This curious story is an example of what is known in mythology as the 'harrying of Hades.' The land of the supernatural or subterranean beings alwaysexercises a profound fascination over the minds of barbarians, and such tales are invented by their story-tellers for the purpose of minimizing the terrors which await them when they themselves must enter the strange country by death. The incident of the glutton would seem to show that two tales have been amalgamated, a not uncommon circumstance in primitive story-telling. In these stories the evil or supernatural power is invariably defeated, and it is touching to observe the child-like attempts of the savage to quench the dread of death, common to all mankind, by creating amusement at the ludicrous appearance of the dreadful beings whom he fears. The sons of the Thunderer are, of course, hero-gods whose effulgence confounds the powers of darkness, and to some extent they resemble the Hun-Apu and Xbalanque of the Central AmericanPopol Vuh, who travel to the dark kingdom of Xibalba to rescue their father and uncle, and succeed in overthrowing its hideous denizens.[3]
[3] See the author'sMyths of Mexico and Peru, in this series, p. 220.
The Myth of Stikŭa
As an example of a myth as taken from the lips of the Indian by the collector we append to this series of Chinook tales the story of Stikŭa in all its pristine ingenuousness. Such a tale well exemplifies the difference of outlook between the aboriginal and the civilized mind, and exhibits the many difficulties with which collectors of such myths have to contend.
Many people were living at Nakotat. Now their chief died. He had [left] a son who was almost grown up. It was winter and the people were hungry. They had only mussels and roots to eat. Once upon a time a hunter said: "Make yourselves ready." All the men made themselves ready, and went seaward in two canoes.Then the hunter speared a sea-lion. It jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. They hauled it ashore. Blue Jay said: "Let us boil it here." They made a fire and singed it. They cut it and boiled it. Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it here, let us eat all of it." Then the people ate. Raven tried to hide a piece of meat in his mat, and carried it to the canoe. [But] Blue Jay had already seen it; he ran [after him] took it and threw it into the fire. He burned it. Then they went home. They gathered large and small mussels. In the evening they came home. Then Blue Jay shouted: "Stikŭa, fetch your mussels." Stikŭa was the name of Blue Jay's wife. Then noise of many feet [was heard], and Stikŭa and the other women came running down to the beach. They went to fetch mussels. The women came to the beach and carried the mussels to the house. Raven took care of the chief's son. The boy said: "To-morrow I shall accompany you." Blue Jay said to him: "What do you want to do? The waves will carry you away, you will drift away; even I almost drifted away."
The next morning they made themselves ready. They went into the canoe, and the boy came down to the beach. He wanted to accompany them, and held on to the canoe. "Go to the house, go to the house," said Blue Jay. The boy went up, but he was very sad. Then Blue Jay said: "Let us leave him." The people began to paddle. Then they arrived at the sea-lion island. The hunter went ashore and speared a sea-lion. It jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. They hauled it ashore and pulled it up from the water. Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it here; let us eat all of it, else our chief's son would always want to come here." They singed it, carved it, and boiled it there. When it was done they ate it all. Raventried to hide a piece in his hair, but Blue Jay took it out immediately and burned it. In the evening they gathered large and small mussels, and then they went home. When they approached the beach Blue Jay shouted: "Stikŭa, fetch your mussels!" Then noise of many feet [was heard]. Stikŭa and her children and all the other women came running down to the beach and carried the mussels up to the house. Blue Jay had told all those people: "Don't tell our chief's son, else he will want to accompany us." In the evening the boy said: "To-morrow I shall accompany you." But Blue Jay said: "What do you want to do? The waves will carry you away." But the boy replied: "I must go."
In the morning they made themselves ready for the third time. The boy went down to the beach and took hold of the canoe. But Blue Jay pushed him aside and said: "What do you want here? Go to the house." The boy cried and went up to the house. [When he turned back] Blue Jay said: "Now paddle away. We will leave him." The people began to paddle, and soon they reached the sea-lion island. The hunter went ashore and speared one large sea-lion. It jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. They hauled it toward the shore, landed, pulled it up and singed it. They finished singeing it. Then they carved it and boiled it, and when it was done they began to eat. Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it all. Nobody must speak about it, else our chief's son will always want to accompany us." A little [meat] was still left when they had eaten enough. Raven tried to take a piece with him. He tied it to his leg and said his leg was broken. Blue Jay burned all that was left over. Then he said to Raven: "Let me see your leg." He jumped at it, untied it, and found the pieceof meat at Raven's leg. He took it and burned it. In the evening they gathered large and small mussels. Then they went home. When they were near home Blue Jay shouted: "Stikŭa, fetch your mussels!" Then noise of many feet [was heard], and Stikŭa [her children and the other women] came down to the beach and carried the mussels up to the house. The [women and children] and the chief's son ate the mussels all night. Then that boy said: "To-morrow I shall accompany you." Blue Jay said: "What do you want to do? You will drift away. If I had not taken hold of the canoe I should have drifted away twice."
On the next morning they made themselves ready for the fourth time. The boy rose and made himself ready also. The people hauled their canoes into the water and went aboard. The boy tried to board a canoe also, but Blue Jay took hold of him and threw him into the water. He stood in the water up to his waist. He held the canoe, but Blue Jay struck his hands. There he stood. He cried, and cried, and went up to the house. The people went; they paddled, and soon they reached the sea-lion island. The hunter went ashore and speared a sea-lion. It jumped and drifted on the water [dead]. Again they towed it to the island, and pulled it ashore. They singed it. When they had finished singeing it they carved it and boiled it. When it was done Blue Jay said: "Let us eat it here." They ate half of it and were satiated. They slept because they had eaten too much. Blue Jay awoke first, and burned all that was left. In the evening they gathered large and small mussels and went home. When they were near the shore he shouted: "Stikŭa, fetch your mussels!" Noise of many feet [was heard] and Stikŭa [her children and the other women] came running down to the beachand carried up the mussels. The boy said: "To-morrow I shall accompany you." But Blue Jay said: "What do you want to do? We might capsize and you would be drowned."
Early on the following morning the people made themselves ready. The boy arose and made himself ready also. Blue Jay and the people hauled their canoes down to the water. The boy tried to board, but Blue Jay threw him into the water. He tried to hold the canoe. The water reached up to his armpits. Blue Jay struck his hands [until he let go]. Then the boy cried and cried. Blue Jay and the other people went away.
After some time the boy went up from the beach. He took his arrows and walked round a point of land. There he met a young eagle and shot it. He skinned it and tried to put the skin on. It was too small; it reached scarcely to his knees. Then he took it off, and went on. After a while he met another eagle. He shot it and it fell down. It was a white-headed eagle. He skinned it and tried the skin on, but it was too small; it reached a little below his knees. He took it off, left it, and went on. Soon he met a bald-headed eagle. He shot it twice and it fell down. He skinned it and put the skin on. It was nearly large enough for him, and he tried to fly. He could fly downward only. He did not rise. He turned back, and now he could fly. Now he went round the point seaward from Nakotat. When he had nearly gone round he smelled smoke of burning fat. When he came round the point he saw the people of his town. He alighted on top of a tree and looked down. [He saw that] they had boiled a sea-lion and that they ate it. When they had nearly finished eating he flew up. He thought: "Oh, I wish Blue Jay would see me." Then Blue Jaylooked up [and saw] the bird flying about. "Ah, a bird came to get food from us." Five times the eagle circled over the fire; then it descended. Blue Jay took a piece of blubber and said: "I will give you this to eat." The bird came down, grasped the piece of meat, and flew away. "Ha!" said Blue Jay, "that bird has feet like a man." When the people had eaten enough they slept. Raven again hid a piece of meat. Toward evening they awoke and ate again; then Blue Jay burned the rest of their food. In the evening they gathered large and small mussels and went home. When the boy came home he lay down at once. They approached the village, and Blue Jay shouted: "Fetch your mussels, Stikŭa!" Noise of many feet [was heard] and Stikŭa [and the other women] ran down to the beach and carried up the mussels. They tried to rouse the boy, but he did not arise.
The next morning the people made themselves ready and launched their canoe. The chief's son stayed in bed and did not attempt to accompany them. After sunrise he rose and called the women and children and said: "Wash yourselves; be quick." The women obeyed and washed themselves. He continued: "Comb your hair." Then he put down a plank, took a piece of meat out [from under his blanket, showed it to the women, and said]: "Every day your husbands eat this." He put two pieces side by side on the plank, cut them to pieces, and greased the heads of all the women and children. Then he pulled the planks forming the walls of the houses out of the ground. He sharpened them [at one end, and] those which were very wide he split in two. He sharpened all of them. The last house of the village was that of the Raven. He did not pull out its wall-planks. He put the planks on to the backs of the women and childrenand said: "Go down to the beach. When you go seaward swim five times round that rock. Then go seaward. When you see sea-lions you shall kill them. But you shall not give anything to stingy people. I shall take these children down. They shall live on the sea and be my relatives."
Then he split sinews. The women went into the water and began to jump [out of the water]. They swam five times back and forth in front of the village. Then they went seaward to the place where Blue Jay and the men were boiling. Blue Jay said to the men: "What is that?" The men looked and saw the girls jumping. Five times they swam round Blue Jay's rock. Then they went seaward. After a while birds came flying to the island. Their bills were [as red] as blood. They followed [the fish]. "Ah!" said Blue Jay, "do you notice them? Whence come these numerous birds?" The Raven said: "Ha, squint-eye, they are your children; do you not recognize them?" Five times they went round the rock. Now [the boy] threw the sinews down upon the stones and said: "When Blue Jay comes to gather mussels they shall be fast [to the rocks]." And he said to the women, turning toward the sea: "Whale-Killer will be your name. When you catch a whale you will eat it, but when you catch a sea-lion you will throw it away; but you shall not give anything to stingy people."
Blue Jay and the people were eating. Then that hunter said: "Let us go home. I am afraid we have seen evil spirits; we have never seen anything like that on this rock." Now they gathered mussels and carried along the meat which they had left over. In the evening they came near their home. [Blue Jay shouted:] "Stikŭa, fetch your mussels!" There was no soundof people. Five times he called. Now the people went ashore and [they saw that] the walls of the houses had disappeared. The people cried. Blue Jay cried also, but somebody said to him: "Be quiet. Blue Jay; if you had not been bad our chief's son would not have done so." Now they all made one house. Only Raven had one house [by himself]. He went and searched for food on the beach. He found a sturgeon. He went again to the beach and found a porpoise. Then Blue Jay went to the beach and tried to search for food. [As soon as he went out] it began to hail; the hailstones were so large [indicating]. He tried to gather mussels and wanted to break them off, but they did not come off. He could not break them off. He gave it up. Raven went to search on the beach and found a seal. The others ate roots only. Thus their chief took revenge on them.
Beliefs of the Californian Tribes
The tribes of California afford a strange example of racial conglomeration, speaking as they do a variety of languages totally distinct from one another, and exhibiting many differences in physical appearance and custom. Concerning their mythological beliefs Bancroft says:
"The Californian tribes, taken as a whole, are pretty uniform in the main features of their theogonic beliefs. They seem, without exception, to have had a hazy conception of a lofty, almost supreme being; for the most part referred to as a Great Man, the Old Man Above, the One Above; attributing to him, however, as is usual in such cases, nothing but the vaguest and most negative functions and qualities. The real practical power that most interested them, who had most to do with them and they with him, was a demon,or body of demons, of a tolerably pronounced character. In the face of divers assertions to the effect that no such thing as a devil proper has ever been found in savage mythology, we would draw attention to the following extract from the Tomo manuscript of Mr. Powers—a gentleman who, both by his study and by personal investigation, has made himself one of the best qualified authorities on the belief of the native Californian, and whose dealings have been for the most part with tribes that have never had any friendly intercourse with white men. Of course the thin and meagre imagination of the American savages was not equal to the creation of Milton's magnificent imperial Satan, or of Goethe's Mephistopheles, with his subtle intellect, his vast powers, his malignant mirth; but in so far as the Indian fiends or devils have the ability, they are wholly as wicked as these. They are totally bad, they have no good thing in them, they think only evil; but they are weak and undignified and absurd; they are as much beneath Satan as the 'Big Indians' who invent them are inferior in imagination to John Milton.
"A definite location is generally assigned to the evil one as his favourite residence or resort; thus the Californians in the county of Siskiyou give over Devil's Castle, its mount and lake, to the malignant spirits, and avoid the vicinity of these places with all possible care.
"The coast tribes of Del Norte County, California, live in constant terror of a malignant spirit that takes the form of certain animals, the form of a bat, of a hawk, of a tarantula, and so on, but especially delights in and affects that of a screech-owl. The belief of the Russian river tribes and others is practically identical with this.
"The Cahrocs have some conception of a greatdeity called Chareya, the Old Man Above; he is wont to appear upon earth at times to some of the most favoured sorcerers; he is described as wearing a close tunic, with a medicine-bag, and as having long white hair that falls venerably about his shoulders. Practically, however, the Cahrocs, like the majority of Californian tribes, venerate chiefly the Coyote. Great dread is also had of certain forest-demons of nocturnal habits; these, say the Cahrocs, take the form of bears, and shoot arrows at benighted wayfarers.
"Between the foregoing outlines of Californian belief and those connected with the remaining tribes, passing south, we can detect no salient difference till we reach the Olchones, a coast tribe between San Francisco and Monterey; the sun here begins to be connected, or identified by name, with that great spirit, or rather, that Big Man, who made the earth and who rules in the sky. So we find it again both around Monterey and around San Luis Obispo; the first fruits of the earth were offered in these neighbourhoods to the great light, and his rising was greeted with cries of joy."
Father Gerónimo Boscana gives us the following account of the faith and worship of the Acagchemem tribes, who inhabit the valley and neighbourhood of San Juan Capistrano, California. We give first the version held by theserranos, or highlanders, of the interior country, three or four leagues inland from San Juan Capistrano:
"Before the material world at all existed there lived two beings, brother and sister, of a nature that cannot be explained; the brother living above, and his name meaning the Heavens, the sister living below, and her name signifying Earth. From the union of these two there sprang a numerous offspring. Earth and sand were the first-fruits of this marriage; then were bornrocks and stones; then trees, both great and small; then grass and herbs; then animals; lastly was born a great personage called Ouiot, who was a 'grand captain.' By some unknown mother many children of a medicine race were born to this Ouiot. All these things happened in the north; and afterwards when men were created they were created in the north; but as the people multiplied they moved toward the south, the earth growing larger also and extending itself in the same direction.
"In process of time, Ouiot becoming old, his children plotted to kill him, alleging that the infirmities of age made him unfit any longer to govern them or attend to their welfare. So they put a strong poison in his drink, and when he drank of it a sore sickness came upon him; he rose up and left his home in the mountains, and went down to what is now the seashore, though at that time there was no sea there. His mother, whose name is the Earth, mixed him an antidote in a large shell, and set the potion out in the sun to brew; but the fragrance of it attracted the attention of the Coyote, who came and overset the shell. So Ouiot sickened to death, and though he told his children that he would shortly return and be with them again, he has never been seen since. All the people made a great pile of wood and burnt his body there, and just as the ceremony began the Coyote leaped upon the body, saying that he would burn with it; but he only tore a piece of flesh from the stomach and ate it and escaped. After that the title of the Coyote was changed from Eyacque, which means Sub-captain, to Eno, that is to say, Thief and Cannibal.
"When now the funeral rites were over, a general council was held and arrangements made for collecting animal and vegetable food; for up to this time thechildren and descendants of Ouiot had nothing to eat but a kind of white clay. And while they consulted together, behold a marvellous thing appeared before them, and they spoke to it, saying: 'Art thou our captain, Ouiot?' But the spectre said: 'Nay, for I am greater than Ouiot; my habitation is above, and my name is Chinigchinich.' Then he spoke further, having been told for what they were come together: 'I create all things, and I go now to make man, another people like unto you; as for you, I give you power, each after his kind, to produce all good and pleasant things. One of you shall bring rain, and another dew, and another make the acorn grow, and others other seeds, and yet others shall cause all kinds of game to abound in the land; and your children shall have this power for ever, and they shall be sorcerers to the men I go to create, and shall receive gifts of them, that the game fail not and the harvests be sure.' Then Chinigchinich made man; out of the clay of the lake he formed him, male and female; and the present Californians are the descendants of the one or more pairs there and thus created.
"So ends the known tradition of the mountaineers; we must now go back and take up the story anew at its beginning, as told by theplayanos, or people of the valley of San Juan Capistrano. These say that an invisible, all-powerful being, called Nocuma, made the world and all that it contains of things that grow and move. He made it round like a ball and held it in his hands, where it rolled about a good deal at first, till he steadied it by sticking a heavy black rock called Tosaut into it, as a kind of ballast. The sea was at this time only a little stream running round the world, and so crowded with fish that their twinkling fins had no longer room to move; so great was the press thatsome of the more foolish fry were for effecting a landing and founding a colony upon the dry land, and it was only with the utmost difficulty that they were persuaded by their elders that the killing air and baneful sun and the want of feet must infallibly prove the destruction before many days of all who took part in such a desperate enterprise. The proper plan was evidently to improve and enlarge their present home; and to this end, principally by the aid of one very large fish, they broke the great rock Tosaut in two, finding a bladder in the centre filled with a very bitter substance. The taste of it pleased the fish, so they emptied it into the water, and instantly the water became salt and swelled up and overflowed a great part of the old earth, and made itself the new boundaries that remain to this day.
"Then Nocuma created a man, shaping him out of the soil of the earth, calling him Ejoni. A woman also the great god made, presumably out of the same material as the man, calling her Aé. Many children were born to this first pair, and their descendants multiplied over the land. The name of one of these last was Sirout, that is to say, Handful of Tobacco, and the name of his wife was Ycaiut, which means Above; and to Sirout and Ycaiut was born a son, while they lived in a place north-east about eight leagues from San Juan Capistrano. The name of this son was Ouiot, that is to say, Dominator; he grew a fierce and redoubtable warrior; haughty, ambitious, tyrannous, he extended his lordship on every side, ruling everywhere as with a rod of iron; and the people conspired against him. It was determined that he should die by poison; a piece of the rock Tosaut was ground up in so deadly a way that its mere external application was sufficient to cause death. Ouiot, notwithstanding thathe held himself constantly on the alert, having been warned of his danger by a small burrowing animal called thecucumel, was unable to avoid his fate; a few grains of the cankerous mixture were dropped upon his breast while he slept, and the strong mineral ate its way to the very springs of his life. All the wise men of the land were called to his assistance; but there was nothing for him save to die. His body was burned on a great pile with songs of joy and dances, and the nation rejoiced.
"While the people were gathered to this end, it was thought advisable to consult on the feasibility of procuring seed and flesh to eat instead of the clay which had up to this time been the sole food of the human family. And while they yet talked together, there appeared to them, coming they knew not whence, one called Attajen, 'which name implies man, or rational being.' And Attajen, understanding their desires, chose out certain of the elders among them, and to these gave he power; one that he might cause rain to fall, to another that he might cause game to abound, and so with the rest, to each his power and gift, and to the successors of each for ever. These were the first medicine-men."
Many years having elapsed since the death of Ouiot, there appeared in the same place one called Ouiamot, reputed son of Tacu and Auzar—people unknown, but natives, it is thought by Boscana, of "some distant land." This Ouiamot is better known by his great name Chinigchinich, which means Almighty. He first manifested his powers to the people on a day when they had met in congregation for some purpose or other; he appeared dancing before them crowned with a kind of high crown made of tall feathers stuck into a circlet of some kind, girt with akind of petticoat of feathers, and having his flesh painted black and red. Thus decorated he was called thetobet. Having danced some time, Chinigchinich called out the medicine-men, orpuplems, as they were called, among whom it would appear the chiefs are always numbered, and confirmed their power; telling them that he had come from the stars to instruct them in dancing and all other things, and commanding that in all their necessities they should array themselves in thetobet, and so dance as he had danced, supplicating him by his great name, that thus they might be granted their petitions. He taught them how to worship him, how to buildvanquechs, or places of worship, and how to direct their conduct in various affairs of life. Then he prepared to die, and the people asked him if they should bury him; but he warned them against attempting such a thing. "If ye buried me," he said, "ye would tread upon my grave, and for that my hand would be heavy upon you; look to it, and to all your ways, for lo, I go up where the high stars are, where mine eyes shall see all the ways of men; and whosoever will not keep my commandments nor observe the things I have taught, behold, disease shall plague all his body, and no food shall come near his lips, the bear shall rend his flesh, and the crooked tooth of the serpent shall sting him."
In Lower California the Pericues were divided into twogentes, each of which worshipped a divinity which was hostile to the other. The tradition explains that there was a great lord in heaven, called Niparaya, who made earth and sea, and was almighty and invisible. His wife was Anayicoyondi, a goddess who, though possessing no body, bore him in a divinely mysterious manner three children, one of whom, Quaayayp, was a real man and born on earth, on the Acaraguimountains. Very powerful this young god was, and for a long time he lived with the ancestors of the Pericues, whom it is almost to be inferred that he created; at any rate we are told that he was able to make men, drawing them up out of the earth. The men at last killed their great hero and teacher, and put a crown of thorns upon his head. Somewhere or other he remains lying dead to this day; and he remains constantly beautiful, neither does his body know corruption. Blood drips constantly from his wounds; and though he can speak no more, being dead, yet there is an owl that speaks to him.
The other god was called Wac, or Tuparan. According to the Niparaya sect, this Wac had made war on their favourite god, and had been by him defeated and cast forth from heaven into a cave under the earth, of which cave the whales of the sea were the guardians. With a perverse, though not unnatural, obstinacy, the sect that took Wac or Tuparan for their great god persisted in holding ideas peculiar to themselves with regard to the truth of the foregoing story, and their account of the great war in heaven and its results differed from the other as differ the creeds of heterodox and orthodox everywhere; they ascribe, for example, part of the creation to other gods besides Niparaya.
Myths of the Athapascans
The great Athapascan family, who inhabit a vast extent of territory stretching north from the fifty-fifth parallel nearly to the Arctic Ocean, and westward to the Pacific, with cognate ramifications to the far south, are weak in mythological conceptions. Regarding them Bancroft says:[4]
[4]The Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. iii.
"They do not seem in any of their various tribes to have a single expressed idea with regard to a supreme power. The Loucheux branch recognize a certain personage, resident in the moon, whom they supplicate for success in starting on a hunting expedition. This being once lived among them as a poor ragged boy that an old woman had found and was bringing up; and who made himself ridiculous to his fellows by making a pair of very large snow-shoes; for the people could not see what a starveling like him should want with shoes of such unusual size. Times of great scarcity troubled the hunters, and they would often have fared badly had they not invariably on such occasions come across a new broad trail that led to a head or two of freshly killed game. They were glad enough to get the game and without scruples as to its appropriation; still they felt curious as to whence it came and how. Suspicion at last pointing to the boy and his great shoes as being in some way implicated in the affair, he was watched. It soon became evident that he was indeed the benefactor of the Loucheux, and the secret hunter whose quarry had so often replenished their empty pots; yet the people were far from being adequately grateful, and continued to treat him with little kindness or respect. On one occasion they refused him a certain piece of fat—him who had so often saved their lives by his timely bounty! That night the lad disappeared, leaving only his clothes behind, hanging on a tree. He returned to them in a month, however, appearing as a man, and dressed as a man. He told them that he had taken up his home in the moon; that he would always look down with a kindly eye to their success in hunting; but he added that as a punishment for their shameless greed and ingratitude in refusing him the piece of fat, all animalsshould be lean the long winter through, and fat only in summer; as has since been the case.
"According to Hearne, the Tinneh believe in a kind of spirits, or fairies, callednantena, which people the earth, the sea, and the air, and are instrumental for both good and evil. Some of them believe in a good spirit called Tihugun, 'my old friend,' supposed to reside in the sun and in the moon; they have also a bad spirit, Chutsain, apparently only a personification of death, and for this reason called bad.
"They have no regular order ofshamans; any one when the spirit moves him may take upon himself their duties and pretensions, though some by happy chances, or peculiar cunning, are much more highly esteemed in this regard than others, and are supported by voluntary contributions. The conjurer often shuts himself in his tent and abstains from food for days till his earthly grossness thins away, and the spirits and things unseen are constrained to appear at his behest. The young Tinneh care for none of these things; the strong limb and the keen eye, holding their own well in the jostle of life, mock at the terrors of the invisible; but as the pulses dwindle with disease or age, and the knees strike together in the shadow of impending death, theshamanis hired to expel the evil things of which a patient is possessed. Among the Tacullies a confession is often resorted to at this stage, on the truth and accuracy of which depend the chances of a recovery."
Conclusion
In concluding this survey of representative myths of the Red Race of North America, the reader will probably be chiefly impressed with the circumstance that although many of these tales exhibit a strikingresemblance to the myths of European and Asiatic peoples they have yet an atmosphere of their own which strongly differentiates them from the folk-tales of all other races. It is a truism in mythology that although the tales and mythological systems of peoples dwelling widely apart may show much likeness to one another, such a resemblance cannot be advanced as a proof that the divergent races at some distant period possessed a common mythology. Certain tribes in Borneo live in huts built on piles driven into lake-beds and use blow-pipes; so do some Indians of Guiana and contiguous countries; yet no scientist of experience would be so rash as to advance the theory that these races possessed a common origin. It is the same with mythological processes, which may have been evolved separately at great distances, but yet exhibit a marked likeness. These resemblances arise from the circumstance that the mind of man, whether he be situated in China or Peru, works on surprisingly similar lines. But, as has been indicated, the best proof that the myths of North America have not been sophisticated by those of Europe and Asia is the circumstance that the aboriginal atmosphere they contain is so marked that even the most superficial observer could not fail to observe its presence. In the tales contained in this volume the facts of Indian life, peculiar and unique, enter into every description and are inalienably interwoven with the matter of the story.
In closing, the author desires to make a strong appeal for a reasoned and charitable consideration of the Indian character on the part of his readers. This noble, manly, and dignified race has in the past been grossly maligned, chiefly by persons themselves ignorant and inspired by hereditary dislike. The Red Man is neither a monster of inhumanity nor a marvelof cunning, but a being with like feelings and aspirations to our own. Because his customs and habits of thought differ from ours he has been charged with all manner of crimes and offences with which he has, in general, nothing to do. We do not deny that he was, till very recent times, a savage, with the habits and outlook of a savage. But that he ever was a demon in human shape must be strenuously denied. In the march of progress Indian men and women are to-day taking places of honour and emolument side by side with their white fellow-citizens, and many gifted and cultured persons of Indian blood have done good work for the race. Let us hope that the ancient virtues of courage and endurance which have stood the Indian people in such good stead of old will assist their descendants in the even more strenuous tasks of civilization to which they are now called.
MAP TO ILLUSTRATE LINGUISTIC FAMILIES OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANSMAP TO ILLUSTRATE LINGUISTIC FAMILIES OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
The annexed bibliography, although full, is far from being exhaustive, but it is hoped that readers who desire to follow up the whole or any separate department of study connected with the Red Race of North America will find in it reference to many useful volumes. It is claimed that the list represents the best of the literature upon the subject.
ADAIR, JAMES:The History of the American Indians. London, 1775.
AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY:Transactions and Collections (Archælogia Americana), vols. i.-vii.; Worcester, 1820-85.Proceedings, various numbers.
American Archæologist(formerlyThe Antiquarian), vol. ii., Columbus. 1898.
AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY.Transactions, vols. i.-iii.; New York, 1845-53.Publications, vols. i.-ii.; Leyden, 1907-9.
AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.Minutes and Proceedings: Digest, vol. i.; Philadelphia, 1744-1838.Proceedings, vols. i.-xliv.; Philadelphia, 1838-1905.Transactions, vols. i.-vi.; Philadelphia, 1759-1809.Transactions, New Series, vols. i.-xix.; Philadelphia, 1818-98.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON.Transactions, vols. i.-iii. Washington, 1881-85.
ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA.Papers, American Series, vol. i., Boston and London, 1881 (reprinted 1883); vol. iii., Cambridge, 1890; vol. iv., Cambridge, 1892; vol. v., Cambridge, 1890.Annual Report, first to eleventh; Cambridge, 1880-90.Bulletin, vol. i.; Boston, 1883.
ASHE, THOMAS:Travels in America performed in 1806; for the purpose of exploring the Rivers Alleghany, Monongahela, Ohio, and Mississippi, and ascertaining the Produce and Condition of their Banks and Vicinity. London, 1808.
ATWATER, CALEB:Description of the Antiquities discovered in the State of Ohio and other Western States. (InArchæologia Americana, vol. i., 1820.)
BACON, OLMER N.:A History of Natick, from its First Settlement in 1651 to the Present Time. Boston, 1856.
BAEGERT, JACOB:An Account of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the California Peninsula. Translated by Charles Rau. (Smithsonian Report for 1863 and 1864; reprinted 1865 and 1875.)
BAKER, C. ALICE:True Stories of New England Captives. Cambridge, 1897.
BANCROFT, GEORGE:History of the United States. 9 vols. Boston, 1838-75.
BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE: Works. 39 vols. San Francisco, 1886-90. (vols. i.-v.,Native Races; vi.-vii.,Central America; ix.-xiv.,North Mexican States and Texas; xvii.,Arizona and New Mexico; xviii.-xxiv.,California; xxv.,Nevada, Colorado, Wyoming; xxvi.,Utah; xxvii.-xxviii.,North-west Coast; xxix.-xxx.,Oregon; xxxi.,Washington, Idaho, Montana; xxxii.,British Columbia; xxxiii.,Alaska; xxxiv.,California Pastoral; xxxv.,California inter Pocula; xxxvi.-xxxvii.,Popular Tribunals; xxxviii.,Essays and Miscellany; xxxix.,Literary Industries.)
BANDELIER, ADOLF F.:Historical Introduction to Studies among the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico. (Papersof the Archæological Institute of America, American Series, vol. i., Boston, 1881.)
——Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the South-western United States, carried on mainly in the Years from 1880 to 1885. (Papersof the Archæological Institute of America, American Series, vol. iii., Cambridge, 1890; vol. iv., Cambridge, 1892.)
BARRATT, JOSEPH:The Indian of New England and the North-eastern Provinces: a Sketch of the Life of an Indian Hunter, Ancient Traditions relating to the Etchemin Tribe, etc. Middletown, Conn., 1851.
BARTON, BENJAMIN S.:New Views of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America. Philadelphia, 1797.Ibid., 1798.
BARTRAM, JOHN:Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and other Matters worthy of Notice made by Mr. John Bartram, in his Travels from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego, and the Lake Ontario in Canada, to which is annexed a Curious Account of the Cataracts of Niagara, by Mr. Peter Kalm. London, 1751.
BARTRAM, WILLIAM:Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, the Cherokee Country, the Extensive Territories of the Muscogulges or Creek Confederacy, and the Country of the Chactaws. Philadelphia, 1791. London, 1792.
BATTEY, THOMAS C.:Life and Adventures of a Quaker among the Indians. Boston and New York, 1875.Ibid., 1876.
BEACH, WILLIAM W.:The Indian Miscellany: containing Papers on the History, Antiquities, Arts, Languages, Religions, Traditions, and Superstitions of the American Aborigines. Albany, 1877.
BEAUCHAMP, WILLIAM M.:The Iroquois Trail; or, Footprints of the Six Nations. Fayetteville, N.Y., 1892.
BELL, A. W.:On the Native Races of New Mexico. (Journalof the Ethnological Society of London, New Series, vol. i., Session 1868-69; London, 1869.)
BELL, ROBERT:The Medicine-man; or, Indian and Eskimo Notions of Medicine. (Canada Medical and Surgical Journal, Montreal, March-April, 1886.)
BLISS, EUGENE F. (Editor):Diary of David Zeisberger, a Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio. 2 vols. Cincinnati, 1885.
BOAS, FRANZ:Songs and Dances of the Kwakiutl. (Journal of American Folk-lore, vol. i.; Boston, 1888.)
——Chinook Texts. (Bulletin 20, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1895.)
——The Mythology of the Bella Coola Indians. (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. ii.,Anthropology, i.; New York, 1898.)
——Kathlamet Texts. {Bulletin 26, Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1901.)
——Tsimshian Texts. (Bulletin 27, Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1902.)
BOLLAERT, WILLIAM:Observations on the Indian Tribes in Texas. (Journalof the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii., 1850.)
BOLLER, HENRY A.:Among the Indians. Eight Years in the Far West: 1858-1866.Embracing Sketches of Montana and Salt Lake. Philadelphia, 1868.
BONNELL, GEORGE W.:Topographical Description of Texas; to which is added an Account of the Indian Tribes. Austin, 1840.
BOSCANA, GERONIMO:Chinigchinich; a Historical Account of the Origin, Customs, and Traditions of the Indians at the Missionary Establishmentof St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California, called the Acagchemem Nation. (In Alfred Robinson'sLife in California; New York, 1846.)
BOURKE, JOHN G.:The Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona; being a Narrative of a Journey from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Villages of the Moqui Indians of Arizona. New York, 1884.
BRICKELL, JOHN:The Natural History of North Carolina; with an Account of the Trade, Manners, and Customs of the Christian and Indian Inhabitants. Dublin, 1737.
BRINTON, DANIEL G.:Myths of the New World. New York, 1868.
——National Legend of the Chahta-Muskokee Tribes. Morrisania, N.Y., 1870.
——American Hero-myths: A Study in the Native Religions of the Western Continent. Philadelphia, 1882.
——Essays of an Americanist. Philadelphia, 1890.
——The American Race. New York, 1891.
BROWNELL, CHARLES DE W.:The Indian Races of North and South America. Boston, 1853.
BUCHANAN, JAMES:Sketches of the History, Manners, and Customs of the North American Indians, with a plan for their Melioration. Vols. i.-ii. New York, 1824.Ibid., 1825.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION):Annual Reports, i.-xxvi.; Washington, 1881-1908.Bulletins, 1-49; Washington, 1887-1910.Introductions, i.-iv.; Washington, 1877-1880.Miscellaneous Publications, 1-9; Washington, 1880-1907.Contributions to North American Ethnology(q.v.).
BUSHNELL, D. I., Jr.:The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana. (Bulletin 48, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1909.)
CALLENDER, JOHN:An Historical Discourse on the Civil and Religious Affairs of the Colony of Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations in New-England, in America. Boston, 1739. (Collections, Rhode Island Historical Society, vols. i.-iv.; Providence, 1838.)
CAMBRIDGE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO TORRES STRAITS:Reports, vol. ii., parts i. and ii. Cambridge, 1901-3.
CARR, LUCIEN:Food of certain American Indians. (Proceedingsof the American Antiquarian Society, New Series, vol. x.; Worcester, 1895.)
CARR, LUCIEN:Dress and Ornaments of certain American Indians. (Proceedingsof the American Antiquarian Society, New Series, vol. xi.; Worcester, 1898.)
CARVER, JONATHAN:Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768. London, 1778.
——Three Years through the Interior Parts of North America for more than Five Thousand Miles. Philadelphia, 1796.
——Carver's Travels in Wisconsin. New York, 1838.
CATLIN, GEORGE:Illustrations of the Manners and Customs and Condition of the North American Indians. 2 vols. London, 1841.Ibid., London, 1866.
——Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians. 2 vols. New York and London, 1844.
——O-kee-pa: a Religious Ceremony; and other Customs of the Mandans. Philadelphia, 1867.
CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE:Voyages: ou Journal des Découvertes de la Nouvelle France. 2 vols. Paris, 1830.
CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE F. X. DE.:Histoire et Description générale de la Nouvelle France. 3 vols. Paris, 1744.
CLARK, W. P.:The Indian Sign Language. Philadelphia, 1885.
COLDEN, CADWALLADER:The History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada, which are dependent on the Province of New York, America. London, 1747.Ibid., 1755.
CONANT, A. J.:Footprints of Vanished Races in the Mississippi Valley. St. Louis, 1879.
Contributions to North American Ethnology. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. Powell in charge. vols. i.-vii., ix. Washington, 1877-93.
CORTEZ, JOSÉ:History of the Apache Nations and other Tribes near the Parallel of 35° North Latitude. (Pacific Railroad Reports, vol. iii., part iii., chap. 7; Washington, 1856.)
COUES, ELLIOTT (Editor):History of the Expedition of Lewis and Clark to the Sources of the Missouri River and to the Pacific in 1804-5-6. A new edition, 4 vols. New York, 1893.
CURTIN, JEREMIAH:Creation Myths of Primitive America in relation to the Religious History and Mental Development of Mankind. Boston, 1898.
CURTIS, EDWARD S.:The American Indian. 4 vols. New York, 1907-9.
CUSHING, F. H.:Zuñi Fetiches. (Second Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1883.)
——Outlines of Zuñi Creation Myths. (Thirteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1896.)
——Zuñi Folk-tales. New York, 1901.
DALL, WILLIAM H.:Tribes of the Extreme North-West. (Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. i.; Washington, 1877.)
——The Native Tribes of Alaska. (Proceedingsof the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1885, vol. xxxiv.; Salem, 1886.)
DAWSON, GEORGE M.:Notes and Observations of the Kwakiootl People of the Northern Part of Vancouver Island and Adjacent Coasts made during the Summer of 1885, with Vocabulary of about 700 Words. (Proceedings and Transactionsof the Royal Society of Canada, 1887, vol. v.; Montreal, 1888.)
——Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia. (Proceedings and Transactionsof the Royal Society of Canada, 1891, vol. ix., sect. ii.; Montreal, 1892.)
DE FOREST, JOHN W.:History of the Indians of Connecticut from the Earliest Known Period to 1850. Hartford, 1851.Ibid., 1852, 1853.
DEANS, JAMES:Tales from the Totems of the Hidery. (Archivesof the International Folk-lore Association, vol. ii.; Chicago, 1889.)
DELLENBAUGH, F. S.:North Americans of Yesterday. New York and London, 1901.
DIXON, R. B.:Maidu Myths. (Bulletinsof the American Museum of Natural History, vol. vii., part ii.; New York, 1902.)
DODGE, RICHARD I.:Our Wild Indians. Hartford, 1882.
DONALDSON, THOMAS:The Moqui Indians of Arizona and Pueblo Indians of New Mexico. (Extra Census Bulletin, Eleventh Census, U.S.; Washington, 1893.)
DORSEY, GEORGE A.:Arapaho Sun Dance: The Ceremony of the Offerings Lodge. (Publicationsof the Field College Museum, Anthropological Series, vol. iv.; Chicago, 1903.)
——Mythology of the Wichita. (Carnegie Institution of Washington,PublicationNo. 21; Washington, 1904.)
DORSEY, GEORGE A.:Traditions of the Osage. (Publicationsof the Field College Museum, Anthropological Series, vol. vii., No. i; Chicago, 1904.)
——The Cheyenne. Part i.,Ceremonial Organization; part ii.,The Sun Dance. (Publicationsof the Field College Museum, Anthropological Series, vol. ix., Nos. 1 and 2; Chicago, 1905.)
——The Pawnee: Mythology. Part i. (Carnegie Institution of Washington,PublicationNo. 59; Washington, 1906.)
—— AND KROEBER, A. L.:Traditions of the Arapaho. (Publicationsof the Field College Museum, Anthropological Series, vol. v.; Chicago, 1903.)
DORSEY, J. OWEN:Osage Traditions. (Sixth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1888.)
——The Cegiha Language. (Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi.; Washington, 1890.)
——A Study of Siouan Cults. (Eleventh Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1894.)
DRAKE, SAMUEL G.:Book of the Indians of North America. Boston, 1833.Ibid., Boston, 1841; Boston [1848].
DUNN, JACOB P.:True Indian Stories. With Glossary of Indiana Indian names. Indianapolis, 1908.Ibid., 1909.
EMERSON, ELLEN R.:Indian Myths; or, Legends, Traditions, and Symbols of the Aborigines of America. Boston, 1884.
EWBANK, THOMAS:North American Rock-writing. Morrisania, N.Y., 1866.
FAIRBANKS, G. R.:History of Florida, 1512-1842. Philadelphia, 1871.
FEWKES, J. W.:Tusayan Katcinas. (Fifteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1897.)
——Tusayan Migration Traditions. (Nineteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part ii.; Washington, 1900.)
FISCHER, JOSEPH:Discoveries of the Norsemen in America. London, 1903.
FLETCHER, ALICE C.:Indian Story and Song from North America. Boston, 1900.
FOSTER, J. W.:Prehistoric Races of the United States of America. Chicago, 1878.
FOWKE, GERARD:Stone Art. (Thirteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1896.)
GASS, PATRICK:Journal of the Voyages and Travels of a Corps of Discovery, under Command of Lewis and Clark. Pittsburg, 1807. Ibid., Philadelphia, 1810; Dayton, 1847; Welsburg, Va., 1859.
GATSCHET, ALBERT S.:A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians. vol. i., Philadelphia, 1884. (Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature, No. 4); vol. ii., St. Louis, 1888 (Transactionsof the Academy of Sciences, St. Louis, vol. v., Nos. 1 and 2).
GENTLEMAN OF ELVAS:A Narrative of the Expedition of Hernando de Soto Into Florida. Published at Evora, 1557. Translated from the Portuguese by Richard Hakluyt. London, 1609. (In French, B.F., Hist. Coll. La., part ii.; 2nd ed., Philadelphia, 1850.)
GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD:Pawnee Hero-stories and Folk-tales. New York, 1889.
——Blackfoot Lodge Tales. New York, 1892.
HALE, HORATIO:Iroquois Book of Rites. Philadelphia, 1883.
HECKEWELDER, JOHN G. E.:An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States. Philadelphia, 1819. (Reprinted, Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, vol. xii.; Philadelphia, 1876.)
HEWITT, J. N. B.:Legend of the Founding of the Iroquois League. (American Anthropologist, vol. v.; Washington, 1892.)
——Orenda and a Definition of Religion. (American Anthropologist, New Series, vol. iv.; Washington, 1891.)
——Iroquoian Cosmology. (Twenty-first Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1903.)
HOFFMAN, WALTER J.:The Mide'-wiwin, or 'Grand Medicine Society,' of the Ojibwa. (Seventh Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1891.)
HOLMES, WILLIAM H.: Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States. (Twentieth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1903.
HOUGH, WALTER:Antiquities of the Upper Gila and Salt River Valleys in Arizona and New Mexico. (Bulletin 35, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1907.)
HRDLICKA, ALES:Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of the South-western United States and Northern Mexico. (Bulletin 34, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1908.)
HUNTER, JOHN D.:Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of North America. London, 1823.
JOHNSON, ELIAS:Legends, Traditions, and Laws of the Iroquois, or Six Nations. Lockport, N.Y., 1881.
Journal of American Ethnology and Archæology, vols. i.-iv. Boston and New York, 1891-94.
Journal of American Folk-lore, vols. i.-xxiii. Boston and New York, 1888-1910.
KANE, PAUL:Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America. London, 1859.
KELLY, FANNY:Narrative of my Captivity among the Sioux Indians. 2nd ed. Chicago, 1880.
KOHL, J. G.:Kitchi-gami: Wanderings round Lake Superior. London, 1860.
LAFITAU, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS:Moeurs des Sauvages amériquains, comparées aux Moeurs des Premiers Temps. 2 vols. Paris, 1724.
LARIMER, SARAH L.:Capture and Escape; or, Life among the Sioux. Philadelphia, 1870.
LE BEAU, C.:Aventures; ou Voyage curieux et nouveau parmi les Sauvages de l'Amérique Septentrionale. 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1738.
LEE, NELSON:Three Years among the Comanches. Albany, 1859.
LELAND, C. G.:Algonquin Legends of New England. Boston and New York, 1885.
LEWIS, MERIWETHER:The Travels of Captains Lewis and Clark, from St. Louis, by way of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, to the Pacific Ocean; performed in the Rears 1804, 1805, and 1806. London, 1809.Ibid., Philadelphia, 1809.
—— AND CLARK, WILLIAM:History of the Expedition of Captains Lewis and Clark to the Sources of the Missouri, across the Rocky Mountains; 1804-6. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1814.Ibid., Dublin, 1817; New York, 1817.
——The Journal of Lewis and Clark to the Mouth of the Columbia River beyond the Rocky Mountains. Dayton, Ohio, 1840.
LEWIS, MERIWETHER, AND CLARK, WILLIAM:Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-6. Edited by R. G. Thwaites. 8 vols. New York, 1904-5.
LONG, JOHN:Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader, describing the Manners and Customs of the North American Indians. London, 1791.
LOSKIEL, GEORGE HENRY:History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America. London, 1794.
LUMHOLTZ, CARL:Tarahumari Dances and Plant-worship. (Scribner's Magazine, vol. xvi., No. 4; New York, 1894.)
LUMMIS, CHARLES F.:The Man who Married the Moon, and other Pueblo Indian Folk-stories. New York, 1894.
McGEE, W. J.:The Siouan Indians. (Fifteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1897.)
MALLERY, GARRICK:Sign-language among North American Indians. (First Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1881.)
——Picture-writing of the American Indians. (Tenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1893.)
MATTHEWS, WASHINGTON:Navaho Legends. Boston and New York, 1897.
MOONEY, JAMES:The Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees. (Seventh Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1891.)
——The Ghost-dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890. (Fourteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part ii.; Washington, 1896.)
——Myths of the Cherokee. (Nineteenth Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part i.; Washington, 1900.)
NADAILLAC, MARQUIS DE:Prehistoric America. Translated by N. D'Anvers. New York and London, 1884.
NORDENSKIOLD, G.:Cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde. Translated by D. Lloyd Morgan. Stockholm and Chicago, 1893.
NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA:Reports on the Physical Characters, Languages, Industrial and Social Condition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada. (InReportsof the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1885-98; London, 1886-99.)
PAYNE, EDWARD J.:History of the New World called America. 2 vols. Oxford and New York, 1892.
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY:Archæological and Ethnological Papers, vols. i.-iii., 1888-1904.Memoirs, vols. i.-iii., 1896-1904.Annual Reports, vols. i.-xxxvii., 1868-1904. Cambridge, Mass.
PENSHALLOW, SAMUEL:The History of the Wars of New-England with the Eastern Indians. Boston, 1726. (Collectionsof the New Hampshire Historical Society, vol. i., Concord, 182,4; reprint, 1871.)
PERROT, NICOLAS:Mémoire sur les Moeurs, Coutumes, et Religion des Sauvages de l'Amérique Septentrionale, publié pour la première fois par le R. P. J. Tailhan. Leipzig and Paris, 1864.
PETITOT, EMILE:Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest. Alençon, 1887.
PIDGEON, WILLIAM:Traditions of De-coo-dah; and Antiquarian Researches, comprising extensive Explorations, Surveys, and Excavations of the Wonderful and Mysterious Remains of the Mound-builders in America. New York, 1858.
POWERS, STEPHEN:Tribes of California. (Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iii.; Washington, 1877.)
RAFN, K. C.:Antiquitates Americanæ. Copenhagen, 1837.
SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY R.:Algic Researches. 2 vols. New York, 1839.
——Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian Tribes of the United States. Philadelphia, 1851-57.
SHORT, JOHN T.:North Americans of Antiquity. 2nd ed. New York, 1880.
SIMMS, S. C.:Traditions of the Crows. (Publicationsof the Field College Museum, Anthropological Series, vol. ii., No. 6; Chicago, 1903.)
SMITH, ERMINNIE A.:Myths of the Iroquois. (Second Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1883.)
SMITH, JOHN: Works, 1608. Edited by Edward Arber. English Scholar's Library, No. 16. Birmingham, 1884.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION:Annual Reports, 1846-1908; Washington, 1847-1909.Contributions to Knowledge, vols. i.-xxiv.; Washington, 1848-1907.Miscellaneous Collections, vols. i.-iv.; Washington, 1862-1910.
SNELLING, WILLIAM J.:Tales of the North-West: Sketches of Indian Life and Character. Boston, 1830.
STEVENSON, MATILDA C.:The Zuñi Indians; their Mythology, Esoteric Fraternities, and Ceremonies. (Twenty-third Report, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1904.)
SWANTOM, JOHN R.:Haida Texts and Myths. (Bulletin 29, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1905.)
——Tlingit Myths and Texts. (Bulletin 39, Bureau of American Ethnology; Washington, 1909.)
THOMAS, CYRUS:Introduction to the Study of North American Archæology. Cincinnati, 1903.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES, F. V. Hayden in charge.Bulletins, vols. i.-vi.; Washington, 1874-82.Annual Reports, vols. i.-ix.; Washington, 1867-78.
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF:Crania ethnica americana. Berlin, 1892.
VOTH, H. R.:Oraibi Summer Snake Ceremony. (Publicationsof the Field College Museum Anthropological Series, vol. iii., No. 4; Chicago, 1903.)
WAITZ, THEODOR:Anthropologie der Naturvolker. 4 Bd. Leipzig. 1859-64.
WARREN, WILLIAM W.:History of the Ojibways, based upon Traditions and Oral Statements. (Collectionsof the Minnesota Historical Society, vol. v.; St. Paul, 1885.)
WHEELER, OLIN D.:The Trail of Lewis and Clark, 1804-1904. 2 vols. New York, 1904.
WILL, G. F., AND SPINDEN, H. J.:The Mandans: Study of their Culture, Archæology, and Language. (Papersof the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, vol. iii., No. 4; Cambridge, Mass., 1906.)
WINSOR, JUSTIN:Narrative and Critical History of America. 8 vols. Boston and New York, 1884-89.