadelphia, 1844, pp. 67, 72, 74.[546]Cérémonies et Coûtumes Religieuses, Amsterdam, 1739, vol. 2, pp. 28, 29[547]Ibid., p. 29.[548]Higgins, Anacalypsis, vol. 2, book 2, p. 77[549]Pettigrew, Medical Superstitions, Philadelphia, 1844, p. 61. See also Black, Folk-Medicine, p. 93.[550]Citations, Common place Book, p. 395, London, 1872.[551]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, pp. 310, 311.[552]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 310.[553]Holiday Customs of Ireland, pp. 381 et seq.[554]Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 325.[555]Picart,Cérémonies et Coûtumes, etc., vol. 10, p. 56.[556]Massingberd, The English Reformation, London, 1857, p. 105.[557]Mendieta, p. 110.[558]Vol. 3, cap. 5, p. 234.[559]Herrera, dec. 2, lib. 6, p. 141.[560]Kingsborough, vol. 7, chap. 4.[561]Teutonic Mythology, vol. 3, p. 1233.[562]Ibid.[563]Fables and Rites of the Incas, Padre Christoval de Molina (Cuzco, 1570-1584), transl. by Clements R. Markham, Hakluyt Society trans., vol. 48, London, 1873, p. 48.[564]The common people wore a black "llautu." See Garcilaso, Comentarios, Markham's transl., Hak. Soc., vol. 41, pp. 88, 89.[565]Ibid., p. 85.[566]Ibid., p. 89.[567]"Quando vàn à sembrar las Tierras del Sol, vàn solos los Principales à trabajar, i vàn con insignias blancas, i en las espaldas unos Cordones tendidos blancos, à modo de Ministros del Altar."—Herrera, dec. 5, lib. 4, cap. 6, pp. 94-95.[568]Picart,Cérémonies et Coûtumes, etc., Amsterdam, 1735, vol. 6, p. 92.[569]Montfaucon,L'antiquité expliquée, tome 2, pt. 1, p. 33.[570]Hawkesworth, Voyages, vol. 3, p. 229.[571]Voyage to Congo, in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 16, p. 237.[572]Pinkerton, Voyages, vol. 16, p. 388.[573]Speke, Source of the Nile, London, 1863, p. 125.[574]London, 1877, vol. 2, p. 131.[575]Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, vol. 2, p. 330.[576]Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, London, 1873, vol. 1, p. 154.[577]Winstanley, Abyssinia, vol. 2, p. 68.[578]This cord is worn about the neck. Ibid., p. 257.[579]Ibid., vol. 1, p. 235.[580]Ibid., vol. 2, p. 132.[581]Ibid., p. 165.[582]Ibid., p. 292.[583]Malte-Brun, Universal Geography, vol. 4, p. 259, Phila., 1832.[584]Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, vol. 2, p. 640.[585]Nightingale, quoted in Madden, Shrines and Sepulchres, vol. 1, pp. 557, 558.[586]Leems, Account of Danish Lapland, in Pinkerton, Voyages, London, 1808, vol. 1, p. 471.[587]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 5. See also John Scheffer, Lapland, Oxford, 1674, p. 58.[588]Act IV, scene 1.[589]Benjamin, Persia, London, 1877, p. 99.[590]Cérémonies et Coûtumes, vol. 7, p. 320.[591]Du Halde, History of China, London, 1736, vol. 4, pp. 244, 245, and elsewhere.[592]Higgins, Anacalypsis, vol. 2, p. 218.[593]Vining, An Inglorious Columbus, p. 635.[594]Du Halde, History of China, London, 1736, vol. 1, p. 270.[595]Univ. Geog., vol. 3, book 75, p. 144, Phila., 1832.[596]Brinton, Myths of the New World, N. Y., 1868, p. 15.[597]Early History of Mankind, London, 1870, p. 156.[598]Voyages, vol. 3, p. 102.[599]Shâyast lâ-Shâyast, cap. 4, pp. 285, 286. In Sacred Books of the East, Max Müller's edition, vol. 5.[600]Monier Williams, Modern India, p. 56.[601]Ibid., pp. 179, 180.[602]Cérémonies et Coûtumes, vol. 7, p. 28.[603]Marco Polo, Travels, in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 7, p. 163.[604]Picart,Cérémonies et Coûtumes, etc., vol. 6, pt. 2, p. 99.[605]Malte-Brun, Univ. Geog., vol. 2, lib. 50, p. 235, Philadelphia, 1832.[606]Dr. J. L. August Von Eye, The history of culture, in Iconographic Encyc., Philadelphia, 1886, vol. 2, p. 169.[607]Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 120.[608]Ibid., pp. 240-241.[609]Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 328.[610]Ibid., p. 323.[611]Dubois, People of India, p. 9.[612]Mythology of the Hindus.[613]Mythology of the Hindus, pp. 9, 10, 11.[614]Ibid., p. 92.[615]Ibid., p. 155.[616]Ibid., pp. 135, 154, 155.[617]Maurice, Indian Antiquities, London, 1801, vol. 5, p. 205.[618]Ibid., vol. 4, p. 375, where a description of the mode of weaving and twining is given.[619]Ibid., p. 376.[620]Ibid., vol. 5, p. 206.[621]Notes of Richard Johnson, Voyages of Sir Hugh Willoughby and others to the northern part of Russia and Siberia, Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 1, p. 63.[622]Caron's account of Japan in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 7, p. 631.[623]Rev. Father Dandini's Voyage to Mount Libanus, in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 10, p. 286.[624]Henry Charles Lea, History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, vol. 1, p. 92, New York, 1888.[625]Müller, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 14, Vasishtha, cap. 2, par 6.[626]Ibid., Baudhâyana, prasna 1, adhyâya 5, kandikâ 8, pars. 5-10, p. 165.[627]Saxon Leechdoms, vol. 1, pp. xli-xliii.[628]Ibid., p. xliii.[629]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, pp. 108,109.[630]Browne, Religio Medici, p. 392.[631]Brand, op. cit., p. 110.[632]Pliny, Nat. Hist., lib. 28, cap. 22.[633]Ibid., lib. 28, cap. 17.[634]Ibid.[635]Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, vol. 3, p. 1169.

[489]Nat. Hist., lib. 18, cap. 28.

[490]Wheat, which, is now the bread corn of twelve European nations and is fast supplanting maize in America and several inferior grains in India, was no doubt widely grown in the prehistoric world. The Chinese cultivated it 2700 B. C. as a gift direct from Heaven; the Egyptians attributed its origin to Isis and the Greeks to Ceres. A classic account of the distribution of wheat over the primeval world shows that Ceres, having taught her favorite Triptolemus agriculture and the art of bread-making, gave him her chariot, a celestial vehicle which he used in useful travels for the purpose of distributing corn to all nations.Ancient monuments show that the cultivation of wheat had been established in Egypt before the invasion of the shepherds, and there is evidence that more productive varieties of wheat have taken the place of one, at least, of the ancient sorts. Innumerable varieties exist of common wheat. Colonel Le Couteur, of Jersey, cultivated 150 varieties; Mr. Darwin mentions a French gentleman who had collected 322 varieties, and the great firm of French seed merchants, Vilmorin-Andrieux et Cie, cultivate about twice as many in their trial ground near Paris. In their recent work on Les meilleurs blés M. Henry L. de Vilmorin has described sixty-eight varieties of best wheat, which he has classed into seven groups, though these groups can hardly be called distinct species, since M. Henry L. de Vilmorin has crossbred three of them,Triticum vulgare,Triticum turgidumandTriticum durum, and has found the offspring fertile.Three small-grained varieties of common wheat were cultivated by the first lake dwellers of Switzerland (time of Trojan war), as well as by the less ancient lake dwellers of western Switzerland and of Italy, by the people of Hungary in the stone age, and by the Egyptians, on evidence of a brick of a pyramid in which a grain was embedded and to which the date of 3359 B. C. has been assigned.The existence of names for wheat in the most ancient languages confirms this evidence of the antiquity of its culture in all the more temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but it seems improbable that wheat has ever been found growing persistently in a wild state, although the fact has often been asserted by poets, travelers, and historians. In the Odyssey, for example, we are told that wheat grew in Sicily without the aid of man, but a blind poet could not have seen this himself, and a botanical fact can hardly be accepted from a writer whose own existence has been contested. Diodorus repeats the tradition that Osiris found wheat and barley growing promiscuously in Palestine, but neither this nor other discoveries of persistent wild wheat seem to us to be credible, seeing that wheat does not appear to be endowed with a power of persistency except under culture.—Edinburgh Review.The origin of baking precedes the period of history and is involved in the obscurity of the early ages of the human race. Excavations made in Switzerland gave evidence that the art of making bread was practiced by our prehistoric ancestors as early as the stone period. From the shape of loaves it is thought that no ovens were used at that time, but the dough was rolled into small round cakes and laid on hot stones, being covered with glowing ashes. Bread is mentioned in the book of Genesis, where Abraham, wishing to entertain three angels, offered to "fetch a morsel of bread." Baking is again referred to where Sarah has instructions to "make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it and make cakes upon the hearth." Lot entertained two angels by giving them unleavened bread. The mere mention of unleavened bread shows that there were two kinds of bread made even at that time.The art of baking was carried on to a high perfection among the Egyptians, who are said to have baked cakes in many fantastic shapes, using several kinds of flour. The Romans took up the art of baking, and public bakeries were numerous on the streets of Rome. In England the business of the baker was considered to be one so closely affecting the interests of the public that in 1266 an act of Parliament was passed regulating the price to be charged for bread. This regulation continued in operation until 1822 in London and until 1836 in the rest of the country. The art of making bread has not yet reached some countries in Europe and Asia. In the rural parts of Sweden no bread is made, but rye cakes are baked twice a year and are as hard as flint. It is less than a century ago that bread was used in Scotland, the Scotch people of every class living on barley bannocks and oaten cakes.—Chicago News.

Ancient monuments show that the cultivation of wheat had been established in Egypt before the invasion of the shepherds, and there is evidence that more productive varieties of wheat have taken the place of one, at least, of the ancient sorts. Innumerable varieties exist of common wheat. Colonel Le Couteur, of Jersey, cultivated 150 varieties; Mr. Darwin mentions a French gentleman who had collected 322 varieties, and the great firm of French seed merchants, Vilmorin-Andrieux et Cie, cultivate about twice as many in their trial ground near Paris. In their recent work on Les meilleurs blés M. Henry L. de Vilmorin has described sixty-eight varieties of best wheat, which he has classed into seven groups, though these groups can hardly be called distinct species, since M. Henry L. de Vilmorin has crossbred three of them,Triticum vulgare,Triticum turgidumandTriticum durum, and has found the offspring fertile.

Three small-grained varieties of common wheat were cultivated by the first lake dwellers of Switzerland (time of Trojan war), as well as by the less ancient lake dwellers of western Switzerland and of Italy, by the people of Hungary in the stone age, and by the Egyptians, on evidence of a brick of a pyramid in which a grain was embedded and to which the date of 3359 B. C. has been assigned.

The existence of names for wheat in the most ancient languages confirms this evidence of the antiquity of its culture in all the more temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but it seems improbable that wheat has ever been found growing persistently in a wild state, although the fact has often been asserted by poets, travelers, and historians. In the Odyssey, for example, we are told that wheat grew in Sicily without the aid of man, but a blind poet could not have seen this himself, and a botanical fact can hardly be accepted from a writer whose own existence has been contested. Diodorus repeats the tradition that Osiris found wheat and barley growing promiscuously in Palestine, but neither this nor other discoveries of persistent wild wheat seem to us to be credible, seeing that wheat does not appear to be endowed with a power of persistency except under culture.—Edinburgh Review.

The origin of baking precedes the period of history and is involved in the obscurity of the early ages of the human race. Excavations made in Switzerland gave evidence that the art of making bread was practiced by our prehistoric ancestors as early as the stone period. From the shape of loaves it is thought that no ovens were used at that time, but the dough was rolled into small round cakes and laid on hot stones, being covered with glowing ashes. Bread is mentioned in the book of Genesis, where Abraham, wishing to entertain three angels, offered to "fetch a morsel of bread." Baking is again referred to where Sarah has instructions to "make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it and make cakes upon the hearth." Lot entertained two angels by giving them unleavened bread. The mere mention of unleavened bread shows that there were two kinds of bread made even at that time.

The art of baking was carried on to a high perfection among the Egyptians, who are said to have baked cakes in many fantastic shapes, using several kinds of flour. The Romans took up the art of baking, and public bakeries were numerous on the streets of Rome. In England the business of the baker was considered to be one so closely affecting the interests of the public that in 1266 an act of Parliament was passed regulating the price to be charged for bread. This regulation continued in operation until 1822 in London and until 1836 in the rest of the country. The art of making bread has not yet reached some countries in Europe and Asia. In the rural parts of Sweden no bread is made, but rye cakes are baked twice a year and are as hard as flint. It is less than a century ago that bread was used in Scotland, the Scotch people of every class living on barley bannocks and oaten cakes.—Chicago News.

[491]Pop. Antiq., vol. 1, p. 96.

[492]Shâyast lâ-Shâyast, par. 32, note 6, pp. 283, 284 (Max Müller's ed., Oxford, 1880).

[493]Ibid., p. 315, note 3.

[494]"And if thou bring an oblation of a meat offering baken in the oven, it shall be unleavened cakes of fine flour" (Levit., II, 4); "With all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt" (Ibid., 13)—Brand, Pop. Ant., vol. 2, p. 82.

[495]Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 441.

[496]Ibid., p. 447.

[497]Brand, Pop. Antiq., vol. 1, pp. 345, 346, quoting Gen. Vallencey's Essay on the Antiquity of the Irish Language.

[498]Ibid., p. 345.

[499]Ibid., p. 154.

[500]Ibid., pp. 155, 156.

[501]See also "Buns" in Inman's Ancient Faiths.

[502]"Ofrecian el pan al ídolo, hincados de rodillas. Bendezianlo los sacerdotes, y repartian como pan bendito, con lo qual se acabaua la fiesta. Guardauan aquel pan todo el año, teniendo por desdichada, y sugeta a muchos peligros la casa que sin el estaua."—Padre Fray Alonso Fernandez (Dominican). Historia Eclesiastica de Nuestros Tiempos, Toledo, 1611, p. 16.

[503]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, pp. 100 et seq., quoting Blount, Moffet, and Moresin.

[504]Torquemada, Monarchia Indiana, vol. 2, lib. 7, cap. 9, p. 100.

[505]Nat. Hist., lib. xviii, caps 10 et seq. and 39.

[506]"Var (from the Hebrew wordvar frumentum) Grain. It not only means a particular kind of grain, between wheat and barley, less nourishing than the former, but more so than the latter, according to Vossius; but it means bread corn, grain of any kind. Ætius gives this application to any kind of frumentaceous grain, decorticated, cleansed from the husks, and afterwards bruised and dried." London Medical Dictionary, Bartholomew Parr, M. D., Philadelphia, 1820, article "Far"."AdororAthorwas the most sacred wheat, without beard, offered at adoration of gods. In LatinAdoreawas a present of such after a victory, andAd-orois 'I adore,' fromoro, 'I pray to.'"—Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 473, footnote, speaking of both Greeks and Romans.

"AdororAthorwas the most sacred wheat, without beard, offered at adoration of gods. In LatinAdoreawas a present of such after a victory, andAd-orois 'I adore,' fromoro, 'I pray to.'"—Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 473, footnote, speaking of both Greeks and Romans.

[507]Sacred Books of the East, edition of Max Müller, vol. 14, pp. 131, 205.

[508]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, pp. 391 et seq., article "Allhallow even."

[509]Ibid., p. 391.

[510]Ibid., p. 392.

[511]Ibid., p. 393.

[512]Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 237 et seq.

[513]Ibid., p. 244.

[514]Strabo, Geography, Bohn's edition, London, 1854, vol. 1, pp. 341, 342, footnote.

[515]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 1, p. 460.

[516]Ibid., p. 7.

[517]Strutt, Sports and Pastimes, pp. 3, 180. On the same page: "Dumb cake, a species of dreaming bread prepared by unmarried females with ingredients traditionally suggested in witching doggerel. When baked, it is cut into three divisions; a part of each to be eaten and the remainder put under the pillow. When the clock strikes twelve, each votary must go to bed backwards and keep a profound silence, whatever may appear."

[518]A writer in the Gentleman's Magazine for July, 1783, inquires: "May not theminced pye, a compound of the choicest productions of the East, have in view the offerings made by the wise men who came from afar to worship, bringingspices, etc." Quoted in Brand, Pop. Ant., vol. 1, p. 526. The mince pie was before the Reformation made in the form of a crib, to represent the manger in which the holy child lay in the stable. Ibid., p. 178.

[519]Heath, A Hoosier in Russia, p. 109.

[520]Alvar Nuñez Cabeça de Vaca, in Ternaux-Compans, Voy., vol. 7, p. 220.

[521]See also Davis, Conquest of New Mexico, p. 90.

[522]William Coxe, Russian Discoveries between Asia and America, London, 1803, p. 57, quoting Steller.

[523]Barcia, Ensayo Cronologico, Madrid, 1723.

[524]Arabian Nights, Burton's edition, vol. 8, p. 10, footnote.

[525]American Antiquarian, September, 1886, p. 281.

[526]Maurice, Indian Antiquities, London, 1801, vol. 5, pp. 82 and 83.

[527]Ibid., vol. 5, p. 85.

[528]Schultze, Fetichism, N. Y., 1885, p. 32.

[529]Paper by Dr. John G. Henderson on "Aboriginal remains near Naples, Ill.," Smith. Rept., 1882.

[530]J. F. Snyder, "Indian remains in Cass County, Illinois," Smith. Rept., 1881, p. 575.

[531]Rau, in Sm. Rept., 1872, p. 356.

[532]"Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley," in Smithsonian Contributions, vol. 1, p. 160.

[533]Relation of the Voyage of Don Fernando Alarcon, in Hakluyt's Voyages, vol. 3, p. 508.

[534]Davis, Conquest of New Mexico, p. 288.

[535]Davis, ibid., pp. 280, 284, 285.

[536]Ibid., pp. 277, 292.

[537]Catlin, North American Indians, London, 1845, vol. 2, p. 117.

[538]Tanner's Narrative, p. 188.

[539]Journal, p. 289.

[540]North American Indians, London, 1845, vol. 1, p. 135.

[541]Schultze, Fetichism, New York, 1885, p. 32, quoting Bastian.

[542]Coxe, Russian Discoveries between America and Asia, London, 1803, p. 254.

[543]Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, vol. 1, pp. xxix, 112.

[544]Ibid., vol. 1, p. 68.

[545]Pettigrew, Medical Superstitions, Philadelphia, 1844, pp. 67, 72, 74.

[546]Cérémonies et Coûtumes Religieuses, Amsterdam, 1739, vol. 2, pp. 28, 29

[547]Ibid., p. 29.

[548]Higgins, Anacalypsis, vol. 2, book 2, p. 77

[549]Pettigrew, Medical Superstitions, Philadelphia, 1844, p. 61. See also Black, Folk-Medicine, p. 93.

[550]Citations, Common place Book, p. 395, London, 1872.

[551]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, pp. 310, 311.

[552]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 310.

[553]Holiday Customs of Ireland, pp. 381 et seq.

[554]Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 325.

[555]Picart,Cérémonies et Coûtumes, etc., vol. 10, p. 56.

[556]Massingberd, The English Reformation, London, 1857, p. 105.

[557]Mendieta, p. 110.

[558]Vol. 3, cap. 5, p. 234.

[559]Herrera, dec. 2, lib. 6, p. 141.

[560]Kingsborough, vol. 7, chap. 4.

[561]Teutonic Mythology, vol. 3, p. 1233.

[562]Ibid.

[563]Fables and Rites of the Incas, Padre Christoval de Molina (Cuzco, 1570-1584), transl. by Clements R. Markham, Hakluyt Society trans., vol. 48, London, 1873, p. 48.

[564]The common people wore a black "llautu." See Garcilaso, Comentarios, Markham's transl., Hak. Soc., vol. 41, pp. 88, 89.

[565]Ibid., p. 85.

[566]Ibid., p. 89.

[567]"Quando vàn à sembrar las Tierras del Sol, vàn solos los Principales à trabajar, i vàn con insignias blancas, i en las espaldas unos Cordones tendidos blancos, à modo de Ministros del Altar."—Herrera, dec. 5, lib. 4, cap. 6, pp. 94-95.

[568]Picart,Cérémonies et Coûtumes, etc., Amsterdam, 1735, vol. 6, p. 92.

[569]Montfaucon,L'antiquité expliquée, tome 2, pt. 1, p. 33.

[570]Hawkesworth, Voyages, vol. 3, p. 229.

[571]Voyage to Congo, in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 16, p. 237.

[572]Pinkerton, Voyages, vol. 16, p. 388.

[573]Speke, Source of the Nile, London, 1863, p. 125.

[574]London, 1877, vol. 2, p. 131.

[575]Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, vol. 2, p. 330.

[576]Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, London, 1873, vol. 1, p. 154.

[577]Winstanley, Abyssinia, vol. 2, p. 68.

[578]This cord is worn about the neck. Ibid., p. 257.

[579]Ibid., vol. 1, p. 235.

[580]Ibid., vol. 2, p. 132.

[581]Ibid., p. 165.

[582]Ibid., p. 292.

[583]Malte-Brun, Universal Geography, vol. 4, p. 259, Phila., 1832.

[584]Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, vol. 2, p. 640.

[585]Nightingale, quoted in Madden, Shrines and Sepulchres, vol. 1, pp. 557, 558.

[586]Leems, Account of Danish Lapland, in Pinkerton, Voyages, London, 1808, vol. 1, p. 471.

[587]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 3, p. 5. See also John Scheffer, Lapland, Oxford, 1674, p. 58.

[588]Act IV, scene 1.

[589]Benjamin, Persia, London, 1877, p. 99.

[590]Cérémonies et Coûtumes, vol. 7, p. 320.

[591]Du Halde, History of China, London, 1736, vol. 4, pp. 244, 245, and elsewhere.

[592]Higgins, Anacalypsis, vol. 2, p. 218.

[593]Vining, An Inglorious Columbus, p. 635.

[594]Du Halde, History of China, London, 1736, vol. 1, p. 270.

[595]Univ. Geog., vol. 3, book 75, p. 144, Phila., 1832.

[596]Brinton, Myths of the New World, N. Y., 1868, p. 15.

[597]Early History of Mankind, London, 1870, p. 156.

[598]Voyages, vol. 3, p. 102.

[599]Shâyast lâ-Shâyast, cap. 4, pp. 285, 286. In Sacred Books of the East, Max Müller's edition, vol. 5.

[600]Monier Williams, Modern India, p. 56.

[601]Ibid., pp. 179, 180.

[602]Cérémonies et Coûtumes, vol. 7, p. 28.

[603]Marco Polo, Travels, in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 7, p. 163.

[604]Picart,Cérémonies et Coûtumes, etc., vol. 6, pt. 2, p. 99.

[605]Malte-Brun, Univ. Geog., vol. 2, lib. 50, p. 235, Philadelphia, 1832.

[606]Dr. J. L. August Von Eye, The history of culture, in Iconographic Encyc., Philadelphia, 1886, vol. 2, p. 169.

[607]Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 120.

[608]Ibid., pp. 240-241.

[609]Forlong, Rivers of Life, vol. 1, p. 328.

[610]Ibid., p. 323.

[611]Dubois, People of India, p. 9.

[612]Mythology of the Hindus.

[613]Mythology of the Hindus, pp. 9, 10, 11.

[614]Ibid., p. 92.

[615]Ibid., p. 155.

[616]Ibid., pp. 135, 154, 155.

[617]Maurice, Indian Antiquities, London, 1801, vol. 5, p. 205.

[618]Ibid., vol. 4, p. 375, where a description of the mode of weaving and twining is given.

[619]Ibid., p. 376.

[620]Ibid., vol. 5, p. 206.

[621]Notes of Richard Johnson, Voyages of Sir Hugh Willoughby and others to the northern part of Russia and Siberia, Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 1, p. 63.

[622]Caron's account of Japan in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 7, p. 631.

[623]Rev. Father Dandini's Voyage to Mount Libanus, in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. 10, p. 286.

[624]Henry Charles Lea, History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, vol. 1, p. 92, New York, 1888.

[625]Müller, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 14, Vasishtha, cap. 2, par 6.

[626]Ibid., Baudhâyana, prasna 1, adhyâya 5, kandikâ 8, pars. 5-10, p. 165.

[627]Saxon Leechdoms, vol. 1, pp. xli-xliii.

[628]Ibid., p. xliii.

[629]Brand, Popular Antiquities, vol. 2, pp. 108,109.

[630]Browne, Religio Medici, p. 392.

[631]Brand, op. cit., p. 110.

[632]Pliny, Nat. Hist., lib. 28, cap. 22.

[633]Ibid., lib. 28, cap. 17.

[634]Ibid.

[635]Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, vol. 3, p. 1169.

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