AlbA, Alb with its Apparelsa,b, and Girdlec; B, Amice; C, Stole
Alb(from Lat.albus, white), a clerical vestment of the Catholic Church worn by priests while officiating in the more solemn functions of divine service. It is a long robe of white linen reaching to the feet, bound round the waist by a cincture, and fitting more closely to the body than the surplice. It is now little used except during Mass. After the Reformation thealbwas not used in the Church of England, but since the ritualistic revival in the nineteenth century it has again been introduced into a number of churches.
Alba,the name of several towns in ancient Italy, the most celebrated of which was Alba Longa, a city of Latium, according to tradition built by Ascanius, the son of Æneas, 300 years before the foundation of Rome, at one time the most powerful city of Latium. It ultimately fell under the dominion of Rome, when the town was destroyed, it is said. In later times its site became covered with villas of wealthy Romans.
Alba(ancientlyAlba Pompeia), a town of Northern Italy, about 30 milesS.E.of Turin, is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral, bishop's palace, church with fresco paintings by Perugino, &c. Pop. 6872.
Alba,Duke of. SeeAlva.
Albacete(a˙l-ba˙-thā′tā), a town in Southern Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 106 milesN.N.W.of Cartagena, with a considerable trade, both direct and transit, and manufactures of knives, daggers, &c. Pop. 24,805.—The province has an area of 5737 sq. miles, and a pop. of 273,380.
Alba Longa.SeeAlba.
Alban,St., the earliest British martyr, flourished in the third century, and was, it is said, converted from Paganism by a confessor whom he had saved from his persecutors. He refused to sacrifice to the gods, and was executed outside the city of Verulamium (St. Albans) in 285 or 305.
Albani(a˙l-bä′nē), Francesco, a famous Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He studied with Guido Reni under the Flemish painter Calvaert and the Caracci. It is said that his second wife, Doralice Fioraventi, bore him twelve children of such beauty that they served him as models for his paintings. Among the best known of his compositions areThe Sleeping Venus,Diana in the Bath,Danaë Reclining,Galatea on the Sea,Europa on the Bull.
Alba′ni,Madame, maiden name Marie Louise Emma Cecile Lajeunesse, famous singer, was born near Montreal in 1852, was trained at home by her father, and studied also in Paris and Milan. She made her first public appearance in Europe at Messina, in Bellini'sLa Sonnambula, and in 1872 sang in the Royal Italian Opera in London. Since then she has attained the position of one of the world's foremost singers, both in opera and oratorio. In 1878 she was married to Mr. Ernest Gye, the operatic manager. She adopted the professional name of Albani from Albany, in the United States, where as a girl she sang in the Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1911 she published her memoirs under the title ofForty Years of Song.
Alba′nia,an extensive region stretching along the coast of the Adriatic for about 290 miles, and having a breadth varying from about 90 to about 50 miles. The boundary on the east is formed by a range of mountains, and the country is composed of at least nine ridges of hills, of which six are in Lower or Southern Albania (ancient Epirus) and the remainder in Central and Upper or Northern Albania. There are no large rivers, and in summer many of the streams are completely dry. The Drin or Drino is the largest. The most beautiful lake is that of Ochrida, 20 miles long, 8 broad at the widest part. The Lake of Scutari, in Upper Albania, is the largest. Among trees Albania has many species of oak, the poplar, hazel, plane, chestnut, cypress, and laurel. The vine flourishes, together with the orange, almond, fig, mulberry, and citron;maize, wheat, and barley are cultivated. Its fauna comprises bears, wolves, and chamois; sheep, goats, horses, asses, and mules are plentiful. The chief exports are live stock, wool, hides, timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa, Valona, and Durazzo. The population, about 850,000, consists chiefly of Albanians or Arnauts, or, as they call themselves, Skupetars, i.e. inhabitants of the mountains (by the Turks they are called Arnauts, by the Greeks Arbanites, and by the Serbs Arbanasi). They are spread along the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. History and legend afford little or no record of the arrival of the Albanian race in the Balkan Peninsula. It may, however, be safely asserted that the Albanians are the direct descendants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were represented in historical times by the kindred Illyrians, Macedonians, and Epirots. The majority live in Albania, the rest in Montenegro, Greece, Southern Italy, Sicily, Bessarabia, and Asia Minor. As regards religion they are either Christians or Mohammedans. They are divided into several tribes, among whom the Suliotes are partly of Greek origin. The Albanian language is a branch of the Indo-European languages, and related to the long-ago extinct language of the Messapians. The language consists of numerous dialects, which may be divided into those of the Tosks in the south and the Gheggas in the north. Though their country became a province of the Turkish dominions in 1431, they maintained for centuries a certain degree of independence, which the Porte never found it possible to overcome. On 28th Nov., 1912, the complete independence of Albania was proclaimed at Valona, a provisional government was founded under Ismail Kemal Bey, and Albanian autonomy was agreed to at the Ambassadorial Conference in London on 20th Dec. On 21st Feb., 1914, the crown was offered to Prince William of Wied, who arrived at Durazzo on 7th March. The prince was supported and advised by an International Commission of Control, but he left the country at the outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Attempts made by Essad Pasha to establish a military government failed, and the country was overrun by the Austrians, who captured Durazzo on 28th Feb., 1916. On 3rd June, 1917, the general in charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an independent country, and a provisional government was set up at Durazzo. Albanian independence was recognized by the Powers and Albania admitted to the League of Nations in Dec., 1920.—Bibliography: H. F. Tozer,Researches in the Highlands of Turkey; W. Peacock,Albania, The Foundling State.
Alba′no,a city and lake in Italy, the former about 15 miles south-east of Rome, and on the west border of the lake, amid beautiful scenery. An ancient tomb in the Etruscan style was for a long time looked upon as the sepulchre of the Horatii and Curiatii. Here are also the ruins of the villas of Pompey and Domitian. Pop. 8000.—The lake, situated immediately beneath the Alban Hill, is of an oval form, 6 miles in circumference, surrounded by steep banks of volcanic tufa 300 or 400 feet high, and discharges its superfluous waters by an artificial tunnel at least 2000 years old.
Albans,St. SeeSt. Albans.
Al′bany,the original Celtic name probably at first applied to the whole of Britain, but afterwards restricted to the Highlands of Scotland. It gave the title of duke formerly to a prince of the blood-royal of Scotland. The first duke was Robert Stuart (1345-1420), son of Robert II by his mistress Elizabeth Mure, and brother of Robert III. He was virtual ruler of the kingdom during the latter years of his brother's reign, and acted as regent for his nephew James I (kept a prisoner in England) till his own death. Another nephew, David, Duke of Rothesay, is said to have been starved to death in Falkland Castle at his instigation. His son Murdoch, second duke, succeeded him as regent, and was put to death by James for maladministration. The third duke was Alexander, second son of James II and brother of James III. A large part of his life was passed in France. His son John was the fourth who bore the title. He was regent of Scotland during the minority of James V (1515-23).
Al′bany,a city of the United States, capital of the State of New York on the west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles north of New York city, from and to which steamboats run daily. The Erie Canal and the numerous railway lines centring here from all directions greatly contribute to the growth and prosperity of the city, which carries on an extensive trade. It is a great mart for timber, and has foundries, breweries, tanneries, &c. Albany was settled by the Dutch between 1610 and 1614, and the older houses are in the Dutch style, with the gable-ends to the streets. There is a university, an observatory, and a State library with 90,000 volumes. The principal public buildings are the capitol or State-house, which cost about £5,000,000, and the State-hall for the public offices, a State arsenal, and numerous churches. Pop. (1920), 113,344.
Al′bany,Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a princess of the Stolberg-Gedern family, was born in 1753, and married, in 1772, the pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the above title. To escape from the ill-treatment of her husband she retired, in 1780, to the house of her brother-in-law at Rome,where she met the poet Alfieri, whose mistress she became. After the death of Alfieri in 1793 she opened her famous political and literary salon frequented by the Duchess of Devonshire, the Duchess of Hamilton, Cardinal Consalvi, Samuel Rogers, Thomas Moore, Lamartine, and Chateaubriand. She died at Florence in 1824, where she was buried at the Church of Sta Croce, by the side of Alfieri, whom she is supposed to have married secretly.
Alba′ta,a name sometimes given to German silver.
Wandering AlbatrossWandering Albatross (Diomēdea exŭlans)
Al′batross,a large marine swimming bird of several species, of which the wandering albatross (Diomedēa exŭlans) is the best known. The bill is straight and strong, the upper mandible hooked at the point and the lower one truncated; there are three webbed toes on each foot. The upper part of the body is of a greyish brown, and the belly white. It is the largest sea-bird known, some measuring 17½ feet from tip to tip of their expanded wings. They abound at the Cape of Good Hope and in other parts of the southern seas, and in Behring's Straits, and have been known to accompany ships for whole days without ever resting on the waves. From this habit the bird is regarded with feelings of attachment and superstitious awe by sailors, it being reckoned unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has availed himself of this feeling in hisAncient Mariner. The albatross is met with at great distances from the land, settling down on the waves at night to sleep. It is exceedingly voracious, whenever food is abundant, gorging to such a degree as to be unable to fly or swim. It feeds on fish, carrion, fish-spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other small marine animals. Its cry is harsh and disagreeable. Its nest is a heap of earth; its eggs are larger than those of a goose.
Albatross,a name applied to a certain type of German aeroplanes, much used for scouting purposes during the European War.
Albay(a˙l-bī′), a province, town, bay, and volcano in the south-east part of the Island of Luzon, one of the Philippines. The province is mountainous but fertile; the town regularly built, with a pop. of 34,000; the bay capacious, secure, and almost landlocked; and the volcano, which is always in activity, forms a conspicuous landmark.
Albemarle,Duke of. SeeMonk, George.
Al′bendorf,a village in Prussia, province of Silesia, 50 milesS.W.of Breslau, remarkable for the pilgrimages made to its church, chapels, statues, &c. Pop. 1800.
Alberoni,Cardinal Giulio (jū′li-o a˙l-bā-rō′nē), born in 1664 in North Italy, and educated for the Church. In his youth he laboured as a gardener, but thanks to the protection of the Duc de Vendôme, whose secretary he became, and afterwards of the Duc de Parma, he rose to high position. The latter sent him as his minister to Madrid, where he gained the affection of Philip V. He rose by cunning and intrigue to the position of Prime Minister, became a cardinal, was all-powerful in Spain after the year 1715, and endeavoured to restore it to its ancient splendour. In pursuance of this object he invaded Sardinia and Sicily, and indeed entertained the idea of stirring up a general war in Europe. The alliance of France and England, however, rendered his schemes abortive, and led to his dismissal and exile in 1720. He wandered about a long time under false names, but on the accession of Pope Innocent XIII he was restored to all the rights and honours of a cardinal. He died in 1752, and was buried at Piacenza.
Albert,Prince, Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, second son of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the Rosenau, a castle near Coburg, on 26th Aug., 1819. In 1837 he entered the University of Bonn, where he devoted himself to the studies of political and natural science, history, philosophy, &c., as well as to those of music and painting. On leaving the university he made a tour through the chief cities of Italy withBaron Stockmar. On 10th Feb., 1840, he married his cousin, Queen Victoria of England. Leopold I, King of the Belgians and uncle of Queen Victoria, was greatly instrumental in bringing about the marriage. An allowance of £30,000 a year was settled upon the prince, who was naturalized by Act of Parliament, received the title of Royal Highness by patent, was made a field-marshal, a Knight of the Garter, of the Bath, &c. Other honours were subsequently bestowed upon him, the chief of which was the title of Prince Consort (1857). His foreign birth at first caused him to be regarded with some suspicion, but his unfailing tact and genuine ability were not long in gaining their due recognition. He always carefully abstained from party politics, but his knowledge of the politics of his adopted country, both domestic and foreign, was profound and accurate, and must often have been of service to the queen and her advisers. He always took a deep and active interest in the welfare of the people in general. His services to the cause of science and art were very important; he presided over the commission appointed in 1841 to consider the best means of rebuilding the Houses of Parliament, and the great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its success to his activity, knowledge, and judgment. The amendment of the Articles of War in 1844 which ultimately put an end to duelling was due to his suggestion. Cambridge University conferred upon him the degree ofLL.D., and in 1847 he was elected Chancellor. He presided and delivered the inaugural address at the meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen in 1859. He died of typhoid fever on 14th Dec., 1861, after a short illness. A collection of his speeches and addresses was published in 1862. A biography of the prince by Sir Theodore Martin was published in 5 volumes, London, 1875-80.
Albert,first Duke of Prussia, and last grand-master of the Teutonic Order, was born in 1490; died in 1568. In 1511 he was chosen by the Teutonic knights grand-master of their order. Being nephew of Sigismund, King of Poland, the knights hoped by his means to be freed from the feudal superiority of Poland, and placed under the protection of the empire. This superiority, however, Sigismund refused to surrender, and war broke out between uncle and nephew. He subsequently became reconciled to his uncle, and obtained his investiture as hereditary Duke of Prussia under the Polish Crown, the territorial rights of the Teutonic Order being thus set aside. The latter years of his reign were spent in organizing the government and promoting the prosperity of his duchy; he founded schools and churches, established a ducal library, and opened the University of Königsberg in 1543.
Al′bert I,Duke of Austria, and afterwards Emperor of Germany, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, was born in 1248. On the death of his father in 1292 he claimed the Empire, but his arrogant conduct drove the electors to choose Adolphus of Nassau emperor. Adolphus, after a reign of six years, having lost the regard of all the princes of the Empire, Albert was elected to succeed him. A battle ensued near Göllheim, in which Adolphus was slain by his adversary, who was elected and crowned. Pope Boniface VIII, however, refused to acknowledge him as emperor, and ordered the electoral princes to renounce their allegiance to him. On the other hand, Albert formed an alliance with Philip le Bel of France, and offered so determined and successful a resistance to the papal authority that Boniface was induced to withdraw his opposition, on condition that Albert would break with his French ally. During the subsequent years of his reign the Emperor was engaged in unsuccessful wars with Holland, Hungary, Bohemia, and other States. His measures still further to strengthen his authority over the Swiss Forest Cantons of Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri drove the inhabitants into open revolt in Jan. 1308. While on his way to crush the Swiss he was assassinated, at Windisch in May, 1308, by his nephew John, Duke of Suabia, called afterwards the Parricide, whose inheritance he had seized upon.
Albert I,King of the Belgians, born on 8th April, 1875, at Brussels. He is the son of Prince Philippe, Count of Flanders (died 17th Nov., 1905), and of Princess Marie of Hohenzollern (born 17th Nov., 1845). After the death of his cousin, the Duke of Brabant, and of his father in 1905, Prince Albert became heir apparent. In 1906 he became member of the Belgian Senate and in 1907 was appointed by his uncle, Leopold II, Lieutenant-General. On 2nd Oct., 1900, he married Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Duke Charles Theodor of Bavaria; there are three children. He ascended the Belgian throne in Nov., 1909, after the death of his uncle Leopold II.
Albert Edward,or simplyEdward,one of the equatorial lakes of Africa, otherwise known asMuta Nzige(q.v.).
Albert Hall,an amphitheatre in the Italian Renaissance style in Kensington, London, built during 1867-71 for concerts and assemblies. It can seat 9000 people, and its organ, which has nearly 9000 pipes, is one of the largest in the world.
Albert Memorial,the monument erected in Kensington Gardens, London, in memory of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. It is the work of Sir Gilbert Scott, and its style is Victorian Gothic.
Albert Nyan′za,a lake of Africa, one of theheadwaters of the Nile, lying (approximately) between lat. 2° 30′ and 1° 10′N., and with its north-east extremity in about lon. 28°E.; general direction from north-east to south-west, surface about 2500 feet above sea-level. It is surrounded by precipitous cliffs, and bounded on the west and south-west by great ranges of mountains. It abounds with fish, and its shores are infested with crocodiles and hippopotami. It receives the Victoria Nile from the Victoria Nyanza, and the White Nile issues from its northern extremity.
Albert-Bapaume.Along the great trunk road from Albert to Bapaume and on either side of it, fierce fighting took place during the Somme offensive of 1916, marked by the stages La Boiselle, Pozières and Le Sars. When, in Feb., 1917, the Germans began the great retreat, the fortified village of Pys on the left of the road was seized at a rush. On the 26th the village of Warlencourt fell, and two days later Thilley village 1½ miles from Bapaume, was taken. The British troops, avoiding direct assaults, gradually encircled the town, forcing the Germans to withdraw. It was entered on 17th March.
Alberta,a province of Canada, established on 1st Sept., 1905, and comprising the former territory of Alberta and the part of the former territory of Athabasca lying west of the meridian 110°, and having the new province of Saskatchewan on the east, British Columbia on the west, the United States on the south, and Mackenzie territory on the north; area, 255,285 sq. miles. A large part of the area on the west is occupied by the Rocky Mountains, which are shared in common with Alberta and British Columbia, and consist mostly of a series of more or less parallel ridges. One or two of the loftier summits are in the province, others on the boundary. There is much valuable timber in this district. The general slope of the surface is from west to east and north-east. The province is intersected by numerous rivers and streams that have their sources in the Rockies, some of them, such as the Peace River and the Athabasca, sending their waters to the Arctic Ocean, while the others, such as the North and South Saskatchewan and their tributaries, belong to the Hudson Bay basin. In the extreme south are one or two small tributaries of the Missouri. There are a number of lakes, the largest being the Lesser Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca (partly in this province). Notwithstanding the number of the streams, there are districts, especially in the south, where agriculture cannot be successfully carried on without irrigation. Farther to the north there are areas highly suitable for agriculture, and timber is also abundant. Cattle ranching is successfully carried on in the south, but tillage, with and even without irrigation, is also carried on, fine crops of wheat being grown. The most valuable mineral is coal, which is found at various places, but is chiefly mined in the south at Lethbridge, and farther north in the Banff district. Here there are hot springs and grand scenery, and a large tract of land has been set apart as a national park. Near Edmonton, the capital, coal is found on the bank of the North Saskatchewan, and is readily worked. Iron, petroleum, and other minerals are found. The climate is very warm in summer, and in winter less severe and prolonged than might be supposed. The warmchinookwinds from the Pacific often blow in winter, and speedily melt the snow. The province is crossed in the south by the Canadian Pacific Railway, running by way of Calgary and Banff, and crossing the Rockies. From Calgary one branch runs north to Edmonton, another runs south to M‘Leod, where other lines make a connection with the States railroads and British Columbia. Edmonton, being also on the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific, is bound to become a great centre of trade and provincial development. It and Calgary are the chief towns. The population in 1911 was returned at 374,663, the latest estimate being nearly 500,000.
Albertite,an asphaltic hydrocarbon compound, a soft black material, obtained in Canada.
Alber′tus Magnus,orAlbert the Great,Count of Bollstädt, a distinguished German scholar of the thirteenth century, born in 1193, or 1205, studied at Padua, became a monk of the Dominican order, teaching in the schools of Hildesheim, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 he went to Paris and publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle, notwithstanding the prohibition of the Church. He is called Doctor Universalis, for he was one of the most proficient scholars of his day, second only to Roger Bacon in his knowledge of nature. He became rector of the school of Cologne in 1249; in 1254 he was made provincial of his order in Germany; and in 1260 he received from Pope Alexander IV the appointment of Bishop of Ratisbon. In 1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, where he composed many works, especially commentaries on Aristotle. He died in 1280. Owing to his profound knowledge he did not escape the imputation of using magical arts and trafficking with the Evil One.
Al′bi.SeeAlby.
Albigenses(al-bi-jen′sēz), a neo-Manichæan sect which spread widely in the south of France and elsewhere about the twelfth century, and which differed in doctrine and practice from the Roman Catholic Church, by which they were subjected to severe persecution. They are said to have been so named from Albi, on the banks of the Tarn, a tributary of the Garonne, where,and about Toulouse, Narbonne, &c., they were numerous. They were also known as Catharists (q.v.) and their doctrines were similar to those of several other religious sects such as the Gnostics, Manichæans, and Bogomils. Among the principal doctrines of the Albigenses was the belief in the existence of two principles, good and evil, the creators of the spiritual and material worlds. Since all matter is under the control of the evil principle, maintained the Albigenses, all flesh is evil. The extinction of bodily life, therefore, the deliverance of the soul from the prison-house of the body, should be the aim of man. Suicide by means of starvation was consequently highly meritorious. It is admitted even by Catholic writers (seeCatholic Encyclopædia, vol. i, p. 268) that the Albigenses were principally antisacerdotal and opposed to the Roman Church on account of the scandalous life led by the Catholic clergy. A crusade was begun against them, and Count Raymond VI of Toulouse for tolerating them, in 1209, the army of the cross being called together by Pope Innocent III. The war was carried on with a cruelty which reflected deep disgrace upon the Catholic Church. Béziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew Roger, was taken by storm, and 20,000 of the inhabitants, without distinction of creed, were put to the sword. Simon de Montfort, the military leader of the crusade, was equally severe towards other places in the territory of Raymond and his allies. After the death of Raymond VI, in 1222, his son, Raymond VII, was obliged, notwithstanding his readiness to do penance, to defend his inheritance against the papal legates and Louis VIII of France. When hundreds of thousands had fallen on both sides, a peace was made in 1229, by which Raymond was obliged to cede Narbonne with other territories to Louis IX, and make his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, his heir. The heretics were now delivered up to the proselytizing zeal of the Dominicans, and to the courts of the Inquisition, by which means it was brought about that the Albigenses disappeared after the middle of the thirteenth century. Cf. C. Schmidt,Histoire et doctrine de la Secte des Cathares ou Albigeois(2 vols.)
Albinos(al-bī′nōz), the name given to those persons from whose skin, hair, and eyes, in consequence of some defect in their organization, the dark colouring matter is absent. The skin of albinos, therefore, whether they belong to the white, Indian, or negro races, is of a uniform pale milky colour, their hair is white, while the iris of their eyes is pale rose colour, and the pupil intensely red, the absence of the dark pigment allowing the multitude of blood-vessels in these parts of the eye to be seen. For the same reason their eyes are not well suited to endure the bright light of day, and they see best in shade or by moonlight. The peculiarity ofalbinismorleucopathyis hereditary and not confined to the human race, having been observed also in horses, rabbits, rats, mice, &c., birds (white crows or blackbirds are not particularly uncommon), and fishes. Albinos are not of necessity lacking in mental vigour or capacity. Cf. Karl Pearson,A Monograph on Albinism in Man.
Al′bion(CelticAlbainn), the earliest name by which the island of Great Britain was known, employed already by writers of the sixth centuryB.C., who speak not of Britannia but of the land of the Albiones, and in poetry still used for Great Britain. It is connected with Lat.albus, white, on account, perhaps, of the chalk cliffs of Dover. The same word asAlbany,Albyn.
Al′bite,orSoda-felspar,a mineral, a kind of felspar, usually of a white colour, to which property it owes its name (Lat.albus, white), but occasionally bluish, greyish, greenish, or reddish white.
Albizzia(al-bit′si-a), a genus of leguminous trees and shrubs, allied to the genus Acacia, with doubly-pinnate leaves and white, yellow, or red flowers often in globular heads, and broad, straight, flat pods. They number over fifty species, and inhabit tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, and Australia.A. lophanta, a native of south-western Australia, has a bark that contains tannin.A. Lebbek, a native of Asia and Africa, yields valuable timber, and in Egypt is much cultivated as a shade tree.A. Julibrissin, a tree with rose-red flowers, is found in Asia and Africa, and has been introduced into Southern Europe.
Al′boin,King of the Lombards, succeeded his father Audoin in 561, and reigned in Noricum and Pannonia. Narses, the general of Justinian, sought his alliance, and received his aid, in the war against Totila, King of the Ostrogoths. Alboin afterwards (in 568) undertook the conquest of Italy, where Narses, who had subjected this country to Justinian, offended by an ungrateful Court, sought an avenger in Alboin, and offered him his co-operation. After a victorious career in Italy he was slain at Verona, in 573 or 574, by an assassin, instigated by his wife Rosamond, whose hatred he had incurred by sending her, in one of his fits of intoxication, a cup wrought from the skull of her father, and forcing her to drink from it.
Alborak,in Mohammedan mythology, the animal said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel to carry Mohammed to the seventh heaven. It had the face of a man, the body of a horse, the wings of an eagle, and spoke with a human voice.
Albrecht(a˙l′breht), the German form ofAlbert(q.v.).
Albrechtsberger(a˙l′brehts-ber-gėr), Johann Georg, a German composer and writer on music;a teacher of Beethoven, Moscheles, &c. Born 1736, died 1809.
Albret,Jeanne d' (zha˙n da˙l-brā), Queen of Navarre, wife of Antoine de Bourbon and mother of Henri IV of France, a zealous supporter of the reformed religion, which she established in her kingdom; born 1528, died (probably poisoned) 1572, shortly before the massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Albuera(a˙l-bu¨-ā′ra˙), a village of Spain, in Estremadura, 12 milesS.S.E.of Badajoz. A battle was fought here, 16th May, 1811, between the army of Marshal Beresford (30,000) and that of Marshal Soult (25,000), when the latter was obliged to retreat to Seville, leaving Badajoz to fall into the hands of the allies.
Albu′go,an affection of the eye, consisting of a white opacity in the cornea; called alsoleucoma.
Al′bum,in ancient Rome a board painted white, on which edicts and public notices were inscribed in black. It is now a name generally given to a blank book for the reception of pieces of poetry, autographs, engravings, photographs, &c. In law it is applied to rent paid in silver (white money).
Albu′men,orAlbumin(Lat., fromalbus, white), a substance, or rather group of substances, so named from the Latin for the white of an egg, which is one of its most abundant known forms. It may be taken as the type of the protein compounds or the nitrogenous class of food-stuffs. One variety enters largely into the composition of the animal fluids and solids, is coagulable by heat at and above 160°, and is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with a little sulphur. It abounds in the serum of the blood, the vitreous and crystalline humours of the eye, the fluid of dropsy, the substance called coagulable lymph, in nutritive matters, the juice of flesh, &c. The blood contains about 7 per cent of albumen. Another variety, called vegetable albumen, exists in most vegetable juices and many seeds, and has nearly the same composition and properties as egg albumen. When albumen coagulates in any fluid it readily encloses any substances that may be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is used to clarify syrupy liquors. In cookery, white of eggs is employed for clarifying, but in large operations, like sugar-refining, the serum of blood is used. From its being coagulable by various salts, and especially by corrosive sublimate, with which it forms an insoluble compound, white of egg is a convenient antidote in cases of poisoning by that substance. With lime it forms a cement to mend broken ware.
In botany the name albumen is given to the farinaceous matter which surrounds the embryo, the term in this case having no reference to chemical composition. It constitutes the meat of the coco-nut, the flour or meal of cereals, the roasted part of coffee, &c.
Albuminu′ria,a condition in which the urine contains albumen, evidencing a diseased state of the kidneys.
Albuñol(a˙l-bu¨-nyol′), a seaport of Southern Spain, province Granada, on the Mediterranean. Pop. 7451.
Albuquerque(a˙l-bu¨-kerk′ā), Affonso de, surnamed 'the Great', an eminent Portuguese admiral, born 1453, died in 1515. Portugal having subjected to its power a large part of the western coast of Africa, and begun to extend its sway in the East Indies, Albuquerque was appointed viceroy of the Portuguese acquisitions in this quarter, and arrived in 1503 with a fleet on the coast of Malabar. His career here was extremely successful, he having extended the Portuguese power over Malabar, Ceylon, the Sunda Islands, and the Peninsula of Malacca, and made the Portuguese name respected by all the nations and princes of India. Notwithstanding his services and his virtues, he was unjustly superseded in his commands by his personal enemy Lopez Soarez, and so severely did he feel the ingratitude of his sovereign, King Emanuel, that he died a few days after receiving the intelligence. His famous letter to the king was discovered and published in 1542 by J. M. de Fonseca. The first volume of his letters was published in 1884 by the Royal Academy of Lisbon.
AlburnumAlburnuma a, Alburnum or sapwood.b b, Heart-wood.c, Pith.d, Bark
Albur′num,the soft white substance which, in trees, is found between the liber or inner bark and the wood, and, in progress of time acquiring solidity, becomes itself the wood. A new layer of wood, or rather of alburnum, is added annually to the tree in every part just under the bark.
Albury(al′ber-i), a rising town of New South Wales on the borders of Victoria, on the right bank of the Murray, 190 miles north-east ofMelbourne, in a good agricultural and wine-producing district. Pop. 6750.
Alby,orAlbi(a˙l′bē), an old town of southern France, department of Tarn, 42 miles north-east of Toulouse, on the Tarn, in an extensive plain. It has a cathedral, a Gothic structure, begun in 1282. It manufactures linens, cottons, leather, &c. Alby is said to have given the Albigenses their name. Pop. 18,262.
Alcæ′us,one of the greatest Grecian lyric poets, was born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, and flourished there at the close of the seventh and beginning of the sixth centuriesB.C.; but of his life little is known. A strong manly enthusiasm for freedom and justice pervades his lyrics, of which only a few fragments are left. He wrote in the Æolic dialect, and was the inventor of a metre that bears his name (Alcaics), which Horace has employed in many of his odes.
Alcala′ de Guadaira(gwa˙-dī′ra˙; 'the castle of Guadaira'), a town of southern Spain, on the Guadaira, 7 miles east of Seville, chiefly celebrated for its manufacture of bread, with which it supplies a large part of the population of Seville. Pop. 8930.
Alcala′ de Henares(en-ä′res), a beautiful city of Spain, 16 milesE.N.E.of Madrid, 1 mile from the Henares. It has an imposing appearance when seen from some distance, but on nearer inspection is found to be in a state of decay. There was formerly a university here, at one time attended by 10,000 students; but in 1836 it was removed with its library to Madrid. Cervantes was born here. Pop. 11,728.
Alcala′ la Real(rā-a˙l′), a town of Spain, 18 miles south-east of Jaen, with a fine abbey and some trade. It was captured in 1340 by Alphonso XI of Leon, from whence it derives the epithet Real ('Royal'). Pop. 15,901.
Alcalde(Sp.; a˙l-ka˙l-dā), orAlcaide(Port.; al-kī′dā; Ar.alqadi(Cadi), the judge, not to be confused withalcaide, the governor of a fortress), the name of a magistrate in the Spanish and Portuguese towns, to whom the administration of justice and the regulation of the police is committed. His office nearly corresponds to that of justice of the peace. The name and the office are of Moorish origin.
Al′camo,a city in the west of Sicily, 2½ miles south of the Gulf of Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins of which, including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well as the remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The district is celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.
Alcañiz(a˙l-ka˙n-yēth′), a town of north-eastern Spain (Aragon). Pop. 8750.
Alcan′tara(Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and frontier fortress of Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and enclosed by ancient walls. Pop. 3224.—Order of Alcantara, an ancient Spanish order of knighthood instituted for defence against the Moors in 1156, and made a military religious order in 1197.
Alcarraza(a˙l-ka˙r-rä′tha˙), a vessel made of a kind of porous, unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and elsewhere.
Alcazar de San Juan(a˙l-kä′tha˙r dā sa˙n-hwän), a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap, saltpetre, gunpowder, chocolate, &c. Pop. 13,645.
Alce′do.SeeKingfisher.
Alces′tis,in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of Thessaly. Her husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die unless someone made a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly done by Alcestis, and Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules brought her back from the infernal regions.
Al′chemy,orAlchymy,the art which in former times occupied the place of and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to the discovery of the means of indefinitely prolonging human life, and of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it was generally thought necessary to find a substance which, containing the original principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving all substances into their elements. This general solvent, ormenstruum universale, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was called thephilosophers' stone,lapis philosophorum, and its pretended possessors were known asadepts. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the Middle Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the alchemists were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories about the mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught by the fallen angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John the Baptist. According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the mythical Hermes Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left behind him many books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him alchemy received the name of thehermetic art. At a later period chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the pursuit was introduced into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they were afterwards prohibited from studying it by the popes. Thus Albertus Magnus is said to have been the authorof a workDe Alchimia, and several treatises on the subject are attributed to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope John XXII is said to have worked at the science at Avignon. Raymond Lully, or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, is said to have changed for King Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of quicksilver into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined. Among other alchemists may be mentioned John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster (1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80), Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With the growth of chemistry, the recognition of the chemical elements as forming a large number of distinct substances, and the conception of the fixed unalterable nature of the atoms, attempts to transform the base metals into gold were largely abandoned as being unscientific. But the most modern view of matter, namely, that the atoms of all elements are composed of numerous electrons, favours the idea of the transmutability of elements, and the production of helium from radium (see these articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of this transmutation.—Bibliography: Pattison-Muir,Alchemy, or the Beginnings of Chemistry(Hodder & Stoughton: Useful Knowledge Series); H. S. Redgrove,Alchemy, Ancient and Modern.
Alcibi′ades(-dēz), a famous Athenian statesman and general of high family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was born at Athens in the 82nd Olympiad, 450B.C., being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of Pericles, who also was his guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the beauty of his person, no less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He came under the influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was produced on his character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great popularity by his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people, and after the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him no rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and took refuge with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by his affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta by a similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue for his return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment cancelled. He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the Athenian forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407B.C.he returned to Athens, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He once more went over to the Persians, taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia, and here he was assassinated in 404B.C.The authorities for his life are Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.
Alcinous(al-sin′o-us), King of the Phæacians. SeeUlysses.
Alcira(a˙l-thē′ra˙), a town of Spain, province of Valencia, on the Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits, rice, &c., are grown. Pop. 22,050.
Alc′man,the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by birth, flourished between 671B.C.and 631, and wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs, hymns, pæans, &c., of which only fragments remain.
Alcme′na. SeeAmphitryon.
Alco,a small variety of dog, with a small head and large pendulous ears, found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.
Alcobaça(a˙l-kō-bä′sa˙), a small town of Portugal, 50 miles north of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent Cistercian monastery founded in 1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in 1222. It contains the tombs of Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his wife Ines de Castro.
Al′cohol,orEthyl Alcohol,C2H6O, is a substance obtained by allowing the juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is only in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The solution is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids, &c., and from this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This treatment yields a solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The solution is fractionally distilled, using a special form of distilling column. The most volatile part of the distillate, first runnings, contains acetaldehyde, the second fraction contains the bulk of the alcohol andsome water, and the least volatile portion, last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this means a liquid containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is obtained. For preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully separated from alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect physiologically. The removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is very troublesome. It is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or freshly-ignited potassium carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per cent alcohol. The small quantity of water still contained is removed by leaving it in contact with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more than 96 per cent alcohol is known asabsolute. Pure alcohol is a colourless poisonous liquid boiling at 78° C., possessing a strong odour and a burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all proportions and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0° C. Very low temperatures convert it into a glassy solid, melting at -117° C., hence it may be used in thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol burns with a non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used, therefore, in various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used as a fuel for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances such as resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences. The so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts of collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns like alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of all alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky, &c., have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous system. Beverages such as beer, wine, cider, &c., are prepared by direct fermentation of sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of wine and cider and from barley in the case of beer. These contain varying amounts of alcohol, thus wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol, whilst beer contains 3 to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &c., contain more alcohol, 50-70 per cent, and for the preparation of these the alcohol used must be distilled and purified after fermentation. The alcohol content of an aqueous solution may be deduced from a determination of the specific gravity of the solution or directly by the Alcoholometer. This gives percentage by volume. The amount of alcohol present in any alcoholic beverage cannot be obtained directly, but if ⅓ of the liquid be distilled and the distillate made up to the original volume, then the alcohol may be determined by the Alcoholometer. The name alcohol is applied generally in chemistry to a large group of substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which have chemical properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.
Al′coholism,a morbid condition of the body (especially of the nervous system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic liquors.
Alcoholom′eter,an instrument constructed on the principle of the hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of spirituous liquors the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale marking directly the required proportion. If the liquor contain anything besides water and alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.
Alco′ran. SeeKoran.
Al′cott, Louisa May,a distinguished American authoress, born in 1833. She wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young:Little Women(1867),An Old-fashioned Girl(1869),Little Men(1871),Jack and Jill(1880), &c. Died in 1888.