Socotrine AloeSocotrine Aloe (Aloe socotrīna)
Aloe(al′ō), the name of a number of plants belonging to the genus Aloë (ord. Liliaceæ), some of which are not more than a few inches, whilst others are 30 feet and upwards in height; natives of South Africa and Socotra; leaves fleshy, thick, and more or less spinous at the edges or extremity; flowers with a tubular corolla. Some of the larger kinds are of great use, the fibrous parts of the leaves being made into cordage, fishing nets and lines, cloth, &c. The inspissated juice of several species is used in medicine, under the name ofaloes, forming a bitter purgative. The medicinal value of bitter aloes was known to the Greeks in the fourth centuryB.C.According to the Arabian historian Edrisi, the occupation of Socotra by the Macedonians was due to Aristotle's persuading Alexander the Great to secure the monopoly of the supplies of the drug. The drug is said to have been commended to Alfred the Great by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, but a direct trade in it between Socotra and Britain was opened only in the seventeenth century. The principal drug-producing species are the Socotrine aloe (A. Socotrīna); the Barbados aloe (A. vulgāris), first imported into Britain in 1693; the Cape aloe (A. spicāta), 1780; and Natal aloes, 1870; &c. A beautiful violet colour is yielded by the leaves of the Socotrine aloe. The American aloe (seeAgave) is a different plant altogether; as are also the aloes or lign-aloes of Scripture, which are supposed to be theAquilaria Agallŏchum, or aloes-wood (q. v.).Aloe fibreis obtained from species of Aloë, Agave, Yucca, &c., and is made into coarse fabrics, ropes, &c.
Aloes-wood,Eagle-wood,orAgilawood,the inner portion of the trunk ofAquilāria ovātaandA. Agallŏchum, forest trees belonging to the ord. Aquilariaceæ, found in tropical Asia, and yielding a fragrant resinous substance, which, as well as the wood, is burned for its perfume. Another tree, theAloexўlon Agallŏchum(ord. Leguminosæ), also produces aloes-wood. This wood is supposed to be the lign-aloes (a corruption of the Lat.lignum aloe) of the Bible.
Alope′cia,a variety of baldness in which the hair falls off from the beard and eyebrows, as well as the scalp.
Alopecu′rus,a genus of grasses. SeeFoxtail-grass.
Alo′ra,a town of Southern Spain, province of Malaga. Pop. 6200.
Alost,orAalst(ä′lost, älst), a town of Belgium, 15 milesW.N.W.of Brussels, on the Dender (here navigable), with a beautiful, though unfinished, church, and an ancient town hall (thirteenth century); manufactures of lace, thread, linen and cotton goods, &c., and a considerable trade. In the market-place stands a statue of Thierry Maartens, who introduced the art of typography into the Netherlands in 1473. The town was occupied by the Germans in 1914. Pop. 35,603.
AlpacaAlpaca (Auchēnia Paco)
Alpac′a,a ruminant mammal of the camel tribe, and genus Auchēnia (A. Paco), a native of the Andes, especially of the mountains of Chile and Peru, and closely allied to the llama. Llamasand alpacas are mutually fertile when crossed, and this explains the existence of intermediate forms between the two breeds. It has been domesticated, and remains also in a wild state. In form and size it approaches the sheep, but has a longer neck. It is valued chiefly for its long, soft, and silky wool, which is straighter than that of the sheep, and very strong, and is woven into fabrics of great beauty, used for shawls, clothing for warm climates, coat-linings, and umbrellas, and known by the same name. Cloth made from imported alpaca wool is manufactured in England, principally in Yorkshire. Attempts have been made to introduce and acclimatize the alpaca in Europe and in Australia, but no measure of success has attended the experiments. Its flesh is pleasant and wholesome.
Alpe′na,a town of the United States, Michigan, at the entrance of the Thunder into Lake Huron, with saw-mills, woollen factories, &c. Pop. 12,706.
Alpen-horn,orAlp-horn(Ger.), a long, nearly-straight horn, curving slightly, and widening towards its extremity, used in the Alps to convey signals, or notice of something.
Alpen-stock(Ger.), a strong, tall stick shod with iron, pointed at the end so as to take hold in, and give support on, ice and other dangerous places in climbing the Alps and other high mountains.
Alpes(a˙lp), the name of three departments in the south-east of France, all more or less covered by the Alps or their offshoots:—Basses-Alpes(bäs-a˙lp; Lower Alps) has mountains rising to a height of 8000 to 10,000 feet, is drained by the Durance and its tributaries, and is the most thinly-peopled department in France; area, 2697 sq. miles; capital, Digne. Pop. (1921), 91,882.—Hautes-Alpes(ōt-a˙lp; Upper Alps), mostly formed out of ancient Dauphiné, traversed by the Cottian and Dauphiné Alps (highest summits 12,000 feet), drained chiefly by the Durance and its tributaries. It is the lowest department in France in point of absolute population; area, 2178 sq. miles; capital, Gap. Pop. (1921), 89,275.—Alpes-Maritimes(a˙lp-ma˙-ri-tēm; Maritime Alps) has the Mediterranean on the south, and mainly consists of the territory of Nice, ceded to France by Italy in 1860. The greater part of the surface is covered by the Maritime Alps; the principal river is the Var. It produces in the south, cereals, vines, olives, oranges, citrons, and other fruits; and there are manufactories of perfumes, liqueurs, soap, &c., and valuable fisheries. It is a favourite resort for invalids; area, 1443 sq. miles; capital, Nice. Pop. 357,759.
Al′phaandO′mega,the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, sometimes used to signify the beginning and the end, or the first and the last of anything; also as a symbol of the Divine Being (Rev.i, 8; xxi, 6; xxii, 13). They were also formerly the symbol of Christianity, and engraved accordingly on the tombs of the ancient Christians. Some of these engravings are to be seen in the Louvre.
Al′phabet(fromAlphaandBeta, the two first letters of the Greek alphabet), the series of characters used in writing a language, and intended to represent the sounds of which it consists. The English alphabet, like most of those of modern Europe, is derived directly from the Latin, the Latin from the ancient Greek, and that from the Phœnician, which again is believed to have had its origin in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, although Egyptologists are not unanimous on this point. There is little evidence in support of the theory that the Phœnician alphabet had developed from the Assyrian cuneiform. Some scholars, like Sir Arthur Evans, are of opinion that the Philistines established on the coast of Palestine had brought the alphabet over from Crete, and that from them it passed to the Phœnicians. The names of the letters in Phœnician and Hebrew must have been almost the same, for the Greek names, which, with the letters, were borrowed from the former, differ little from the Hebrew. By means of the names we may trace the process by which the Egyptian characters were transformed into letters by the Phœnicians. Some Egyptian character would, by its form, recall the idea of a house, for example, in Phœnician or Hebrewbeth. This character would subsequently come to be used wherever the soundboccurred. Its form might be afterwards simplified, or even completely modified, but the name would still remain, asbethstill continues the Hebrew name forb, andbetathe Greek. Our letterm, which in Hebrew was calledmim, water, has still a considerable resemblance to the zig-zag wavy line which had been chosen to represent water, as in the zodiacal symbol forAquarius. The lettero, of which the Hebrew name means eye, no doubt was originally intended to represent that organ. While the ancient Greek alphabet gave rise to the ordinary Greek alphabet and the Latin, the Greek alphabet of later times furnished elements for the Coptic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. The Latin characters are now employed by a great many nations, such as the Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch, the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, &c., each nation having introduced such modifications or additions as are necessary to express the sound of the language peculiar to it. The Greek alphabet originally possessed only sixteen letters, though the Phœnician had twenty-two. The original Latin alphabet, as it is found in the oldest inscriptions, consisted of twenty-one letters; namely, thevowelsa,e,i,o, andu(v), and the consonantsb,c,d,f,h,k,l,m,n,p,q,r,s,t,x,z. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet had two characters for the digraphth, which were unfortunately not retained in later English; it had also the characteræ. It wantedj,v,y(consonant), andz. The German alphabet consists of the same letters as the English, but the sounds of some of them are different. Anciently certain characters calledRunicwere made use of by the Teutonic nations, to which some would attribute an origin independent of the Greek and Latin alphabets. Wimmer, the Danish scholar, is, however, of opinion that theruneswere developed from the Latin alphabet. While the alphabets of the west of Europe are derived from the Latin, the Russian, which is very complete, is based on the Greek, with some characters borrowed from the Armenian, &c; it is calledazbouka, from the first two lettersaz, a, andbouki, b. Among Asiatic alphabets, the Arabian (ultimately of Phœnician origin) has played a part analogous to that of the Latin in Europe, the conquests of Mohammedanism having imposed it on the Persian, the Turkish, the Hindustani, &c. The Sanskrit or Devanāgari alphabet is one of the most remarkable alphabets of the world. As now used it has fourteen characters for the vowels and diphthongs, and thirty-three for the consonants, besides two other symbols. Our alphabet is a very imperfect instrument for what it has to perform, being both defective and redundant. An alphabet is not essential to the writing of a language, since ideograms or symbols may be used instead, as in Chinese. SeeWriting.—Bibliography: E. Clodd,The Alphabet(Useful Knowledge Series, Hodder & Stoughton); Canon J. Taylor,The Alphabet; Philippe Berger,Histoire de l'Écriture dans l'Antiquité.
Alphē′us(nowRufia), the largest river of Peloponnesus, flowing westwards into the Ionian Sea. In Greek mythology Alphēus is supposed to have been the son of Oceanus and Tethys.
Alphon′so,the name of a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings. Among the former may be mentionedAlphonso I,the Conqueror, first King of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, the Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born 1110, fought successfully against the Spaniards and the Moors, named himself King of Portugal, and was as such recognized by the Pope; died 1185.—Alphonso V,the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward I, 1438; conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince Henry the Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already begun by the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of laws.—Among kings of Spain may be mentionedAlphonso X,King of Castile and Leon, surnamed theAstronomer, thePhilosopher, or theWise(El Sabio); born in 1226; succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of Hohenstaufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself elected Emperor of Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again unsuccessfully contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was endangered by conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome, and he was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after, 1284. Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction or superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable astronomical tables which go under his name (Alphonsine Tables), the first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish translation of the Bible.—Alphonso Vof Aragon, I of Naples and Sicily, born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the throne of which he ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the Island of Sardinia. Queen Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after her death in 1435 her will was disputed by René of Anjou. Alphonso now proceeded to take possession of Naples by force, which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and reigned till his death in 1458. He was an enlightened patron of literary men, by whom, in the latter part of his reign, his Court was thronged.—Alphonso XII,King of Spain, the only son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till 1874 resided partly in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he studied for a time at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then known as Prince of the Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the throne in 1870 in his favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez Campos as king. He now passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically received, most of the Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican Government, which had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del Castillo ruined, however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to conclude an alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two daughters and a son.—Alphonso XIII,King of Spain, born in 1886, the posthumous son ofAlphonso XII. His mother was appointed regent during his minority, and acted as such until 1902. On attaining his sixteenth year, the king assumed personal charge of the Government. In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of Battenberg, a daughter of Queen Victoria.
Alpine Club,an association of English gentlemen, originating in 1856 or 1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making the ascent of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend, and in investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar associations now exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.
Alpine Crow,orAlpine Chough(Pyrrhocŏrax alpīnus), a European bird closely akin to the chough of England.
Alpine Museum,a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the German and Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about the Alps, and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means of exhibits and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany, and zoology, but also industry, custom, and costumes are well demonstrated in the exhibits.
Alpine Plants,the name given to those plants whose habitat is in the neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all the year round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the latitude and local conditions, so also does the height at which these plants grow. The mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is about 6000 feet; but it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to 9000 feet, or even more. The high grounds clear of snow among these mountains present a very well marked flora, the general characters of the plants being a low dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems partly or wholly woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very sweet-smelling flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly hairs. In the Alps of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds, &c. Ferns and mosses of many kinds also characterize these regions. Some alpine plants are found only in one locality. Considerable success has attended the attempt to grow alpine plants in gardens, the first necessity being a situation where there is plenty of sunlight, and which is free from the shade of trees.
Alpine Warbler(Accentor alpīnus), a European bird of the same genus as the hedge-sparrow.
Alpin′ia,a genus of plants. SeeGalanga.
Alps,the highest and most extensive system of mountains in Europe, included between lat. 44° and 48°N., and long. 5° and 18°E., covering great part of Northern Italy, several departments of France, nearly the whole of Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its extensive ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe. The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs, and from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers of Central Europe—the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting it off from the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and difficult passes. In the west this barrier approaches close to the Mediterranean coast, and near Nice there is left a free passage into the Italian peninsula between the mountains and the sea. From this point eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with the Apennines. In the opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and afterwards north to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it then turns north-east and runs generally in this direction to the Gross Glockner, in Central Tyrol, between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where it divides into two branches, the northern proceeding north-east towards Vienna, the southern towards the Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys of the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly shorter, and frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes orcols, which may usually be found by tracing a stream which descends from the mountains up to its source.
The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. TheMaritime Alps, so called from their proximity to the Mediterranean, extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for a distance of about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet, and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di Tende (6158 feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon I. Proceeding northward the next group consists of theCottian Alps, length about 60 miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605 feet; Pic des Écrins, 13,462; Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come theGraian Alps, 50 miles long, with extensive ramifications in Savoy and Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la Sassière, 12,326 feet; Grand Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this group belongs Mont Cenis (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was constructed by Napoleon I, while a railway now passes throughthe mountain by a tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are often classed together as theWestern Alps, while the portion of the system immediately east of this forms theCentral Alps. ThePennine Alpsform the loftiest portion of the whole system, having Mont Blanc (in France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 miles), and including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the valley of the Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain of theBernese Alpsrunning nearly parallel, the great peaks of the two ranges being about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the Pennine Alps are Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhörner (Dom), 14,935; Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps, the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its hospice. The most easterly pass is the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a tunnel leading into Italy, fully 12 miles long. Farther east are theLepontine Alps, which give off a number of streams that feed the Italian lakes—Maggiore, Como, &c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936 feet), over which a carriage road leads to Italy, while through this mountain mass a railway tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened. Highest peaks: Tödi, 11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. TheRhætian Alps, extending east to about lat. 12° 30′, are the most easterly of the Central Alps, and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley of the Inn, and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks: Piz Bernina, 13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The Brenner Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central and the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from Innsbruck to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles long. TheEastern Alpsform the broadest and lowest portion of the system, and embrace theNoric Alps, theCarnic Alps, theJulian Alps, &c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The height of the south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and they lose themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the great mountain masses which distinguish the centre of the system.
The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the former are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zürich, Thun, Brienz, on the north side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &c. The drainage is carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean by the Rhone, to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the Danube.
In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50° to 60°. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32°—a height which in the snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is lowest the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great as to raise the photometer to 120° and even higher. The exhilarating and invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions during summer has been acknowledged by all.
In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones, depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The first is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered slopes of the mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine, which bears greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes exposed to the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is called the mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the distinguishing features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about equals that of Great Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth region is the sub-Alpine or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of various species. Most of the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. On the northern slopes pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to 7000 feet above the level of the sea. This is also the region of the lower or permanent pastures where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth is the pasture region, the termalpbeing used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. It extends from the uppermost limit of trees to the region of perpetual snow. Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and dwarf willows, &c. The sixth zone is the region of perpetual snow. The line of snow varies, according to seasons and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet, but the line is not continuous, being often broken in upon. Few flowering plants extend above 10,000 feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000 feet.
At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In summer the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, sheep, and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and warmer level. The marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the snowy and the woody regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, lynx, bear, and wolf; the last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other birds of prey frequent the highest elevations, the ptarmigan seeks its food and shelter among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow-line. Excellent trout and other fish are found; but the most elevated lakes are, from their low temperature, entirely destitute of fish.
The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, as yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general three zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks prevail, and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, mica slate, and other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are also considerable elevations in the central zone that belong to the Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the beds, which are broken, tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the Alps appear to have been formed by a succession of disruptions and elevations extending over a very protracted period. Among the minerals that are obtained are iron and lead, gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal.
Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of special railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and other mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of these. Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the sea, and 4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is to watch the sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415 feet), south of Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest panoramic view to be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most accessible glaciers are those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.
Alpujarras(a˙l-pö-ha˙r′ra˙s), a district of Spain, in Andalusia, between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous, but with rich and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives, and other fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the Moors.
Alquifou(al′ki-fö), a sort of lead ore used by potters as a green varnish or glaze.
Alsace(a˙l-sa˙s; Ger.Elsass), before the French revolution a province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting the French departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the province of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a level country, though there are several ranges of low hills richly wooded. The principal river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and other fruits are grown. Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was originally a part of ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the German Empire. In 1268, the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was parcelled out to several members of the empire. By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of it was ceded to France, which afterwards seized the rest of it, this seizure being recognized by the peace of Ryswick, in 1697.
Alsace-Lorraine,the imperial territory, or Reichsland of Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605 sq. miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was divided into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower Alsace, and governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By the law of 31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine, by which it received three votes in the Federal Council. After the signing of the armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the French Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the administration of the restored territories, and French officials were installed. The three chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz. About 76 per cent of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent Evangelical, and between 1 and 2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and hay; the potash deposits of Alsace are superior to and more extensive than those of Strassfurt, Germany.See France; Moselle.—Bibliography: M. Harrison,The Stolen Lands: a Study on Alsace-Lorraine; G. W. Edwards,Alsace-Lorraine.
Alsa′tia,formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a district in London between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the Temple, which, possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for that reason a nest of mischievous characters who were liable to be arrested. These privileges were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a Latinized form of Alsace, which, being on the frontiers of France and Germany, was a harbour for necessitous or troublesome characters from both countries.
Al′sen,an island on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20 miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles, diversified with forests, lakes, well-cultivated fields, orchards, and towns. Pop. 25,000.
Al Sirat(sē′rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge extending over the abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on his journey to heaven. It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a sword, and beset with thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over with ease and swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.
Alstrœme′ria,a genus of South American plants, ord. Amaryllidaceæ, some of them cultivated in European greenhouses and gardens.A. SalsillaandA. ovātaare cultivated for their edible tubers.
Altaic Languages(also calledUral-AltaicandTuranian), a family of languages occupying a portion of Northern and Eastern Europe, and nearly the whole of Northern and Central Asia,together with some other regions, and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic, Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.
Altai Mountains(a˙l′tī), an important Asiatic system on the borders of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and partly in Chinese territory, between lat. 46° and 53°N., long. 83° and 91°E., but having great eastern extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in the governments of Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The rivers of this region, which are large and numerous, are mostly headwaters of the Obi and Irtish. The mountain scenery is generally grand and interesting. The highest summit is Byeluka ('white mountain', from its snowy top), height 11,000 feet. The area covered by perpetual snow is very considerable, and glaciers occupy a large area. In the high lands the winter is very severe, but on the whole the climate is comparatively mild and is also healthy. The flora of the Altai Mountains greatly resembles that of the Alps, about five-sixths of the latter being found here. The mountain forests are composed of birch, alder, aspen, fir, larch, stone-pine, &c. The wild sheep has here its native home, and several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is exceedingly rich in minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The name Altai means 'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and Kalmuks. The chief town is Barnaul.
Altamu′ra,a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at the foot of the Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a magnificent cathedral. Pop. 25,616.
Altar(a¨l′tar), any pile or structure raised above the ground for receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the Semites the altar was primarily the place where the victim was slaughtered, and amongst the Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was burnt. The Greek and Roman altars were various in form, and often highly ornamental; in temples they were usually placed before the statue of the god. In the Jewish ceremonial the altar held an important place, and was associated with many of the most significant rites of religion. Two altars were erected in the tabernacle in the wilderness, and the same number in the temple. In most sections of the Christian Church the communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is placed, is called an altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood, but subsequently stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments, sculpture, and painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar frequently became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there was but one altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a large church, the chief orhigh altarstanding at the east end. Over an altar there is often a painting (analtar-piece), and behind it there may be an ornamentalaltar-screenseparating the choir from the east end of the church.
Altaz′imuth(also calledUniversal Instrument), an astronomical instrument similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so mounted that it can be turned round in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, while it and the graduated vertical circle connected can also be turned horizontally to any point of the compass above a graduated horizontal circle. The altazimuth can thus determine the altitude and azimuth of objects, hence the name.
Altdorf. SeeAltorf.
Al′tena,a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 milesN.N.E.of Cologne; it has wire-works, rolling-mills, chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins, thimbles, &c. Pop. 14,579.
Al′tenburg,a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg, 23 miles south of Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome buildings, including a splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen yarn, gloves, hats, musical instruments, glass, brushes, &c. Pop. 39,976.
Alteratives(a¨l′-), medicines, as mercury, iodine, &c., which, administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in the habit or constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions and actions, and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible evacuation by perspiration, purging, or vomiting.
Alter ego(Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who represents another in every respect. This term was formerly given, in the official style of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute appointed by the king to manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full royal power.
Alternate leavesAlternate leaves
Alter′nate,in botany, placed on opposite sides of an axis at a different level, as leaves.—Alternate generation, the reproduction of young not resembling their parents, but their grandparents, continuously, as in the jelly-fishes, &c. SeeGenerations, Alternation of.
Alternator. SeeElectricity.
Althæ′a,a genus of plants. SeeHollyhockandMarsh-mallow.
Althorn,one of the instruments of the sax-horn family, the tenor sax-horn. SeeSax-horn.
Al′tiscope,an instrument consisting of an arrangement of mirrors in a vertical framework,by means of which a person is enabled to overlook an object (a parapet, for instance) intervening between himself and any view that he desires to see, the picture of the latter being reflected from a higher to a lower mirror, where it is seen by the observer.
Al′titude,in mathematics, the perpendicular height of the vertex or apex of a plane figure or solid above the base. In astronomy it is the vertical height of any point or body above the horizon. It is measured or estimated by the angle subtended between the object and the plane of the horizon, and may be eithertrueorapparent. Theapparentaltitude is that which is obtained immediately from observation; thetruealtitude, that which results from correcting the apparent altitude, by making allowance for parallax, refraction, &c. Altitude is one of the main determining influences of local climate. Its increase has the same effect on temperature as an increase of distance north or south of the equator.
Altitude-and-azimuth Instrument.SeeAltazimuth.
Alto,in music, the highest singing voice of a male adult, the lowest of a boy or a woman, being in the latter the same ascontralto. The alto, orcounter-tenor, is not a natural voice, but a development of thefalsetto. It is almost entirely confined to English singers, and the only music written for it is by English composers. It is especially used in cathedral compositions and glees.
Altofts,a town of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, on the south of the Calder, 3 miles north-east of Wakefield, with a fourteenth-century Gothic church, and extensive collieries adjoining. Pop. (1921), 5050 (urban district).
Al′ton,a town of England, in Hampshire, 16 miles north-east of Winchester, famous for its ale. Pop. (1921), 5580.
Al′ton,a town of the United States, in Illinois, on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Missouri, with a state penitentiary, several mills and manufactories, and in the neighbourhood limestone and coal. Pop. 23,783.
Al′tona,an important commercial city of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, adjoining Hamburg, with which it virtually forms one city. It is a free port, and its commerce, both inland and foreign, is large, being quite identified with that of Hamburg. Pop. (1919), 168,729.
Altoo′na,a town of the United States, in Pennsylvania, at the eastern base of the Alleghanies, 244 miles west of Philadelphia, with large machine-shops and locomotive factories. Pop. (1920), 60,331.
Al′torf,a small town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Uri beautifully situated, near the Lake of Lucerne, amid gardens and orchards, and memorable as the place where, according to legend, Tell shot the apple from his son's head. A colossal statue of Tell now stands here. The town possesses a beautiful church containing a remarkable organ and a picture by Van Dyck. Pop. 3837.
Alto-rilievoAlto-rilievo.—Soldiers of the Prætorian Guard, the personal body-guard of the Emperor Augustus (in the Louvre, Paris).
Alto-rilievo(a˙l′tō-rē-lē-ā″vo), high relief, a term applied in regard to sculptured figures to express that they stand out boldly from the background, projecting more than half their thickness, without being entirely detached. In mezzo-rilievo, or middle relief, the projection is one-half, and in basso-rilievo, or bas-relief, less than one-half. Alto-rilievo is further distinguished from mezzo-rilievo by some portion of the figures standing usually quite free from the surface on which they are carved, while in the latter the figures, though rounded, are not detached in any part.
Altötting(a˙lt-eut′ing), a famous place of pilgrimage, in Bavaria, 52 milesE.N.E.of Munich, near the Inn, with an ancient image of the Madonna (the Black Virgin) in a chapel dating from 696, and containing a rich treasure in gold and precious stones; and another chapel in which Tilly was buried. Pop. 5408.
Altranstädt(a˙lt′-ra˙n-stet), a village of Saxony, where a treaty was concluded between Charles XII, King of Sweden, and Augustus, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, 24th Sept., 1706, by which the latter resigned the crown of Poland.
Alt′ringham,orAltrincham,a town of England, in Cheshire, 8 miles south-west of Manchester, resorted to by invalids; large quantities of fruit and vegetables are raised; and there are several industrial works. Pop. 20,461. Also a parliamentary division of the county.
Al′truism,a term first employed by the French philosopher Comte, to signify devotion to others or to humanity: the opposite ofselfishnessoregoism. It was adopted by the English positivists and applied to sociological problems of the physical theory of organic evolution. Herbert Spencer gives considerable space to the discussion of altruism and egoism in hisData of Ethics.
Altstätten(a˙lt′stet-n), a town of Switzerland, canton St. Gall, in the valley of the Rhine, 10 miles south of the Lake of Constance, with manufactures of cotton and woollen goods. Pop. 8743.
Altwasser(a˙lt′va˙s-ėr), a town of Prussia, in Silesia, 35 miles south-west of Breslau; here are made porcelain, machinery, iron, yarn, mirrors, &c. Pop. 17,321.
Al′um,a well-known crystalline, astringent substance with a sweetish taste, a double sulphate of potassium and aluminium with water of crystallization; formula, K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24 H2O. It crystallizes in colourless regular octahedra. Its solution reddens vegetable blues. When heated, its water of crystallization is driven off, and it becomes light and spongy with slightly corrosive properties, and is used as a caustic under the name ofburnt alum. Alum is prepared in Great Britain at Whitby from alum-slate—where it forms the cliffs for miles—and was once manufactured near Glasgow from bituminous alum-shale and slate-clay, obtained from old coal-pits. It is also prepared near Rome from alum-stone. Common alum is strictlypotashalum; other two varieties aresodaalum andammoniaalum, both similar in properties.Iron alum(pale mauve) andchrome alum(deep purple) are compounds containing iron and chromium in place of aluminium. Alum is employed to harden tallow, to remove grease from printers' cushions and blocks in calico manufactories, and in dyeing as a mordant. It is also largely used in the composition of crayons, in tannery, and in medicine (as an astringent and styptic). Wood and paper are dipped in a solution of alum to render them less combustible.
Alumbagh(a-lam-bäg′), a palace and connected buildings in Hindustan, about 4 miles south of Lucknow. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny it was occupied by the revolted sepoys, and converted into a fort. On the 23rd Sept., 1857, it was captured by the British, and during the following winter a British garrison, under Sir James Outram, held out there, though repeatedly attacked by overwhelming numbers of the rebels, till in March, 1858, it was finally relieved. Sir Henry Havelock was buried within the grounds.
Alu′mina(Al2O3), the single oxide of the metal aluminium. As found native it is called corundum, when crystallized ruby or sapphire, when amorphous emery. It is next to the diamond in hardness. In combination with silica it is one of the most widely distributed of substances, as it enters in large quantity into the composition of granite, traps, slates, schists, clays, loams, and other rocks. The porcelain clays and kaolins contain about half their weight of this earth, to which they owe their most valuable properties. It forms compounds with certain colouring matters, which causes it to be employed in the preparation of the colours calledlakesin dyeing and calico-printing. It combines with the acids and forms numerous salts, the most important of which are the sulphate (seeAlum) and acetate, the latter of extensive use as a mordant.
Alumin′ium(symbol Al, atomic weight 27.1), a metal discovered in 1827, but nowhere found native, although its oxide, alumina (which see), is abundantly distributed. The mineralsbauxiteandcryoliteare sources of aluminium, but the chief source is the pure oxide, from which the metal is obtained by means of a strong electric current. It is a shining white metal, of a colour between that of silver and platinum, very light (specific gravity, 2.56 cast, 2.67 hammered), not liable to tarnish nor undergo oxidation in the air, very ductile and malleable, and remarkably sonorous. It forms several useful alloys with iron and copper; one of the latter (aluminium gold) much resembles gold, and is made into cheap trinkets. Another, known asaluminium bronze, possesses great hardness and tenacity. Spoons, tea and coffee pots, dish-covers, musical and mathematical instruments, trinkets, &c., are made of aluminium.
Alum-root,the name given in America to two plants from the remarkable astringency of their roots, which are used for medical purposes:Gerānium maculātumandHeuchĕra americāna(nat. ord. Saxifragaceæ).
Alum-slate,orAlum-schist,a slaty rock from which much alum is prepared; colour greyish, bluish, or iron-black; often possessed of a glossy or shining lustre; chiefly composed of clay (silicate of alumina), with variable proportions of sulphide of iron (iron-pyrites), lime, bitumen, and magnesia.
Alum-stone.SeeAlunite.
Alunite,a mineral sulphate of aluminium and potassium, greyish or yellowish white, from which alum is prepared in Sicily by roasting and lixiviation. It is regarded as a possible sourceof potassium for agriculture and also of aluminium. A considerable vein occurs in Utah.
Alun′no,Niccolo (real nameNiccolo de Liberatore), an Italian painter of the fifteenth century, the founder of the Umbrian School, born in Foligno about 1430, died 1502. Vasari, interpreting wrongly the passage "Nicholaus alumnus Fulginiæ", gave him the name of Alunno.
Al′va,a town of Scotland, in Clackmannanshire, 2½ miles north of Alloa, near the River Devon, at the foot of the Ochils. It manufactures woollen shawls, tweeds, yarn, &c. Pop. (1921), 4107.
Al′va,orAl′ba,Ferdinand Alvarez, Duke of, Spanish statesman and general under Charles V and Philip II, was born in 1508; early embraced a military career, and fought in the wars of Charles V in France, Italy, Africa, Hungary, and Germany. He is more especially remembered for his bloody and tyrannical government of the Netherlands (1567-73), which had revolted, and which he was commissioned by Philip II to reduce to entire subjection to Spain. Among his first proceedings was to establish the 'Council of Blood', a tribunal which condemned, without discrimination, all whose opinions were suspected, and whose riches were coveted. The present and absent, the living and the dead, were subjected to trial and their property confiscated. Many merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; people by hundreds of thousands abandoned their country. The Counts of Egmont and Horn, and other men of rank, were executed, and William and Louis of Orange had to save themselves in Germany. The most oppressive taxes were imposed, and trade was brought completely to a standstill. As a reward for his services to the faith the Pope presented him with a consecrated hat and sword, a distinction previously conferred only on princes. Resistance was only quelled for a time, and soon the provinces of Holland and Zealand revolted against his tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out at his command was annihilated, and he was everywhere met with insuperable courage. Hopeless of finally subduing the country he asked to be recalled, and accordingly, in Dec., 1573, Alva left the country, in which, as he himself boasted, he had executed 18,000 men. He was received with distinction in Madrid, but did not long enjoy his former credit. He had the honour, however, before his death (which took place in 1582) of reducing all Portugal to subjection to his sovereign. It is said of him that during sixty years of warfare he never lost a battle and was never taken by surprise.
Alvarado(a˙l-va˙-rä′dō), Pedro de, one of the Spanish 'conquistadores', was born towards the end of the fifteenth century, and died in 1541. Having crossed the Atlantic, he was associated (1519) with Cortez in his expedition to conquer Mexico; and was entrusted with important operations. In July, 1520, during the disastrous retreat from the capital after the death of Montezuma, the perilous command of the rear-guard was assigned to Alvarado. On his return to Spain he was received with honour by Charles V, who made him governor of Guatemala, which he had himself conquered. To this was subsequently added Honduras. He continued to add to the Spanish dominions in America till his death.
Alvarez(a˙l-va˙-reth′), Don José, a Spanish sculptor, born 1768, died 1827. His works are characterized by truth to nature, dignity, and feeling, one of the chief representing a scene in the defence of Saragossa. The Museo del Prado, in Madrid, contains some of his finest work.
Alve′olus,one of the sockets in which the teeth of mammals are fixed. Hencealveolar arches, the parts of the jaws containing these sockets.
Alverstoke.SeeGosport.
Alverstone,Richard Everard Webster, first Viscount, eminent English lawyer, born in 1842, died in 1915. Educated at King's College School, the Charterhouse, and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1868, and made Q.C. in 1878. He was Member of Parliament for Launceston for a short time in 1885, and from that year to 1900 represented the Isle of Wight. He was Attorney-General from 1885-6, 1886-92, and 1895-1900, being then made Lord Chief Justice and elevated to the peerage: he had been created a baronet in 1899. He represented Britain in the arbitration with the United States regarding the Behring Sea (1893), in the affair of the Venezuelan and Guiana boundary (1898-9), and was one of three British commissioners who, with three from the United States, settled the Canada and Alaska boundary in 1903. Upon retiring in 1913 he was created viscount. His bookRecollections of Bar and Benchwas published in 1914.
Alwar(al-war′), a State of north-western Hindustan, in Rajputana; area, 3141 sq. miles; surface generally elevated and rugged, and much of it of an arid description, though water is generally found on the plains by digging a little beneath the surface, and the means of irrigation being thus provided, the soil, though sandy, is highly productive. This semi-independent State has as its ruler a rajah with a revenue of £232,000; military force, about 5000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. Pop. 791,688.—Alwar, the capital, is situated at the base of a rocky hill crowned by a fort, 80 milesS.S.W.of Delhi. It is surrounded by a moat and rampart, and is poorly built, but has fine surroundings; it contains the rajah's palace and a few other good buildings. Pop. 41,305.
Alys′sum(A. saxatile, L.), a native of Crete, a genus of cruciferous plants, several species of which are cultivated on account of their white or yellow coloured flowers; madwort.
Alyth(ā′lith), a town of Scotland, Perthshire, near the eastern boundary, with linen and jute manufactures. Pop. (1921), 1710.
Amad′avat(Estrilda amandāva), a small Indian singing bird allied to the finches and buntings; the female is olive-brown, and the male, in summer, largely crimson.
Amade′us,the name of several counts of Savoy. The first was the son of Humbert I, and succeeded him in 1048, dying about 1078; others who have occupied an important place in history are the following:—Amadeus V,'the Great', succeeded in 1285; gained great honour in defending Rhodes against the Turks; increased his possessions by marriage and war; was made a prince of the empire; died in 1323.—Amadeus VIIIsucceeded his father, Amadeus VII, in 1391, and had his title raised to that of duke by the Emperor Sigismund. He was chosen regent of Piedmont; but after this elevation retired from his throne and family into a religious house. He now aspired to the papacy, and was chosen by the Council of Basel (1439), becoming Pope, or rather anti-Pope, under the name of Felix V, though he had never taken holy orders. He was recognized as Pope by only a few princes, and resigned in 1449, being the last of the anti-Popes. He died in 1451.
Amade′us,Duke of Aosta, for a short time King of Spain, second son of Victor Emanuel of Italy, and brother of Humbert I, King of Italy. He was born in 1845, and, thanks to the influence of Marshals Prim and Serrano, was chosen by the Cortes King of Spain in 1870, Queen Isabella having had to leave the country in 1868. He made his entrance into Madrid as king on 2nd Jan., 1871, and took the oath to the constitution. His position was far from comfortable, however, and, having little hope of becoming acceptable to all parties, he abdicated in 1873 (11th Feb.). He died in 1890.
Amade′us,Lake, a large salt lake or salt swamp in South Australia, and nearly in the centre of Australia. It was discovered by Giles in 1872, and is seldom visited, being in a dreary, arid region.
Am′adis,a name belonging to a number of heroes in the romances of chivalry, Amadis de Gaul being the greatest among them, and represented as the progenitor of the whole. The Spanish series of Amadis romances is the oldest. It is comprised in fourteen books, of which the first four narrate the adventures of Amadis de Gaul, this portion of the series having originated about the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century, and the subsequent books being added by various hands. An abridged English translation ofAmadis of Gaulwas published by Southey in 1803.
Amadou(am′a-dö), a name of several fungi, genus Polypŏrus, of a leathery appearance, growing on trees. SeeGerman Tinder.
Amager(a˙m′a-ger), a small Danish island in the Sound, opposite Copenhagen, part of which is situated on it. Rural pop. 25,000.
Amako′sa,one of the Kaffir tribes of S. Africa.
Amalasun′tha,daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and after his death regent of Italy for her son Athalarich. Athalarich died in 534, after which Amalasuntha married her cousin Theodahad, but retained the power in her own hands. Mainly on this account she was imprisoned and strangled in her bath by order of her second husband,A.D.535.
Amal′ekites,an ancient tribe occupying the peninsula between Egypt and Palestine, named after a grandson of Esau. They were denounced by Moses for their hostility to the Israelites during their journey through the wilderness, and they seem to have been all but exterminated by Saul and David. The Kenites seem to have been a branch of the Amalekites.
Amal′fi,a seaport in Southern Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, 23 miles from Naples, the seat of an archbishop. In the early part of the Middle Ages it was a place of great commercial importance, and it long enjoyed a republican constitution of its own. Quarrels with its neighbours, encroachments of the sea, and other causes led to its downfall, but it is still much visited by tourists. The road from Salerno to Amalfi is a magnificent carriage-way, partly hewn in the cliffs, and affords charming views. Amalfi is surrounded by rocky heights, and its harbour was choked up by a landslip in 1900. Here arose theAmalfian Codeof maritime law, composed in 1010 and containing 66 articles, which once had great influence in the maritime affairs of the Mediterranean trading peoples. The MS. was discovered by the Prince of Andorra, in 1844, in the imperial library at Vienna. Pop. 7472.
Amal′gam,a name applied to the alloys of mercury with the other metals. One of them is the amalgam of mercury with tin, which is used to silver looking-glasses. Mercury unites very readily with gold and silver at ordinary temperatures, and advantage is taken of this to separate them from their ores, the process being calledamalgamation. The mercury dissolves and combines with the precious metal and separates it from the waste matters, and is itself easily driven off by heat. An amalgam made of cadmium and copper is frequently used in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and tin is used for the rubbers of frictional electric machines.