Al′legory,a figurative representation in which the signs (words or forms) signify something besides their literal or direct meaning. In rhetoric, allegory is often but a continued simile. Parables and fables are a species of allegory. Sometimes long works are throughout allegorical, as Spenser'sFaerie Queeneand Bunyan'sPilgrim's Progress. When an allegory is thus continued it is indispensable to its success that not only the allegorical meaning should be appropriate, but that the story should have an interest of its own in the direct meaning apart from the allegorical significance. Allegories are frequent in the Old Testament, whilst in the New they take the form of parables. One of the best-known allegories in classical literature is the story of the stomach and the members of the body in the speech attributed to Menenius Agrippa by Plutarch and Livy. (Cf. Shakespeare,Coriolanus, i, 1.) Allegory is often made use of in painting and sculpture as well as in literature.
Allegri(a˙l-lā′grē), Gregorio, an Italian composer, born at Rome in 1560 or 1585, died there about 1650; celebrated for hisMiserere, a setting of the fifty-first psalm (the fiftieth in theVulgate), which in the Latin version begins with that word. Allegri'sMiserereis annually performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome.
Allegro(It., a˙l-lā′grō), a musical term expressing a more or less quick rate of movement, or a piece of music or movement in lively time.Allegro moderato, moderately quick;allegro maestoso, quick but with dignity;allegro assaiandallegro molto, very quick;allegro con brioorcon fuoco, with fire and energy;allegrissimo, with the utmost rapidity.
Allein(al′en), Joseph, English Nonconformist divine; born 1633, died 1668; the author of a popular religious book entitled,An Alarm to Unconverted Sinners, or The Sure Guide to Heaven(1672).
Allein(al′en), Richard, English Nonconformist divine; born in 1611, died 1681; rector for twenty years of Batcombe (Somerset); deprived of his living at the Restoration, and imprisoned for preaching. He wrote, among other things,Vindiciæ Pietatis('A Vindication of Godliness'), published in 1660, which was condemned to be burned in the royal kitchen.
Alleluia.SeeHalleluia.
Allemande(a˙l-ma˙n˙d), a kind of slow, graceful dance, invented in France in the time of Louis XIV, and again in vogue in the time of the First Empire. The name is also given to pieces of music based on the dance movement. Bach and Handel have composed a great number of Allemandes, and Beethoven has written twelve for orchestra.
Allen,Bog of, the name applied to a series of bogs in Ireland (not to one continuous morass), dispersed, often widely apart, with extensive tracts of dry cultivated soil between, over a broad belt of land stretching across the centre of the country, the bogs being, however, all on the east side of the Shannon.
Allen,Ethan, an American revolutionary partisan and general; born 1737, died 1789. He surprised and captured Ticonderoga Fort (1775); attacked Montreal, and was captured and sent to England, being exchanged in 1778; wrote against Christianity,Reason, the only Oracle of Man(1784).—His younger brother, Ira (1751-1814), was also prominent in the revolutionary era.
Allen,Grant, writer on scientific subjects and novelist, was born at Kingston, Canada, 1848, died in 1899. His earlier education he received in America, but he also studied in France and graduated at Oxford with honours in 1870. From 1873 to 1879 he was connected with Queen's College, Jamaica, but afterwards resided chiefly in England, and became well known as an exponent of evolutionary science, and as a novelist. His first important work,Physiological Æsthetics, appeared in 1877; his other scientific or semi-scientific works includeThe Colour Sense;The Evolutionist at Large;Colin Clouts Calendar (the record of a summer);Vignettes from Nature;The Colours of Flowers;Flowers and their Pedigrees; andForce and Energy, a Theory of Dynamics. Other works by him are:Anglo-Saxon Britain;Charles Darwin; andThe Evolution of the Idea of God. His novels, about thirty in number, include:The Devil's Die;The Woman Who Did, &c.
Allen,John, a Scottish political and historical writer; born in 1771, died in 1843. He studied medicine, and became M.D. of Edinburgh University. In 1801 he went abroad with Lord Holland and family, and henceforth he maintained this connection, being long an inmate of Holland House (London) and a member of the brilliant society that assembled there. He contributed many articles to theEdinburgh Review; and wroteAn Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England;Vindication of the Ancient Independence of Scotland; &c.
Allen,Ralph, celebrated as a philanthropist, and as the friend of Pope, Fielding, and the elderPitt, was born in 1694, died in 1764. He lived mostly at Bath, where he made a large income as farmer of a system of posts and as owner of quarries. He is the prototype of Squire Allworthy in Fielding'sTom Jones; and after the novelist's death he took charge of his family. Pope, who received many kindnesses at his hands, referred to him in the lines:
Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.
Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.
Let humble Allen, with an awkward shame,
Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.
With Pitt he was on intimate terms, and left him £1000 in his will. Hurd, Sherlock, and Warburton were also his friends.
Allen,Thomas, an English mathematician, philosopher, antiquarian, and astrologer, born in 1542, died in 1632. He studied at Oxford, and lived the greater part of his life in learned retirement, corresponding with many of the famous men of his time. In his own day he was generally reputed a dealer in the black art.
Allen,William, cardinal, an English Roman Catholic of the time of Queen Elizabeth. Influenced by the Jesuit Robert Parsons, he became a strenuous opponent of Protestantism and supporter of the claims of Philip II to the English throne; born 1532, died 1594. It was by his efforts that the English college for Catholics at Douai was established. He was made cardinal in 1587. His numerous writings include:The Declaration of the Sentence of Sixtus V, andAn Admonition to the Nobility and People of England.
Allen,William,D.D., American clergyman and author; born 1784, died 1868. He was president of Bowdoin College, 1820-39; author ofAmerican Biographical and Historical Dictionary;Junius Unmasked; &c.
Allenby, Viscount,Edmund Henry Hynman, British soldier, born on 23rd April, 1861, and educated at Haileybury. He joined the Inniskilling Dragoons, and in 1884 served with that regiment in the Bechuanaland Expedition. He was with the British forces in Zululand in 1888, took part in the South African war, and commanded the 4th Cavalry Brigade, 1905-10. In the European War he at first commanded the British Third Army, contributing largely to the victories of the Somme and the Aisne. After a reverse, south of Gaza, suffered on 26th March, 1917, by the British troops under the command of Sir Archibald Murray, the latter was relieved, and General Allenby was placed in command of the operations. He made thorough preparations for the next offensive, and his progress was very rapid. Beersheba and Gaza were captured, and on 9th Dec., 1917 Jerusalem, the Holy City, was surrendered to the general by the mayor. His formal entry took place on the 11th. He was awarded theG.C.M.G.on 16th Dec., 1917, and is a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. In Aug., 1919, he was voted a sum of £50,000 and created a viscount, adopting the title of Viscount Allenby of Megiddo and of Felixstowe in Suffolk. In Oct., 1919, he was appointed High Commissioner for Egypt.
Allenstein(a˙l′len-stīn), a town in East Prussia, 65 miles south of Königsberg, on the Alle, with breweries and manufactures of iron and lucifer matches. Pop. 24,295.
Allentown,a town in the United States, Pennsylvania, on Lehigh River, 18 miles above its junction with the Delaware. It has an important trade in coal and iron ore, with large blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, &c. Pop. (1920), 73,502.
Allep′pi.SeeAulapolay.
Alleyn(al′len), Edward, an actor and theatre proprietor in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, friend of Ben Jonson and Shakespeare; born 1566, died 1626. Nashe called him "the famous Ned". Having become wealthy, he built Dulwich College, under the name of "The College of God's Gift", between 1613-17, at a cost of £10,000. SeeDulwich.
All-fours,a game at cards, which derives its name from the four chances of which it consists, for each of which a point is scored. These chances arehigh, or the ace of trumps, or next best trump out;low, or the deuce of trumps, or next lowest trump out;jack, or the knave of trumps;game, the majority of pips collected from the tricks taken by the respective players. The player who has all these is said to haveall-fours. It is played by two or four persons with the full pack. The ace counts four, the king three, queen two, knave one, ten ten. The game is known in America asSeven-up,Old-sledge, orHigh-low Jack.
All-hallows,orAll-hallowmas,a name for All-saints' Day.
Al′lia,a small affluent of the Tiber, joining it about 12 miles from Rome, famous for the victory won by the Gauls, under Brennus, over the Roman army. This battle resulted in the capture and sack of Rome in 390B.C.
Allia′ceous Plants,plants belonging to the genus Allium (ord. Liliaceæ), that to which the onion, leek, garlic, shallot, &c., belong, or to other allied genera, and distinguished by a certain peculiar pungent smell and taste characterized asalliaceous. This flavour is also found in a few plants having no botanical affinities with the above, as in theAlliaria officinālis, or Jack-by-the-hedge, a plant of the order Cruciferæ.
Alli′ance,a league between two or more Powers. Alliances are divided into offensive and defensive. The former are for the purpose of attacking a common enemy, and the latter for mutual defence. An alliance often unites both of these conditions. Offensive alliances, of course, are usually directed against some particular enemy; defensive alliances against anyone fromwhom an attack may come. Among the more famous alliances in history are: The Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great Britain, Sweden, and the Netherlands; The Grand Alliance of 1689 between the Emperor, Holland, England, Spain, and Saxony; The Quadruple Alliance of 1814 between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia; The Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, Austria, and Italy; and The Dual Alliance between Russia and France.
Alliance, Holy.SeeHoly Alliance.
Alliance Israélite Universelle,an association founded in Paris in 1860 for the protection of the Jews all over the world, but particularly with a view to advocating by various means the emancipation of the Jews in those countries where they did not enjoy equal civil and political rights with the other inhabitants. It was established by six Jews of Paris: Aristide Astruc, Isidore Cahen, Jules Carvallo, Narcisse Leven, Eugène Manuel, and Charles Netter. Adolphe Crémieux and Salomon Munk were among the first presidents of the association. It is managed by a central committee resident in Paris, and consisting of 62 members, 23 of whom live in Paris. The Alliance has done a great deal towards raising the status of the Jews in the East by establishing educational institutions and industrial and agricultural schools, especially in Turkey, Egypt, Morocco, Persia, Bulgaria, Tunis, and Abyssinia. The chief sources of its income are the subscriptions and donations of the members. Its annual income amounts to about 200,000 francs. It also manages a fund of about £400,000 founded by Baron and Baroness de Hirsch for the establishment of Jewish Schools in Turkey. The Alliance Israélite works in unison with the Anglo-Jewish Association and the Board of Deputies in London, two organizations pursuing the same aims.
Allia′ria,a genus of plants, ord. Cruciferæ, containing two species, one of which (A. officinālis), commonly called Jack-by-the-hedge, is widely spread in Europe, and often used as a pot-herb. SeeAlliaceous Plants.
Al′libone,Samuel Austin,LL.D., American author, born 1816, died 1889. He compiled a most usefulCritical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors(3 vols., 1859, 1870, 1871, containing 50,000 biographies, 2 vols. of supplement by J. F. Kirk, 1891).
Allice,a name of the common shad.
Allier(a˙l-lē-ā), a central department of France, intersected by the River Allier, and partly bounded by the Loire; its surface is diversified by offsets of the Cevennes and other ranges, rising in the south to over 4000 feet, and in general richly wooded. It has extensive beds of coal as well as other minerals, which are actively worked, there being several flourishing centres of mining and manufacturing enterprise; mineral waters at Vichy, Bourbon, L'Archambault, &c. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are bred. Area, 2848 sq. miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. (1921), 370,950.—The River Allier flows northward for 200 miles through Lozère, Upper Loire, Puy de Dôme, and Allier, and enters the Loire, of which it is the chief tributary.
Alliga′tion,a rule of arithmetic, chiefly found in the older books, relating to the solution of questions concerning the compounding or mixing together of different ingredients, or ingredients of different qualities or values. Thus if a quantity of tea worth 10d. the pound and another quantity worth 18d. are mixed, the question to be solved by alligation is, what is the value of the mixture by the pound?
AlligatorsAlligators—1, Mississippi Alligator; 2, Banded Cayman; 3, Chinese Alligator
Alliga′tor(a corruption of Sp.el lagarto, lit. the lizard—Lat.lacertus), a genus of reptiles of the family Crocodilidæ, differing from the true crocodiles in having a shorter and flatter head, in having cavities or pits in the upper jaw, into which the long canine teeth of the under jaw fit, and in having the feet much less webbed. Their habits are less perfectly aquatic. They are confined to the warmer parts of America, where they frequent swamps and marshes, and may be seen basking on the dry ground during the day in the heat of the sun. They are most active during the night, when they make a loud bellowing. The largest of these animals grow to the length of 18 or 20 feet. They are covered by a dense armour of horny scales, impenetrable to a bullet, and have a large mouth, armed with strong, conical teeth. They swim with wonderful celerity, impelled by their long, laterally-compressed, and powerful tails. On land their motions are proportionally slow and embarrassed because of the length and unwieldiness of their bodies and the shortness of their limbs. They live on fish, and any small animals or carrion, and sometimes catch pigs on the shore, or dogs which are swimming. They even sometimes make man their prey. In winter they burrow in the mud of swamps and marshes, lying torpid till the warm weather. The female lays a great number of eggs, which are deposited in the sand or mud, and left to be hatched by the heat of the sun, but after this has taken place the mother alligator is very attentive to her young. The most fierce and dangerous species is that found in the southern parts of the United States (Alligator Lucius), having the snout a little turned up, slightly resembling that of the pike. The alligators of South America are there very often calledCaymans.A. scleropsis known also as theSpectacled Cayman, from the prominent bony rim surrounding the orbit of each eye. The flesh of the alligator is sometimes eaten, the tail being considered a great delicacy by thenegroes. Among the fossils of the south of England are remains of a true alligator (A. Hantoniensis) in the Eocene beds of the Hampshire basin.
Alligator-apple(Anōna palustris), a fruit allied to the custard-apple, growing in marshy districts in Jamaica, little eaten on account of its narcotic properties.
Alligator-pear(Persēa gratissima), an evergreen tree of the nat. ord. Lauraceæ, with a fruit resembling a large pear, 1 to 2 lb. in weight, with a firm marrow-like pulp of a delicate flavour; called also avocado-pear, or subaltern's butter. It is a native of tropical America and the West Indies.
Al′lingham,William, an Irish poet, born in Ireland in 1824 or 1828, died in 1889. He published his first volume (Poems) in 1850;Day and Night Songsin 1855;Lawrence Bloomfield in Ireland, narrative poem, in 1864;Songs, Poems, and Balladsin 1877 (including a number of new poems). He was a frequent contributor to periodicals, and for some time editedFraser's Magazine.
Allitera′tion,the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; as "manymenmanyminds"; "deathdefies thedoctor". "Aptalliteration'sartfulaid" (Churchill). "Puffs,powders,patches,bibles,billet-doux" (Pope). "Weave thewarp andweave thewoof" (Gray). In the ancient German and Scandinavian and in early English poetry alliteration took the place of terminal rhymes, the alliterative syllables being made to recur with a certain regularity in the same position in successive verses. In theVision of William Concerning Piers the Ploughman, for instance, it is regularly employed as in the following lines:—
Hirerobe was fulriche . ofred scarlet engreyned,Withribanes ofred gold . and ofriche stones;Hire arraye meravysshed . suchricchesse saw I nevere;I hadwondrewhat shewas . andwhaswyf shewere.
Hirerobe was fulriche . ofred scarlet engreyned,Withribanes ofred gold . and ofriche stones;Hire arraye meravysshed . suchricchesse saw I nevere;I hadwondrewhat shewas . andwhaswyf shewere.
Hirerobe was fulriche . ofred scarlet engreyned,
Withribanes ofred gold . and ofriche stones;
Hire arraye meravysshed . suchricchesse saw I nevere;
I hadwondrewhat shewas . andwhaswyf shewere.
Alliteration was known to the Latin authors: "OTitetute,Tati,tibitanta,tyrannetulisti" (Ennius). In the hands of some English poets and prose writers of later times alliteration became a mere conceit. It is still employed in Icelandic and Finnish poetry. So far has alliteration sometimes been carried that long compositions have been written every word of which commenced with the same letter. It may also be employed in the middle of words: "Unfrais parfum sortait des touffes d'asfodile" (Victor Hugo).
Al′lium,a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceæ;, containing numerous well-known species of pot-herbs. They are umbelliferous, and mostly perennial, herbaceous plants, but a few are biennial. Among them are garlic (A. satīvum), onion (A. Cepa), leek (A. Porrum), chives (A. Schœnoprăsum), shallot (A. ascalonĭcum). The peculiar alliaceous flavour that belongs to them is well known.
Al′loa,a river port of Scotland, on the north bank of the Forth (where there is now a bridge), 7 miles from Stirling, county of Clackmannan. It carries on brewing, distilling, and shipbuilding; has manufactures of woollens, bottles, &c., and a shipping trade. Pop. (1921), 12,421.
Allocu′tion,an address, a term particularly applied to certain addresses on important occasions made by the Pope to the cardinals, and through them to the Church in general.
Allo′dium(probably derived fromallandodh, property), land held in one's own right, without any feudal obligation to a superior or lord. In England, according to the theory of the British constitution, all land is held of the crown (byfeudaltenure); the wordallodialis, therefore, never applied to landed property there.
Allogamy(from the Gr.allos, other, andgamos, wedding), meaning the transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil of another. The opposite of allogamy isautogamy, or self-pollination.
Allophane,a hydrous aluminium silicate, with the composition Al2SiO5+ 5H2O, forming crusts in the cavities of various rocks and commonly of a delicate blue colour.
Allot′ment System,the system of allotting small portions of land (an acre or less) to farm-labourers or other workers, to be cultivated after their regular work by themselves and their families, a system believed by many to be calculated greatly to improve their condition. An Allotment Act for England, passed in 1887, authorizes the sanitary authorities in any locality to determine if there is a sufficient demand for allotments there, and to acquire land to be let to the labouring population resident in their district. Such land may be compulsorily acquired, due compensation being given; but land belonging to a park, pleasure-ground, &c., is not to be so acquired. No person is to hold more than 1 acre as an allotment; and the rents are to be fixed at such amount as may reasonably be deemed sufficient to guarantee the sanitary authority from loss. No building is to be erected on any allotment other than a tool-house, pig-sty, shed, or the like. In the Allotment Acts of 1887 and 1892 (Scotland) the definition is applied to a plot of land not exceeding 1 acre, but the Local Government Act of 1894 authorized the letting of an allotment up to the area of 4 acres to one person, while the Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 definitely extends the limit of an allotment to 5 acres. The distinction between allotments and small holdings has therefore been obliterated, at least as far as England and Wales are concerned. County councils will let plots of 1 to 5 acres as small holdings, and parish councils as allotments. During the European War 183,000 allotments were registered under the Cultivation of Lands Order, and the number of allotments in Great Britain not exceeding 1 acre now amounts to over 1,000,000. In proportion to the total agricultural area or population it is much smaller in Scotland than in England. The rents of allotments vary greatly, and near towns, or even villages, they are very high, often from £4 to £8 per acre. A measure corresponding to the English Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1907 was passed for Scotland in 1911, and came into operation in 1912. In recent years a large number of co-operative allotment associations have come into existence.
Allot′ropy(Gr.allos, other,tropos, manner), a term used by Berzelius to express the fact that one and the same element may exist in different forms, differing widely in external physical properties. Thus carbon occurs as the diamond, and as charcoal and plumbago, and is therefore regarded as a substance subject to allotropy.
Al′loway,a parish of Scotland, now included in Ayr parish. Here Burns was born in 1759, and the "auld haunted kirk", near his birthplace, was the scene of the dance of witches inTam o' Shanter.
Alloy′is the substance produced by melting together two or more metals. Sometimes a chemical compound is formed, but more generally one metal is interspersed throughout the other, much as sugar is through water in which it is dissolved. In this case the alloy is called a 'solid solution' of one metal in another. Many metals mix together in all proportions, others only in certain proportions, while some will not mix in any proportion.
Scientific research has led to great advances in the use of alloys industrially. An alloy differs from its components in most of its physical properties, such as its hardness, ductility, strength, melting-point, and colour. The minutest trace of certain metals frequently produces an extraordinary change in the property of the body with which it is mixed. For instance, if bismuth is present in copper to the extent of more than 0.5 per cent, the copper cannot be used successfully in the construction of electrical machinery. Frequently the addition of a small proportion of a metal produces highly-desirable effects in one direction, but is deleterious in other directions. For instance, the presence of a small amount of manganese in cast-iron gives clean castings, but the magnetic qualities of the material are impaired.
Alloys are classified as ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.
Ferrous Alloys.—These alloys are of great industrial importance, as they include cast irons and steels. Pure iron is very little used in industry. Ordinarycast ironcontains iron and about 3 per cent of carbon. The ordinary wrought iron of the blacksmith contains less than 0.25 per cent of carbon. Cast iron is brittle, and unreliable when used to sustain tensile stresses, and it cannot be forged; but wrought iron can be safely used in tension, is not brittle, and can be forged. The raw material from which steel ismade is cast iron or wrought iron. (For manufacture of steel seeSteel.) The properties of steel can be varied within very wide limits by adding to it traces of certain metals. For instance, the addition of nickel up to 5 per cent makes the steel much stronger and tougher; the addition of tungsten up to about 19 per cent makes it hard (tool-steel, magnet steel), while molybdenum has a similar effect. Chromium and vanadium have a 'stabilizing' effect, i.e. tend to make large masses of the alloy homogeneous, and to make the alloy retain its hardness over wide ranges of temperature. Cobalt has a similar stabilizing effect. Molybdenum high-speed steel is more expensive than tungsten high-speed steel, but is said to wear better.
Non-ferrous Alloys.—Of the non-ferrous alloys the most important have copper as the basic metal. They do not become rusty on exposure. Copper, when used for electrical purposes, must be nearly pure. It is deposited electrolytically (seeElectrolysis) and then made into bars (electrolytic copper).
Brassis an alloy of copper and zinc and varies much in composition. The best-known varieties are:—
Gun-metal is a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The standard Admiralty mixture is copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2. It possesses a tensile strength of 14 tons per sq. inch.
Bronzes.—The bronzes are alloys of copper, with zinc or tin mainly. They can be cast easily, and when heated to a dull red the metal can be forged, stamped, rolled, pressed, or extruded. They are largely free from corrosion.
Phosphor Bronze.—This is a specially strong bronze. A typical composition is copper 89.5, tin 10, phosphorus 0.5. The tensile strength is higher than that of pure copper or brass (about 15 tons per sq. inch), and it has about one-half the electrical conductivity of pure copper. It is used for small castings, and it can be drawn into wire, which is used in alternating-current electric-railway construction for the overhead conductor.
Delta metalsare bronzes of specially high tensile strength (30-50 tons per sq. inch).
Manganese bronzesare bronzes of high tensile strength and ductility, and are largely used for marine propellers. Manganese bronze is not affected by sea-water. It usually contains copper, zinc, and manganese, with a little aluminium and tin.
A recently-discovered copper alloy is known asmonel metal. It is a naturally-occurring alloy of copper, nickel, iron, and manganese (copper 27-29 per cent, nickel 68-70 per cent, iron and manganese 4-5 per cent), and possesses, roughly, the qualities of a mild steel and copper. It has a high tensile strength, which it retains over a wide range of temperature change. It is ductile, is not affected by immersion in sea-water, and can be machined. It is used for pump-valves, pump-pistons, turbine blading, &c.
In the British silver coinage silver is alloyed with 7.5 per cent copper, which renders it harder and more durable. British gold coinage contains 8.3 per cent of copper.—Bibliography: Law,Alloys; Osmond and Stead,Microscopic Analysis of Metals; Mellor,Crystallization of Iron and Steel; Desch,Metallography.
All Saints' Day,a festival of the Christian Church, instituted in 835, and celebrated on 1st Nov. in honour of the saints in general.
All Souls' College,a college of Oxford University, founded in 1437 by Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to it are the Chichele Professorship of International Law and the Chichele Professorship of Modern History.
All Souls' Day,a festival of the Roman Catholic Church, instituted in 998, and observed on 2nd Nov. for the relief of souls in purgatory.
AllspiceAllspice (Myrtus Pimenta)
Allspice(a¨l′spīs), orPimenta,is the dried and ground berry of a West Indian species of myrtle (Myrtus Pimenta), a beautiful tree with white and fragrant aromatic flowers and leaves of a deep shining green. The tree is often 30 feet high, and may yield 150 lb. of raw berries,equivalent to 100 lb. of dried spice. Pimenta is thought to resemble in flavour a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence the popular name ofallspice; it is also called Jamaica pepper, the trees being cultivated there extensively. It is employed in cookery, also in medicine as an agreeable aromatic, and forms the basis of a distilled water, a spirit, and an essential oil.
All′ston(äl′stun), Washington, an American painter, born 1779, died 1843. He studied in London and Rome, and is most celebrated for his pictures on scriptural subjects. Among his picturesThe Angel Urielis at Stafford House;The Prophet Jeremiahat Yale College, Newport. A portrait of Coleridge by Allston is in the National Gallery. He also wrote poems and a tragical romance (Monaldi).
Allu′vium(Lat.alluvium—ad, to, andluo, to wash), deposits of soil collected by the action of water, such as are found in valleys and plains, consisting of loam, clay, gravel, &c., washed down from the higher grounds. Great alterations are often produced by alluvium—deltas and whole islands being often formed by this cause. Much of the rich land along the banks of rivers is alluvial in its origin. There are great tracts of alluviums lying along the banks of the Derwent, the Ouse, and the Trent, and the Romney Marsh of Kent along the banks of the Thames.
Allygurh.SeeAligarh.
Alma,a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, celebrated from the victory gained by the allied British and French over the Russians, 20th Sept., 1854.
Al′mack's,the name formerly given to certain assembly-rooms in King Street, St. James's, London, derived from Almack, a tavern-keeper, by whom they were built, and whose real name is said to have been M‘Call, of which Almack is an anagram; afterwards calledWillis's Rooms. They were first opened about 1770, and became famous for the extreme exclusiveness displayed by the lady patronesses in regard to the admission of applicants for tickets to the balls held here—only those of the most assured social standing being admitted. They were turned into a restaurant in 1890.
Alma′da,a town of Portugal, on the Tagus, opposite Lisbon. Pop. 7913.
Al′maden,a place in California, United States, about 60 milesS.E.of San Francisco, with rich quicksilver-mines, the product of which has been largely employed in gold and silver mining.
Almaden′,a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real, celebrated both in ancient and modern times for its mines of quicksilver (in the form of cinnabar). Pop. 7410.
Almaden Process.SeeMercury.
Al′magest(Ar.al, the, and Gr.megistē, greatest,sc.'treatise') the name of a celebrated astronomical work composed by Claudius Ptolemy.
Alma′gro,an old town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with important lace manufactures. Pop. 7700.
Alma′gro,Diego de, Spanish 'Conquistador', a foundling, born in 1475, killed 1538. He took part with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and after frequent disputes with Pizarro about their respective shares in their conquests led an expedition against Chile, which he failed to conquer. On his return a struggle took place between him and Pizarro, in which Almagro was finally overcome, taken prisoner, strangled, and afterwards beheaded. He was avenged by his son, born in 1520, who raised an insurrection, in which Pizarro was assassinated, in 1541. The younger Almagro was put to death at Cuzco in 1542 by De Castro, the new Viceroy of Peru.
Almalee′,a town of Asia Minor, 50 miles from Adalia, with thriving manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. 3500.
Al′ma Ma′ter(Lat., fostering or bounteous mother), a term familiarly applied to their own university by those who have had a university education.
Al-Mamun(ma˙-mön′), a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, son of Harun-al-Rashid, born 786, died 833. Under him Bagdad became a great centre of art and science.
Al′manac,a calendar, in which are set down the rising and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon, the most remarkable positions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies, for every month and day of the year; also the several fasts and feasts to be observed in the Church and State, &c., and often much miscellaneous information likely to be useful to the public. The term is of Arabic origin, but the Arabs were not the first to use almanacs, which indeed existed from remote ages. In England they are known from the fourteenth century, there being several English almanacs of this century existing in MS. They became generally used in Europe within a short time after the invention of printing; and they were very early remarkable, as some are still, for the mixture of truth and falsehood which they contained. Their effects in France were found so mischievous, from the pretended prophecies which they published, that an edict was promulgated by Henry III in 1579 forbidding any predictions to be inserted in them relating to civil affairs, whether those of the State or of private persons. In the reign of James I of England letters-patent were granted to the two universities and the Stationers' Company for an exclusive right of printing almanacs, but in 1775 this monopoly was abolished. During the civil war of Charles I, and thence onward, Englishalmanacs were conspicuous for the unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions, and their determined perpetuation of popular errors. The most famous English almanac wasPoor Robin's Almanack, which was published from 1663 to 1775. Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828 the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by publishing theBritish Almanac, had the merit of taking the lead in the production of an unexceptionable almanac in Great Britain. The example thus set has been almost universally adopted. The circulation of almanacs continued to be much cramped by the very heavy duty of one shilling and threepence per copy till 1834, when this duty was abolished. About 200 new almanacs were started immediately on the repeal. Almanacs, from their periodical character, and the frequency with which they are referred to, are now more and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical and other useful information, some being intended for the inhabitants of a particular country or district, others for a particular class or party. Some of the almanacs that are regularly published every year are extremely useful, and are indeed almost indispensable to men engaged in official, mercantile, literary, or professional business. Such in Great Britain areThom's Official Directory of the United Kingdom,The British Almanac,Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac, andWhitaker's Almanac, started in 1868. In the United States is publishedThe American Almanac, a useful compilation. TheAlmanach de Gotha, which has appeared at Gotha since 1764, contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information regarding the reigning families and Governments, the finances, commerce, population, &c., of the different States throughout the world. Since 1871 it is published both in a French and in a German edition. Among French almanacs the most famous was theAlmanach Liégeois, whilst theAlmanach National, first published in 1679 asAlmanach Royal, is the most important of modern almanacs in France. Almanacs that pretend to foretell the weather and occurrences of various kinds are still popular in Britain, France, and elsewhere.—The Nautical Almanacis an important work published annually by the British Government, two or three years in advance, in which is contained much useful astronomical matter, more especially the distances of the moon from the sun, and from certain fixed stars, for every three hours of apparent time, adapted to the meridian of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances carefully observed at sea the mariner may, with comparative ease, infer his longitude to a degree of accuracy unattainable in any other way, and sufficient for most nautical purposes. This almanac was commenced in 1767 by Dr. Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal. The FrenchConnaissance des Tempsis published for the same purpose as the EnglishNautical Almanac, and nearly on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is theAstronomisches Jahrbuchpublished at Berlin.
Alman′dine,a mineral of a reddish or violet colour, a variety of precious or noble garnet.
Alman′sa,a town of south-eastern Spain (Murcia), near which was fought (25th April, 1707) a decisive battle in the War of the Spanish Succession, when the French, under the Duke of Berwick, defeated the Anglo-Spanish army under the Earl of Galway. Pop. 11,887.
Alman′zur,orAlmansur,a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, reigned 754-75. He was cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of the Christians, but a patron of learning.
Alma-Tad′ema,Sir Lawrence, Dutch painter, born in 1836, resided since 1870 in England, where he became a naturalized subject. He was made A.R.A. in 1876, R.A. in 1879, knighted in 1899, and awarded the Order of Merit in 1905. He died at Wiesbaden, 25th June, 1912. He is especially celebrated for his pictures of ancient Roman, Greek, and Egyptian life, which are painted with great realism and archæological correctness.
Al′meh,the name given in Egypt to a class of girls whose profession is to sing for the amusement of the upper classes, as distinguished from thegawasi, who perform before the lower classes. They perform at feasts and other entertainments (including funerals), and many of them are skilful improvisatrici. One of their most famous dances is called 'The Bee'.
Almeida(a˙l-mā′i-da˙), one of the strongest fortresses in Portugal, in the province of Beira, near the Spanish border, on the Coa. Pop. 2350. Taken by Masséna from the English in 1810, retaken by Wellington in 1811.
Almeida(da˙l-mā′i-da˙), Francisco d', first Portuguese viceroy of India, son of the Conde de Abrantes, born about the middle of the fifteenth century. He fought with renown against the Moors, and being appointed governor of the new Portuguese settlements on the African and Indian coasts, he sailed for India in 1505, accompanied by his son Lorenzo and other eminent men. In Africa he took possession of Quiloa and Mombas, and in the East he conquered Cananor, Cochin, Calicut, &c., and established forts and factories. His son Lorenzo discovered the Maldives and Madagascar, but perished in an attack made on him by a fleet sent by the Sultan of Egypt, with the aid of the Porte and the Republic of Venice. Having signally defeated the Mussulmans (1508), and avenged his son, and being superseded by Albuquerque, he sailed forPortugal, but was killed in a skirmish on the African coast in 1510.
Almelo′,a town of Holland, province of Overyssel, on the Vechte; with manufactures of linen. Pop. 7360.
Almendralejo(-ā′hō), a town of Spain, province of Badajoz, in a district rich in grain, wine, and fruits, with many brandy distilleries. Pop. 12,587.
Almeria(a˙l-mā-rē′a˙), a fortified seaport of Southern Spain, capital of province of Almeria, near the mouth of a river and on the gulf of same name, with no building of consequence except a Gothic cathedral, but with a large trade, exporting grapes, iron ore, lead, esparto, &c. The province, which has an area of 3360 sq. miles, is generally mountainous, and rich in minerals. Pop. of town, 48,614; of province, 393,689.
Almodo′var,a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), near the Sierra Morena. Pop. 12,640.
Almohades(al′mo-hādz), a Moorish dynasty that ruled in Africa and Spain in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, founded by Mohammed Ibn Tumart, a religious enthusiast, who assumed the title ofMahdi. They overthrew the Almoravides in Spain, but themselves received a defeat in 1212 from which they did not recover, and in 1269 were overthrown in Africa, when Idris El-Wathik, their last emir, was murdered by a slave.
Al-mokanna.SeeMokanna.
Almond(a˙′mund), the fruit of the almond tree (Amygdălus commūnis), a tree which grows usually to the height of 20 feet, and is akin to the peach, nectarine, &c. (ord. Rosaceæ). It has beautiful pinkish flowers that appear before the leaves, which are oval, pointed, and delicately serrated. It is a native of Africa and Asia, naturalized in Southern Europe, and cultivated in England for its beauty, as it seldom produces edible fruit even in the warmer portions of Southern England. The fruit is a drupe, ovoid, and with downy outer surface; the fleshy covering is tough and fibrous; it covers the compressed wrinkled stone enclosing the seed or almond within it. There are two varieties, one sweet and the other bitter; both are produced fromA. communis, though from different varieties. Most of the sweet almonds imported into Britain come from Southern Europe, the Levant, and California, the finest being the Valencian, Jordan, and Malaga. They contain a bland fixed oil, consisting chiefly of olein. Bitter almonds come from Mogador, and besides a fixed oil they contain a substance calledemulsin, and also a bitter crystalline substance calledamygdalin, which, acting on the emulsin, produces prussic acid, whence the aroma of bitter almonds when mixed with water.Almond-oil, a bland fixed oil, is expressed from the kernels of either sweet or bitter almonds, and is used by perfumers and in medicine. A poisonous essential oil is obtained from bitter almonds, which is used for flavouring by cooks and confectioners, also by perfumers and in medicine. The namealmond, with a qualifying word prefixed, is also given to the seeds of other species of plants; thusJava almondsare the kernels ofCanarium commune.
Almondbury(a˙′mund-be-ri), a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire,S.E.of Huddersfield, in which it is now included, with manufactures of woollens, cotton and silk goods.
Al′moner,an officer of a religious establishment to whom belonged the distribution of alms. The grand almoner (grand aumonier) of France was the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that kingdom before the revolution. The lord almoner, or lord high almoner of England, is generally a bishop, whose office is well-nigh a sinecure. He distributes the sovereign's doles to the poor on Maundy Thursday.
Almo′ra,a town and fortress of India, in the United Provinces, capital of Kumaon, 170 milesE.N.E.of Delhi, a thriving little place. Pop. about 10,560.
Almo′ravides(-vīdz), a Moorish dynasty which arose in North-Western Africa in the eleventh century, and reigned from 1055-1147. The town of Marrakesh, built in 1062, became the capital of this dynasty. Having crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, the family gained possession of all Arabic Spain, but was overthrown by the Almohades in the following century.
Al′mug(orAl′gum)tree,names which occur in1 Kings, x, 11, 12, and2 Chron., ii, 8, and ix, 10, 11, as the names of trees of which the wood was used for pillars in the temple and the king's house, for harps and psalteries, &c. They are said in one passage to be hewn in Lebanon, in another to be brought from Ophir. They have been identified by critics with the red sandalwood of India. Some of them may possibly have been transplanted to Lebanon by the Phoenicians.
Almuñecar(a˙l-mu¨n-ye-kär′), a seaport of Spain, Granada, on the Mediterranean. Pop. 8000.
Al′nager,formerly, in England, an official whose duty it was to inspect, measure, and stamp woollen cloth.
Al′nus.SeeAlder.
Alnwick(an′ik), a town of England, county town of Northumberland, 34 miles north of Newcastle, near the Aln. It is well built, and carries on tanning, brewing, and a general trade. The town is famous for the curious ceremonies which take place there annually during the election of the common council (25th March). Alnwick Castle, residence of the Dukes of Northumberland, for many centuries a fortressof great strength, stands close to the town. Pop. (1921), 6991.