Epigynous FlowerVertical Section of an Epigynous FlowerR, Receptacle.K, Calyx.C, Corolla.A, Andrœcium.D, Disc.O, Ovule.
R, Receptacle.K, Calyx.C, Corolla.A, Andrœcium.D, Disc.O, Ovule.
Epigynous(e-pij´i-nus)Flowers, those in which the gynæcium isinferior, i.e. embedded in, and adherent to, the hollowed-out receptacle, so that the other parts of the flower appear to be inserted on the top of the ovary.
Ep´ilepsy(Gr.epilēpsia, literally, a seizure), a nervous disease, the falling-sickness, so called because the patient falls suddenly to the ground. It depends on various causes, often exceedingly complicated and incapable of being removed; hence it is often an incurable periodical disease, appearing in single paroxysms. In its fully developed form, convulsions, attended by complete unconsciousness, are the prominent feature. Among the different causes may be mentioned intense emotional disturbance in early childhood, injury to the brain or its coverings at birth or subsequently, or some irritation within the skull itself, such as tumours, &c., developing later in life. Epileptiform fits due to the last-mentioned cause differ from those of true epilepsy, and are known asJacksonian epilepsy(cf. Sir W. K. Gowers,The Borderland of Epilepsy). It is, for the most part, preceded by a tingling sensation, creeping up from the foot or hand to the breast and head, or some other premonitory symptom such as spectral illusions, headache, giddiness, confusion of thought, sense of fear, &c.; but sometimes there are no precursive symptoms. During the paroxysm all that is to be attended to is to prevent the patient from injuring himself; and this is to be accomplished by raising the head gently and loosening all tight parts of the dress. It is advisable to protect the tongue from being bitten by introducing a piece of india-rubber, cork, or soft wood between the teeth.
Epilo´bium, the willow-herbs, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Onagraceæ. The species are herbs or under-shrubs with pink or purple, rarely yellow, flowers, solitary in the axils of the leaves or in terminal leafy spikes. The seeds are tipped with a pencil of silky hairs, and are contained in a long four-celled capsule. There are more than fifty species scattered over the arctic and temperate regions of the world, ten of them being natives of Britain.
Epimen´ides(-dēz), an ancient Greek philosopher and poet, born in Crete in the seventh century before Christ, he was held for an infallible prophet, and by some is reckoned among the seven wise men, instead of Periander. He is supposed to be the prophet referred to by St. Paul inTitus, i, 12: "One of themselves, even a prophet of their own, said, The Cretians are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies".
Epimetheus(ep-i-mē´thūs), in Greek mythology, the son of Iapetus, brother of Prometheus, and husband of Pandora. Epimetheus may be translated 'afterthought', as Prometheus 'forethought'.
Épinal, a town of Eastern France, capital of the department of the Vosges, on the Moselle. It is well built and has handsome quays, an ancient Gothic church, a communal college, a public library of 30,000 volumes, a museum, and extensive fortifications. The town was occupied by the Germans in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and since that time a modern fortress has been constructed. The manufactures consist of articles in metal, cottons, linens, woollens, earthenware, and leather. The famous paper-mills of Archettes are in the vicinity. Pop. 30,000.
Épinay, Louise Florence Pétronille, Madame d', French authoress, born in 1726, died 1783. She became the wife of M. Delalive d'Épinay, who was collector-general of taxes. In 1748 she became acquainted with Rousseau, and gave him a cottage in which he passed many of his days. She was the author ofLes Conversations d'Émilie, a companion-volume to Rousseau'sÉmile; Lettres à mon Fils; andMes Moments heureux. She left interesting memoirs and correspondence.
Epipha´nius, St., was born in Palestine about 310, died 403. About 367 he was consecrated Bishop of Salamis or Constantia, in Cyprus. Azealous denouncer of heresy, he combated the opinions of Arius and Origen. His workPanariongives the history, together with the refutation, of a great number of heresies. His festival is on the 12th of May.
Epiph´any(Gr.epiphaneia, a manifestation or showing forth), a festival, otherwise called themanifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, observed on the 6th of January in honour of the adoration of our Saviour by the three Magi, or wise men, who came to adore him and bring him presents, led by the star. As a separate festival it dates from 813.
Ep´iphyte(Gr.epi, on,phyton, a plant), a plant which grows and flourishes on the trunks and branches of trees, adhering to the bark, as a moss, lichen, fern, &c., but which does not, like a parasite, derive any nourishment from the plant on which it grows. Most orchids are epiphytes, and so are many Bromeliaceæ and Cactaceæ. Epiphytic Angiosperms are characteristic of humid tropical regions. Depending as they do entirely on atmospheric moisture, they show many curious adaptations, and are nearly always more or less xerophytic in structure.
Epi´rus(Gr.Epeiros), a country of ancient Greece corresponding to Southern Albania and the north-western division of modern Greece. The most interesting locality in it was Dodona. The inhabitants were only in part Greeks. The Molossians at last acquired the ascendancy, and the kings of this tribe took the name of kings of Epirus. The most celebrated King of Epirus was Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans. Epirus became a Roman province in 168B.C., and shared the fortunes of Rome till it was conquered by the Turks. The population is about 250,000. In Nov., 1914, Greece, with the consent of the Great Powers, occupied North Epirus, and formally took possession of it in March, 1916. By the end of 1920, however, the occupation had not yet been recognized.—Epirus is also the name of an administrative province of Greece, formed after the Balkan campaigns (1912-3) out of the territory acquired by the country.
Epistemol´ogy(Gr.epistēmē, knowledge), that department of metaphysics which investigates and explains the doctrine or theory of knowing. It deals with the validity of knowledge rather than with the analysis of the knowing mind, and is thus distinguished frompsychology. It is also distinguished fromontology, which investigates real existence or the theory of being.
Epis´tolæ Obscuro´rum Viro´rum(Letters of Obscure Men), the title of a collection of satirical letters which appeared in Germany in 1515, and professed to be the composition of certain ecclesiastics and professors in Cologne and other places. It is considered as one of the most masterly pieces of sarcasm in the history of literature, and its importance is enhanced by the effect it had in promoting the cause of the Reformation. The authorship of this satire has been a fertile subject of controversy, and is yet apparently far from being settled. It was ascribed to Reuchlin, and afterwards to Reuchlin, Erasmus, and Hutten. By a Papal bull the work was placed on the Index of forbidden books.
Ep´itaph(Gr.epi, upon, andtaphos, tomb), an inscription upon a tomb or monument in honour or memory of the dead. Epitaphs were in use both among the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks distinguished by epitaphs only their illustrious men. Among the Romans they became a family institution, and private names were regularly recorded upon tombstones. The same practice has generally prevailed in Christian countries. On Christian tombstones epitaphs usually give brief facts of the deceased's life, sometimes also the pious hopes of survivors in reference to the resurrection or other doctrines of the Christian faith, &c. Many so-called epitaphs are mere wittyjeux d'esprit, which might be described as epigrams, and which were never intended seriously for monumental inscriptions. Dr. Johnson and William Wordsworth wrote essays on epitaphs.—Cf. Andrews,Curious Epitaphs.
Epithalamium(Gr.epi, on, andthalamos, a chamber), a nuptial song or poem in praise of a bride and bridegroom. Among the Greeks and Romans it was sung by young men and maids at the door of the bridal chamber of a newly-married couple. Epithalamia have been written by Spenser, Ben Jonson, and Donne.
Epithe´lium, in anatomy, the cellular layer which lines the internal cavities and canals of the body, both closed and open, as the mouth, nose, respiratory organs, blood-vessels, &c., and which is analogous to the cuticle of the outer surface. There are several varieties of epithelium. The epithelium lining the blood-vessels is called sometimesendothelium.
Epizo´a, a term applied to those parasitic animals which live upon the bodies of other animals, as lice, the itch-mite, &c.
Epizoöt´ic, orEpizoötic Disease, a disease that at some particular time and place attacks great numbers of the lower animals just as an epidemic attacks man. Pleuro-pneumonia is often an epizoötic, as is also the rinderpest.
Epoch, orEra, is a fixed point of time, commonly selected on account of some remarkable event by which it has been distinguished, and which is made the beginning or determining point of a particular year from which all other years, whether preceding or ensuing, are computed. The creation and the birth of Christare the most important of the historical epochs. The creation has formed the foundation of various chronologies, the chief of which are: (1) The epoch adopted by Bossuet, Ussher, and other Catholic and Protestant divines, which places the creation in 4004B.C.(2) TheEra of Constantinople(adopted by Russia), which places it in 5508B.C.(3) TheEra of Antioch, used tillA.D.284, placed the creation 5502B.C.(4) TheEra of Alexandria, which made the creation 5492B.C.This is also theAbyssinian Era. (5) TheJewish Era, which places the creation in 3760B.C.The Greeks computed their time by periods of four years, calledOlympiads, from the occurrence every fourth year of the Olympic games. The first Olympiad, being the year in which Corœbus was victor in the Olympic games, was in the year 776B.C.The Romans dated from the supposed era of the foundation of their city (Ab Urbe Condita, A.U.C.), the 21st of April, in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, or 753B.C.(according to some authorities, 752B.C.). TheChristian Era, or mode of computing from the birth of Christ as a starting-point, was first introduced in the sixth century, and was generally adopted by the year 1000. This event is believed to have taken place earlier, perhaps by four years, than the received date. The Julian epoch, based on the coincidence of the solar, lunar, and indictional periods, is fixed at 4713B.C., and is the only epoch established on an astronomical basis. TheMohammedan Era, orHejĭra, commences on 16th July, 622, and the years are computed by lunar months. The Chinese reckon their time by cycles of 60 years. Instead of numbering them as we do, they give a different name to every year in the cycle.
Epping, a village of England, in Essex (giving name to a parliamentary division), 17 miles from London, in the midst of an ancient royal forest which one time covered nearly the whole of Essex. The unenclosed portion (5600 acres) was bought by the Corporation of London in 1882, and secured to the public as a free place of recreation. Pop. 4253.
Epsom, a town in the county of Surrey, England, 15 milesS.W.of London, formerly celebrated for a mineral spring, from the water of which the well-known Epsom salts were manufactured. The principal attraction Epsom can now boast of is the grand race-meeting held on the Downs, the chief races being the Derby and Oaks. Epsom gives name to one of the seven parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. 19,156.
Epsom Salts, sulphate of magnesium (MgSO47H2O), a cathartic salt which appears in capillary fibres or acicular crystals. It is found covering crevices of rocks, in mineral springs, &c.; but is commonly prepared by artificial processes from magnesian limestone by treating it with sulphuric acid, or by dissolving the mineralkieserite(MgSO4H2O) in boiling water, allowing the insoluble matter to settle, and crystallizing out the Epsom salts from the clear solution. It is employed in medicine as a purgative, and in the arts. The name is derived from its having been first procured from the mineral waters at Epsom.
Epworth, a small town of N. Lincolnshire, 9 miles N. of Gainsborough, the birth-place of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. Pop. 1836.
Equation, in algebra, a statement that two expressions have the same numerical value. An equation may be either identical or conditional. An example of anidentical equation, oridentity, is (x+y)(x-y) =x2-y2. The left side here can be transformed into the right side, simply by applying the laws of algebra so as to carry out the operations indicated, without taking account in any way of the numerical values ofxandy. An identical equation is, therefore, true for all values of the variables which appear in it. Aconditionalequation is not true unless certain special values are assigned to the variables. Thus the equation 4x+ 7 = 15 is not true for any value ofxexcept 2. This value 2 is called aroot, orsolution, of the equation. An equation may have more than one root, e.g.x2+ 6x= 7 has two roots, 1 and -7; and 2x3+ 3x2= 2x+ 3 has three roots, 1, -1,3/2.
Rational Integral Equations(one Variable).—The three equations just given are special cases of the class of rational integral algebraic equations. The general form of these isaxn+bxn-1+ ... +kx+l= 0, wherenis a positive integer, anda,b, ...k,lare given numbers. This equation is said to be of degreen. The branch of mathematics called the Theory of Equations is conventionally restricted to equations of this type. The fundamental result in this subject is that every rational integral equation has a root, a theorem which it is by no means easy to prove. It follows without difficulty that an equation of degreenhas exactlynroots, real or imaginary. Two or more of the roots, however, may be equal to each other. Tosolvean equation is to find its roots. The general equation of degreencan always be solved to any degree of approximation desired, when the numerical values of the coefficientsa,b, ... are assigned. Graphical methods of solution are often the best (seeGraph). When the coefficientsa,b, ... are arbitrary, the general equation can be solved algebraically ifndoes not exceed 4, but not for greater values ofn. It is not that the algebraical solution, or algebraic formula for the roots, whennis greater than 4, has not been discovered; it does not exist. This was proved more thana hundred years ago by Abel and Galois, two mathematicians of the highest distinction, who both died before they were thirty. Forn= 2, the roots of thequadraticequationax2+bx+c= 0 are (-b± √(b2- 4ac))/2a. Forn= 3, thecubicequationax3+bx2+cx+d= 0 is reduced to the formz3+pz+q= 0 by puttingx=z-b/3a; the solution ofz3+pz+q= 0 can be verified to bez=u-p/3u, whereuis any one of the three cube roots of the quantity ½q+ √(¼q2+1/27p3). Forn= 4, thebiquadraticequation is solved with the help of the solution of the cubic. The cubic was first solved by the Italian mathematician Tartaglia, who communicated the solution to Cardan, after binding him to keep it a secret. Cardan, however, gave the solution in hisAlgebra, published at Nürnberg in 1545.
Equations with more than one Variable.—A solution of an equation which contains more than one variable is a set of values of the variables making the equation true. Thus the equationx2-y2= 9 has solutions (x= 5,y= 4), (x= 3,y= 0), (x= 5,y= -4), and an unlimited number of others. When several variables occur, there are usually also severalsimultaneousequations connecting them; a solution of these is a set of values of the variables makingallthe equations true. When the number of equations is equal to the number of variables, there is in general a limited number of solutions of the system. Thus, e.g. the system of equationsx2-y2= 9, 2x-y= 6 has two solutions (x= 3,y= 0) and (x= 5,y= 4), and no others. A useful rule is that the number of solutions of a system of this type is equal to the product of the degrees of the equations. Exceptions may arise when two solutions coalesce, or when infinite values of the variables occur.
Equations are of great importance in applied mathematics. The data of a problem generally lead to an equation, or a set of equations, among the quantities concerned. In practice a certain number of these quantities are known in any given case; the unknown quantities are then found by the solution of an equation or equations. Non-algebraic equations occur frequently—equations involving trigonometrical functions, for example. For a modern practical method of solving equations of many types, seeNomography.—Bibliography: A. E. Layng,Elementary Algebra; C. Smith,Algebra. More advanced works are: G. Chrystal,Algebra; W. S. Burnside and A. W. Panton,Theory of Equations.
Equation, Personal, the accustomed error, almost a constant quantity in the case of a practised observer, in timing a celestial phenomenon.
Equation of Payments, an arithmetical rule for the purpose of ascertaining at what time it is equitable that a person should make payment of a whole debt which is due in different parts, payable at different times.
Equation of the Centre, the difference between the actual heliocentric longitude of a planet revolving in an elliptic orbit and that which it would have at the same instant if it revolved in a circular orbit. It is zero at perihelion and aphelion.
Equation of Time, the difference between mean and apparent time, or the difference of time as given by a clock and as given by a sun-dial, arising chiefly from the varying velocity of the earth in its orbit and the eccentricity of the orbit. The sun and the clock agree four times in the year; the greatest difference between them at the beginning of November is fully sixteen minutes. SeeDay.
Equa´tor, that great circle of our globe every point of which is 90° from the poles. All places which are on it have invariably equal days and nights. Our earth is divided by it into the northern and southern hemispheres. From this circle is reckoned the latitude of places both north and south. There is also a corresponding celestial equator in the plane of the terrestrial, an imaginary great circle in the heavens the plane of which is perpendicular to the axis of the earth. It is everywhere 90° distant from the celestial poles, which coincide with the extremities of the earth's axis, supposed to be produced to meet the heavens. During his apparent yearly course the sun is twice in the celestial, that is, vertically over the terrestrial equator, on 21st March and 23rd September. Then the day and night are equal all over the earth, whence the nameequinox.—Themagnetic equatoris a line at every point of which the vertical component of the earth's magnetic force is zero; that is to say, a dipping needle carried along the magnetic equator remains horizontal. It is hence also called theaclinic line. It has a slightly devious course, but upon the whole keeps fairly near the geographical equator.
Equato´rial, an astronomical instrument contrived for the purpose of directing a telescope upon any celestial object, and of keeping the object in view for any length of time, notwithstanding the diurnal motion of the earth. For these purposes a principal axis resting on firm supports is mounted exactly parallel to the axis of the earth's rotation, and consequently pointing to the poles of the heavens, being fixed so as to turn on pivots at its extremities. To this there is attached a telescope moving on an axis of its own in such a way that it may either be exactlyparallel to the other axis, or at any angle to it; when at right angles it points to the celestial equator. The two axes carry graduated circles, with the help of which, even during the day, the telescope can be pointed to any star whose declination and right ascension are known. By means of clockwork the instrument is given such a motion round its principal axis that the star is kept stationary in the field of view.
Eq´uerry, in Britain, the name of certain officers of the royal household, in the department of the Master of the Horse, whose duties consist in attendance when the sovereign rides abroad. Equerries also form part of the establishments of the members of the royal family.
Equestrian Order, the order of 'Knights' in ancient Rome. Theequitesor knights originally formed the cavalry of the army. They are said by Livy to have been instituted by Romulus, who selected 300 of them from the three principal tribes. About the time of the Gracchi (123B.C.) the equites became a distinct order in the state, and the judges and the farmers of the revenue were selected from their ranks. They held their position in virtue of a certain property qualification, and towards the end of the Republic they possessed much influence in the state. They had particular seats assigned to them in the circus and theatre, and the insignia of their rank, in addition to a horse, were a gold ring and a robe with a narrow purple border (theclavus angustus). Under the later emperors the order grew less influential, and finally disappeared.
Eq´uidæ, the horse family, a division of the odd-toed (perissodactyle) Ungulates or hoofed mammals. There is but one existing genus, Equus, distinguished by the possession of a mane; hard pads (callosities) on the inner side of each fore-limb (and sometimes of the hind-limb); a single functional digit (the third or middle one) terminating in a large curved hoof; a simple stomach; 44 teeth, including 12 incisors with pitted crowns, 4 canines (tushes) reduced in the female, and 28 grinding teeth with broad crowns, except the first (wolf tooth), which is rudimentary. The forms included are horses, asses, and zebras; the first being distinguished from the others by the presence of callosities ('chestnuts') on the hind-limbs as well as the fore. The domesticated horse (E. caballus) has a large flat tail abundantly hair-clad, and is not known with certainty in the wild state, though possibly the tarpan of South Russia (Tartary) may represent the original stock. Another candidate for this honour is the small wild species (E. przewalskii) native to the deserts of Central Asia. The domestic ass (E. asinus) is related to a number of wild species, such as the onager (E. onager) of South Asia, the kiang (E. hemionus) of Tibet, and two African species (E. africanusandE. somalicus). The striped zebras are purely African, and four species are generally recognized—the common or mountain zebra (E. zebra), Burchell's zebra (E. burchelli), Grevy's zebra (E. grevyi), and the quagga (E. quagga). The geological record enables us to derive horses from a small plantigrade five-toed form (Phenacodus), by gradual increase in size, complication of teeth, loss of digits, and elongation of limbs, to the unguligrade condition.
Equilib´rium, in statics, the condition when a body is acted on by two or more forces which balance one another. The body may be either at rest or moving with uniform speed in a straight line. In the first case, when the body, being slightly moved out of any position, always tends to return to its position, that position is said to be one ofstable equilibrium; when the body, after a slight displacement, tends to move away from its previous position, the body is inunstable equilibrium. If, after displacement, the body tends to remain at rest, its state is one ofneutral equilibrium.
Equinoc´tial, in astronomy, the circle in the heavens otherwise known as the celestial equator. When the sun is on the equator, there is equal length of day and night over all the earth: hence the nameequinoctial.—Equinoctial gales, storms which have been supposed to take place about the time of the sun's crossing the equator, that is, at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, in March and September.—Equinoctial pointsare the two points wherein the celestial equator and ecliptic intersect each other; the one, the first point of Aries, is called thevernalpoint; and the other, in Libra, theautumnalpoint. These points move backward or westward at the rate of 50" of arc in a year. This is called the precession of the equinoxes.
Eq´uinox, one of the equinoctial points. The term is also applied to the dates at which the sun passes through them, viz. 21st March and 23rd September, when day and night are of equal length all over the world. SeeDay;Earth;Equinoctial;Seasons.
Equisetales, a group of Pteridophytes, represented at the present day only by the genus Equisetum (q.v.). It was much more prominent in the Carboniferous flora, in which large woody horse-tails (Calamites) played an important part.
Equise´tum, a genus of vascular cryptogamous plants with hollow jointed stems, type of the group Equisetales, growing in wet places, and popularly calledhorse-tails.
Eq´uity(Lat.aequus, fair, equal), in English law, the system of supplemental law administered in certain courts, founded upon defined rules, recorded precedents, and established principles, the judges, however, liberally expoundingand developing them to meet new exigencies. While it aims at assisting the defects of the common law, by extending relief to those rights of property which the strict law does not recognize, and by giving more ample and distributive redress than the ordinary tribunals afford, equity by no means either controls, mitigates, or supersedes the common law, but rather guides itself by its analogies, and does not assume any power to subvert its doctrines. The Court of Chancery was formerly in England the especial court of equity, but large powers were by the Judicature Act of 1873 given to all the divisions of the Supreme Court to administer equity, although many matters of equitable jurisdiction are still left to the chancery division in the first instance.—Bibliography: F. T. White and O. O. Tudor,Leading Cases in Equity; C. Thwaites,Student's Guide to Equity.
Equity of Redemption, in law, the advantage allowed to a mortgager of a reasonable time to redeem an estate mortgaged, when it is of greater value than the sum for which it is mortgaged.
Equiv´alent, in chemistry, the number of parts by weight of an element which will combine with or displace 8 parts by weight of oxygen or 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen.
Eranthis.SeeWinter Aconite.
Érard, Sébastien, a celebrated musical-instrument maker, born at Strasbourg in 1752, died 1831. He went to Paris at the age of eighteen, and in concert with his brother, Jean Baptiste, produced pianofortes superior to any that had previously been made in France. He afterwards established a manufactory in London, and made considerable improvements in the mechanism of the harp.
Erasis´tratus, an ancient Greek physician and anatomist, said to have been a grandson of Aristotle. He lived in the third century before the Christian era, and was court physician of Seleucus Nicator, King of Syria. He was the first who systematically dissected the human body, and his description of the brain and nerves is much more exact than any given by his predecessors. He classified the nerves into nerves of sensation and of locomotion, and, it is said, almost stumbled upon the discovery of the circulation of the blood. Of his works only the titles and some fragments remain.
Eras´mus, Desiderius, a Dutch scholar, one of the greatest of the Renaissance and Reformation period, born at Rotterdam in 1467, died in 1536. His original name was Gerard, but this he changed according to a fashion of the time. After the death of his parents, whom he lost in his fourteenth year, his guardians compelled him to enter a monastery; and at the age of seventeen he assumed the monastic habit. The Bishop of Cambrai delivered him from this constraint. In 1492 he travelled to Paris to perfect himself in theology and literature. He became the instructor of several rich Englishmen (from one of whom—Lord Mountjoy—he received a pension for life), and accompanied them to England in 1497, where he was graciously received by the king. Returning soon after to the Continent, he took his doctor's degree, was relieved from his monastic vows by dispensation from the Pope, and published several of his works. In 1510 he returned to England, wrote hisPraise of Follywhile residing with Sir Thomas More, and was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity and Greek lecturer at Cambridge. In 1514 he returned to the Continent and lived chiefly at Basel, where he died. To extensive learning Erasmus joined a refined taste and a delicate wit, and rendered great and lasting service to the cause of reviving scholarship. Although Erasmus took no direct part in the Reformation, and was reproached by Luther for lukewarmness, he attacked the disorders of monasticism and superstition, and everywhere promoted the cause of truth. A humanist rather than a reformer or a theologian, he waged war upon ignorance and superstition. He edited various classics, the first edition of the Greek Testament from MSS. (with Latin translation), &c., but his best-known books are theEncomium Moriæ(Praise of Folly) and hisColloquies. His letters are very valuable in reference to the history of that period.—Bibliography: S. Knight,Life of Erasmus; C. Butler,Life of Erasmus; E. F. H. Capey,Life of Erasmus; P. S. Allen,The Age of Erasmus.
Eras´tus(Gr.erastos, lovely, translation of Ger.Lieber), the learned name of Thomas Lieber, a Swiss physician, who maintained the opinions from which the well-known epithet ofErastian, as now used, is derived. He was born at Baden in 1523, and died at Basel 1584. He was successively professor of medicine at Heidelberg, and of ethics at Basel. In his writings he maintained the complete subordination of the ecclesiastical to the secular power; and denied to the Church the right to exclude any one from Church ordinances, or to inflict excommunication.
Er´ato, in Greek mythology, one of the nine Muses, whose name signifies loving or lovely. She presided over lyric and especially amatory poetry, and is generally represented crowned with roses and myrtle, and with the lyre in the left hand and the plectrum in the right in the act of playing.
Eratos´thenes, an ancient Greek astronomer, born at Cyrene, in Africa, 276B.C., died about 194B.C.He was librarian at Alexandria, and gained his greatest renown by his investigations of the size of the earth. He rendered much service to the science of astronomy, and firstobserved the obliquity of the ecliptic. Of the writings attributed to him one only remains complete—Katasterismoi—which treats of the constellations.
Er´bium, a rare metal found along with yttrium, terbium, and other rare elements in some rare minerals. Its properties are but little known. It was discovered by Mosander in 1843.
Ercilla y Zuñiga(er-thil´ya˙ē thö-nyē´ga˙), Don Alonso de, Spanish soldier and poet, born 1533, died 1595. He became page to the Infant Don Philip, accompanied him on his travels, and in 1554 went with him to England, on the occasion of his marriage with Queen Mary. After this he fought against the Araucanians of South America (Chile), and his epicLa Araucanais based on the events of this war. It is written in excellent Spanish, and occupies an honourable position in the national literature. The first fifteen cantos were published in 1569, and the continuations, thirty-seven cantos, appeared in 1578 and 1589.
Erckmann-Chatrian(sha˙t-ri-än˙), the joint name of two French-Alsatian writers of fiction. Émile Erckmann, born at Pfalzburg 1822, studied law at Paris, and died in 1899. Alexandre Chatrian, born near Pfalzburg in 1826, died in 1890, was for some time teacher in the Pfalzburg College. They formed a literary partnership in 1847, but it was not till the appearance ofL'Illustre Docteur Mathéusin 1859 that success attended them. Among their most popular books are:L'Ami Fritz,Madame Thérèse,Histoire d'un Conscrit de 1813,L'Histoire d'un Paysan, andWaterloo, most of which have been translated into English. Their dramaLe Juif Polonaiswas made famous by Sir Henry Irving under the name ofThe Bells.
Erdmann, Johann Eduard, German philosopher, born 1805, died 1892. He studied theology at Dorpat and Berlin; in 1829 became a clergyman, but in 1832 returned to Berlin and took his degree in philosophy. In 1836 he became professor extraordinary of philosophy at Halle, being appointed ordinary professor in 1839. He wrote numerous philosophical works, mostly characterized by Hegelian tendencies, including:Body and Soul,Nature and Creation,Outlines of Psychology,Outlines of Logic and Metaphysics,Psychological Letters, andBelief and Knowledge. His greatest work is hisOutlines of the History of Philosophy, which has been translated into English (3 vols., 1889).
Er´ebus, in Greek mythology, the son of Chaos and Darkness, and father of Æther and Hemera (day). The name Erebus was also given to the infernal regions.
Er´ebus, Mount, a volcano of the antarctic regions in S. Victoria Land; height, 12,400 feet; discovered by Ross, 1841.
Erechtheus(e-rek´thūs), in Greek mythology, a mythical king of Athens to whom a fine temple, theErechthēum, was built on the Acropolis. In some representations of him he is depicted as half snake, so that he was one of the autochthones, the earth-born ancestors of the Athenians.
Erection, Lords of, in Scots history, those private owners into whose hands the ecclesiastical estates belonging to the clergy had passed during the religious changes of the Reformation period.
Er´furt(Lat.Erfordia, ford of Erpe, its legendary founder), an important town in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the River Gera, formerly a fortress with two citadels, now given up as such. It has a fine cathedral dating from the thirteenth century and several handsome Gothic churches. The university, founded in 1378 and suppressed in 1816, was long an important institution. There is still an academy of science and a library with 60,000 volumes. The monastery (now an orphanage) was the residence of Luther from 1501 to 1508. Erfurt is a busy industrial town and is in a very flourishing condition. The industries are varied, including clothing, machinery, leather, shoes, ironmongery, and chemicals. Flower-growing is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood, plants and seed being produced for sale in great quantities. Pop. 123,550.
ErgotErgot of Rye1, Spanish ergot. 2, Russian ergot.
1, Spanish ergot. 2, Russian ergot.
Er´got, the altered grain of rye and othergrasses caused by the attack of an ascomycetous fungus calledClaviceps purpurea. The grain is replaced by a dense fungoid tissue (sclerotium) largely charged with an oily fluid. In its perfect state this germinates and produces the Claviceps fructification. When diseased rye of this kind is eaten in food for some time, it sometimes causes death by a kind of mortification called dry gangrene. Ergot is used in obstetric practice to promote the contraction of the uterus.
Erica(e-rī´ka), the heaths, a large genus of branched rigid shrubs, type of the nat. ord. Ericaceæ, most of which are natives of South Africa, a few being found in Europe and Asia. The leaves are narrow and rigid; the flowers are globose or tubular, and four-lobed. Five species are found in Britain.
Ericaceæ, a nat. ord. of gamopetalous Dicotyledons. Representative genera: Calluna, Erica, Rhododendron.
Erichsen(er´ik-sen), Sir John Eric, surgeon, born 1818, died in 1890. He was the son of a Copenhagen merchant, but spent nearly all his life in England. He studied at University College, London, became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1839, a fellow in 1845, and in 1850 professor of surgery and hospital surgeon at University College. In 1865 he succeeded Quain as professor of clinical surgery in the same college, but retired in 1875. Appointed president of University College in 1887, he also held that post till his death. He was chief surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and in 1895 was made a baronet. His most important work was hisScience and Art of Surgery(1853), which has gone through many editions, and has been translated into several languages. He also published a volume onConcussion of the Spine(1875).
Er´icsson, John, engineer, born in Sweden 1803, died in 1889. He served for a time in the Swedish army; removed to London in 1826, and to New York in 1839. He is identified with numerous inventions and improvements in steam machinery and its applications. His chief inventions are his caloric engine, the screw propeller (1836), which has revolutionized navigation, and his turret-ships, the first of which, theMonitor, distinguished itself in the American Civil War, and inaugurated a new era in naval warfare. He afterwards devoted himself to studies of the earth's motion and the intensity of solar heat.
Eridanus, the River Eridanus (modern Po), one of the constellations of the ancient astronomy, in which Ptolemy catalogued thirty-four stars. Appropriately to its name, it covers a large expanse of the heavens, its northern portion, just to south-west of Orion, reaching the celestial equator. The part visible in our latitudes does not contain bright stars, but at the southern extremity is the first-magnitude Achernar, a conspicuous object to southern observers.
Erie(ē´ri), one of the great chain of North American lakes, between Lakes Huron and Ontario, about 265 miles long, 63½ miles broad at its centre, from 40 to 60 fathoms deep at the deepest part; area, 6900 sq. miles. The whole of its southern shore is within the territory of the United States, and its northern within that of Canada. It receives the waters of the upper lakes by Detroit River at its south-western extremity, and discharges its waters into Lake Ontario by the Niagara River at its north-east end. The Welland Canal enables vessels to pass from it to Lake Ontario. It is shallow compared with the other lakes of the series, and is subject to violent storms. The principal harbours are those on the United States side—Buffalo, Erie, and Cleveland.
Erie, a city, Pennsylvania, United States, an important railway and commercial centre on the southern shore of Lake Erie. There are numerous ironworks (including foundries, rolling-mills, and blast-furnaces), petroleum refineries, breweries, tanneries, and wood-working factories. The harbour is one of the best on the lake. Pop. 76,600.
Erie Canal, the largest in the United States, serving to connect the great lakes with the sea. It begins at Buffalo on Lake Erie, and extends to the Hudson at Albany. It is 363 miles long; has in all 72 locks; a surface width 70 feet, bottom width 42 feet, and depth 7 feet. It is carried over several large streams on stone aqueducts; cost nearly £2,000,000, and was opened in 1825. The navigation is free.
Erigena(e-rij´e-na), Joannes Scotus (Scotus, Scot, andErigena, Irish-born), an eminent mediæval scholar and metaphysician, probably born of Scotch parentage in Ireland about 800-810, died in France about 875. He spent a great part of his life at the court of Charles the Bald of France, and was placed at the head of the school of the palace. The king further imposed upon him the double task of translating into Latin the Greek works of the pseudo Dionysius the Areopagite, and of composing a treatise against Godeschale onPredestination and Free-will. This treatise, and another,De Divisione Naturæ, contained many views in opposition to the teachings of the Church. They were condemned by the Councils of Valencia in 855 and of Langres in 859, and Pope Nicholas I demanded the immediate disgrace of the culprit. His subsequent history is not known.—Cf. Gardner,Studies in John the Scot.
Erin´na, a Greek poetess who lived about 600B.C.She is said to have been an intimate friend of Sappho, and died at the age of eighteen.She acquired a high reputation for poetry, and her chief work was calledElakatē(The Distaff), of which nothing has come down to us. An epitaph or two which are still extant, and believed by some to be hers, are by others deemed spurious.
Erioden´dron, the wool tree, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Malvaceæ (mallows). There are eight species natives of America, but one belongs to Asia and Africa. The species are noble plants, growing from 50 to 100 feet high, having palmate leaves, and red or white flowers. The woolly coat of the seeds of some of the species is used in different countries for stuffing cushions and similar purposes.
Eris, in Greek mythology, the goddess of discord, the sister of Ares, and, according to Hesiod, daughter of Nyx (night). Not being invited to the marriage of Peleus, she revenged herself by means of theapple of discord.
Er´ith, a town of England, in Kent, on the Thames, about 14 miles east of London, a pleasant summer resort. Pop. 27,755.
Eritre´a, orErythræ´a(from Gr.erythros, red, referring to the Red Sea), the official name of an Italian colonial possession stretching along the African shore of the Red Sea, and between it and Abyssinia, from the Egyptian coast territory to the French territory of Obok, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The coast-line is about 670 miles in length, the area of the colony about 45,800 sq. miles. Pop., largely nomadic, about 450,000. The chief town is Massowah.
Er´ivan, a fortified city in Armenia, formerly the capital of a Russian government of the same name in Transcaucasia, on the Sanga, north of Mount Ararat. It has a citadel, barracks, a cannon foundry, and some manufactures. The Armenian Republic of Erivan was constituted in May, 1918. Pop. 34,000. The former Russian government of Erivan had an area of 10,725 sq. miles, and a pop. of 970,000.
Erlang´en, a town of Bavaria, 10 milesN.N.W.of Nürnberg. The Protestant university, founded in 1743, is the chief institution. The industries include cotton spinning and weaving, mirrors, hosiery, gloves, and combs. Pop. 24,874.
Erlau, orEger, a town, Hungary, on the Eger, 65 milesE.N.E.of Budapest. It has sundry manufactures; and the red wines of the district, esteemed the best in Hungary, are largely exported. Pop. 28,050.
Erl-king, the English form of the name given in German and Scandinavian poetical mythology to a personified natural power which devises and works mischief, especially to children. Goethe's celebrated poemDer Erlkönig(literally 'elf-king') has rendered this malicious spirit universally known.