Chapter 6

The bud severed from its twig

The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of plant which will not reproduce itself from seed or of which seed is very difficult to obtain. Cions or buds are thereforetaken from this plant and set into whatever kind of plant is obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus, if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for that purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or buds from the tree and grafts them into some other apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained from seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are raised from seeds which are obtained mostly from cider factories, without reference to the variety from which they came. When the seedlings have grown to a certain age, they are budded or grafted; and thereafter they bear fruit like that of the tree from which the cions were taken.

The bud tied

The bud inserted

Whip-graft

There are many ways in which the union between cion and stock is made. Budding may be first discussed. It consists in inserting a bud underneath the bark of the stock, and the commonest practice is that which is shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed in July, August and early September, when the bark is still loose or will peel. Twigs are cut from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark (with possibly a little wood) being left with them (see illustration). The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the stock, and it is held in place by tying with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud will have “stuck” (that is, it will have grown fast to the stock), and the strand is cut to prevent its strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud does not grow until the following spring, at which time the entire stock or branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud; and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Budding is the commonest Grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be sown in spring, and the plants which result will be ready for budding that same August. The following spring, ora year from the planting of the seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which is inserted near the ground), and in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale; that is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons old, but in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old tree. In apples and pears the stock is usually two years old before it is budded, and the tree is not sold until the top has grown two or three years. Budding may be performed also in the spring, in which case the bud will grow the same season. Budding is always done in young branches, preferably in those not more than one year old.

Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually bearing more than one bud. If Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the margin. Both stock and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made in each, so that one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. In larger limbs or stocks, the common method is to employ the cleft-graft. This consists in cutting off the stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion in one or both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are then securely covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed early in the spring, just before the buds swell. The cions should have been cut before this time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored in sand in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be buried in the field. The object is to keep them fresh and dormant until they are wanted.

Cleft-graft

Cleft-grafting a Cactus

If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, apple or pear tree to some other variety, it is usually done by means of the cleft-graft. If the tree is very young, buddingor whip-grafting may be employed. On an old top the cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. All the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to keep down the suckers or water-sprouts from around the grafts, and part of the remaining top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely changed over (which will result in two to four years).

A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as follows: Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. In making the wax, the materials are first broken up and melted together. When thoroughly melted the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and worked over until it becomes tough or “gets a grain,” at which stage it becomes the color of very light-colored manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand, the hands must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is well to carry a supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing the backs of the hands before entering the tree.

Grape.One of the surest of fruit crops is the Grape, a crop each year being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of setting the vines. The Grape does well on any soil that is under good cultivation and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should be to the sun; and the place should admit of cultivation on all sides. One- or 2-year-old vines should be planted, either in the fall or early spring. At planting the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots are well shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set should be large enough to allow a full spreading of the roots. Fine soil should be worked around the roots and firmed with the feet. If the season should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be spread around the vine. If all the buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow.

The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed to grow through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be allowed to lie on the ground. The second year one cane should be cut back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins in the spring, two of the strongest buds should be allowed to remain. These two canes now arising may be grown to a single stake through the second summer, or they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These are the canes which form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From them start the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear the fruits.

Grape

In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator must fully grasp this principle:Fruit is borne on wood of the present season, which arises from wood of the previous season.To illustrate: A growing shoot, or cane of 1899, makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each bud; and near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4 clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may produce shoots or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these new canes will bear fruit. The skilled Grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes it in winter) which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds. A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man’s little finger is the ideal size.

Another principle to be mastered is this:A vine should bear only a limited number of clusters,—say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long, leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left at the pruning (which is done from December to late February).

The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, is each year to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to cut off entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season’s growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane back to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left,—all radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the vine does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered the trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In order to obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or two from near the head of the vine, and the 2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut away.

The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen different systems of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the same style of pruning,—for training is only the disposition or arrangement of the parts.

On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each root over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut back to short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides of this trunk.

Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are 8 to 10 feet apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the best support. Slat trellises catch too much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating manures. In very cold climates, the vines may be taken off the trellis in early winter and laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along the boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, little is to be expected in the way of fruit because the ground is not well tilled. For mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux mixture.SeeSpraying.

Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality is not the best. For the home garden, a good selection maybe made from the following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, Campbell Early, Worden, Concord, Niagara, Moore Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona, Brighton, Delaware.

Grapery.The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern America. Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat. Fruit for home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery (without artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is desired, an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There is no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 feet deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well drained soils, but it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches of the border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the house is prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice in the wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all may go outside if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong cane is trained to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, and is cut back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as recommended for arbors onpage 120. The vines are usually laid on the ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with cloth.

As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two joints beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, thefoliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except during the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should be thinned from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. Water the inside border frequently all through the summer, and the outside occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. The best preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and sprinkle sulfur on the ground.

Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially heated) Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse it must be picked before frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom and withhold water, so as to thoroughly ripen the wood. Along in November the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other varieties for a cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria and Chasselas Musque may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines will live and bear almost indefinitely.—S. W. Fletcher.

Grassesof various kinds are grown for ornament, the most popular types being the hardy perennials, which make attractive clumps in the lawn or border. The best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established they remain for years, making large and bold clumps. The striped kind, or zebra grass, is particularly good. These grasses thrive in any good soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet high. The great reed, orArundo Donax, is a bold subject and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather moist soil, it grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. Some of the big native grasses and sedges make attractive lawn clumps.

Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. For this purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are mostly used. Good types are species of agrostis, briza,bromus, eragrostis, and pennisetum. Seeds of these and of others are sold by seedsmen. With ordinary treatment, they thrive in any garden soil.

For notes on sod-making,seeLawn.

Greenhouse.In America the word Greenhouse has come to be applied to all kinds of glass-houses in which plants are grown. Originally the word was applied to those houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept green during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the conservatory, in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, in which plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating pit, in which the multiplication of plants is carried forward; and the houses which have various temperatures, as cold, cool and intermediate. The principles which underlie the construction and management of glass-houses are too extensive to be discussed here. The reader should refer to special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft’s “Greenhouse Construction” and “Greenhouse Management” are excellent. For particular applications to floriculture, Hunt’s “How to Grow Cut-flowers” is a standard work. For applications to the forcing of vegetable crops, Bailey’s “Forcing-Book” may perhaps be consulted.

The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to manage, because it is likely to be more variable in temperature, moisture and other conditions. This is particularly true if the house is a small lean-to against the south side of a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at midday and comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat in these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground glass for the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory may be heated by a coal stove, but the best results are rarely to be attained in this case. A stove is likely to leak gas, and the temperature is more or less uneven. The best results are to be attained when the conservatory is heated by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with wrought iron pipes, which go together with threads. If theconservatory is heated from the heater which supplies the dwelling house, it should have an extra amount of pipe; otherwise it will be necessary to keep the dwelling house too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory at its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, to heat the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There are various small hot water and steam heaters, the size of coal stoves, which are excellent for the purpose. For a small conservatory, hot water is usually preferable to steam, since it is less likely to fluctuate. For large establishments, however, the steam is usually the better. For further discussions of related subjects, seeHotbed,Window Garden,PottingandWatering.

Grevillea.A very graceful greenhouse plant, suitable for house culture. The plants grow freely from seed, and until they become too large are as decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They withstand much abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in spring will give handsome plants by the next winter.

Gypsophila.Baby’s Breath.Gypsophila muralisis one of the dainty little plants called Baby’s Breath. It is a low-growing annual forming compact mounds of green, thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is one of the most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a charming pot-plant.G. paniculatais a hardy perennial having panicles of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and the flowers are fine for cutting and for use with sweet pea bouquets or with other choice flowers. The panicles are so lasting that they may be used in winter bouquets. The annuals may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3 feet. Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year.

Hardy.A relative term, used to denote a plant which endures the climate (particularly the winterclimate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants are those which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but will not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants are those which are injured by light frosts.

Hedges.Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live Hedges. However, they are used with good effects about the home grounds. In order to secure a good Hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly well-prepared, deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at least twice every year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant in general is the arborvitæ. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to 2½ feet apart. For choice Hedges about the grounds, particularly outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful. One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet apart. Other plants which hold their leaves and are good for Hedges are the common box and the privets. Box Hedges are the best for very low borders about walks and flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of 6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better along the seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better thanCitrus trifoliata.

For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratægus, osage orange, and various kinds of roses.

Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they should not be trimmed very closely until they reach the desired or permanent height. Thereafter they should be sheared into the desired form in spring or fall. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed—that is, the plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are wired together in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just above the surface of the ground.

Helianthus.SeeSunflower.

Helichrysum.These are perhaps the most popular of the Everlastings (which see), having large flowers of several colors. They grow readily from seed, blooming from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet. Should be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart.

Heliotrope.A universal favorite house or border plant, growing readily from cuttings or seeds, and producing quantities of fragrant violet, purple or white flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to set a strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the ground, where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering profusely during the fall months until frost. They will endure the temperature of a living room well if the room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural enemy of the Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water will keep it in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance of heat are their requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated by cuttings or layers.

Hellebore(White Hellebore) is often used for the killing of currant-worms and other insects (seeCurrant). It is not so poisonous as the arsenites, and therefore is to be preferred when it is necessary to apply a poison to nearlyripe fruit. It is usually applied in a spray with water, at the rate of ⅓ ounce to the gallon. It is harmless to foliage.

Helleborus, orChristmas Rose, may be had in flower at the holidays if grown in a frame and protected. The usual time for it to flower in the open border is in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for many years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as an increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; and seedlings may be expected to bloom a year from the spring in which they are sown. Height 6 to 10 inches.

Hemerocallis, orYellow Day Lily.The advice given under Funkia will apply to this.

Herbsare plants which die to the ground in winter. They may be annual, biennial, or perennial. For a list of annual Herbs suitable for the flower garden, see the articles onAnnualsandBedding. A border or free mass of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part of the mass should be composed of common and hardy things—wild or from gardens—and incidental features may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In most cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when planted one kind in a bed.SeeBorder.

Hibiscus.Annuals and perennials, some of them shrubs, with showy, hollyhock-like flowers. The annual Hibiscuses are very satisfactory. They grow quickly and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or yellow, of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous perennial kinds are amongst the best of hardy border plants, blooming in late summer and fall. The commonest of these isHibiscus Moscheutos. Give rich, moist soil.

The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be used in outdoor bedding through the summer, lifted in the fall and cut back. Keep rather dry and dormant during winter. Propagated by cuttings.

Hippeastrum.ConsultAmaryllis.

Common hoe

Scarifier

Hoesshould be of several patterns if the most efficient work is to be done in the garden. The ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and coarser Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For much of the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade and pointed Hoes are excellent. For cutting off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is excellent.

Hollyhocks

Hollyhock.These old garden favorites have been neglected of late years, primarily because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, destroying the plants or making the unsightly. The double varieties seem to suffer the most; and for that reason, and from the fact that the less formal type is in favor, the single varieties are now the most generally grown. Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They will bloom the same year in which they are transplanted—the year following the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, as the old crowns are apt to rot or die after the first flowering. For rust, spray early with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper.

Hop, Ornamental.Humulus Japonicus, or the annualHop, is one of the best rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It makes a dense canopy of attractive foliage. The leaves are finely cut, and in one variety variegated with white. This variegated variety is a fine vine for a porch or front screen, always attracting attention to its markings. This Hop is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. When once established, it will seed itself and start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet.

Horseradish.As a kitchen garden vegetable, this is usually planted in some out-of-the-way spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed, the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further use. This method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, very unlike the product of a properly planted and well cared for bed. The best roots are those planted in the spring at the time of setting early cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the weather will permit. It becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are small pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming the roots dug in the fall. These pieces may be packed in sand and stored until wanted the following spring. In planting, the roots should be set with the upper end 3 inches below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or sharp-pointed stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted between rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, and given full possession of the ground when these crops are harvested. Where the ground is inclined to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the roots may be set in a slanting position. In fact, many gardeners practice this method of planting, thinking that the roots make a better growth and are more uniform in size.

Hotbed.A Hotbed is a frame or box which has artificial heat and a transparent covering and in which plants are grown. It differs from a coldframe (which see) in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat. This bottom heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter, chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed in pipes, may be employed. It is covered with sash of which the normal or standard size is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the box or frame. The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet long. A “frame,” therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, the frame may be of any length desired. This frame is ordinarily made of boards, and the back of it is 3 or 4inches higher than the front, so that the sashes slope to the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10 inches between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. The manure which is used to heat the bed may be placed on top of the ground and the frame set on the pile, or it may be placed in a pit. If the land is warm and well drained, it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1 to 2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This is especially the case if it is desired to have a permanent Hotbed yard. The place in which the frames are set should be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by a rising slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other obstruction. If the frame yard is near the main buildings, it will be much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, and the plants are likely to have better care. Water should also be handy.

Section of a Hotbed

The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the kinds of plants to be grown, the amount of time which one wishes to gain, and something, also, on the quality of the manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can be started. In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are sown seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the Hotbed, it is very essential that they do not become “drawn” or “leggy.” In order to prevent this, they must be given plenty of room, thorough ventilation on all pleasant days, and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them once or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle of March. When they are transplanted, they can be set in another Hotbed or in a coldframe; but it is important that the succeeding frames in which they are set should not be very much colder than the one in which they grew, else they may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplantthem into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order to harden them off, so that they may go into the open ground without danger. On every pleasant day, raise the sash at the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the sun shines brightly and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and eventually strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that the plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is usually advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy plants in different frames from tomatoes and other tender things, in order that the proper requirements may be given to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early in the season) will need more protection than the glass sash. It was formerly the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, but it is now a common practice to use the straw matting which can be bought of carpet dealers. This is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two thicknesses; and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the size of the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat begins to fail give more and more air, so that the plants may be able to shift for themselves when the bottom heat is finally exhausted.

Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly used for the heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from livery stables, so that it is all of nearly or quite the same age, better results may be expected. Manure from highly fed horses usually heats better than that from horses which receive little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as it shows signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the entire mass and to cause it to heat evenly. When it is steaming throughout the whole mass, it may be put in the bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it, it is well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep the manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in and tramped down, in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the manure is of the right consistency, it will pack without becomingdense and soggy; that is, it will spring a little beneath the feet. If it has too much litter, it will fluff up under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30 inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of dry straw or light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor of the heat to the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches of rich, light earth is placed upon this, in which to sow the seed. The manure will ordinarily heat violently for a few days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as the temperature begins to fall below 90° the seeds of tomatoes and egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below 80°, the seeds of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may be sown. If the frame is not placed over a pit and the manure is put on top of the ground, it will be necessary to allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all directions in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing.

In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to gain as much time in the crop as he gains in the starting of the seeds: that is, if he starts the seeds two months ahead of the normal season, he will not gain two months in the ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to gain much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants are transplanted to the field from the Hotbed.

Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, particularly lettuce and radishes. After Hotbeds have been emptied of their plants, the sashes may be stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, used for the growing of an early summer crop of melons or cucumbers.

House Plants.SeeWindow-Garden.

Hyacinth bean

Hyacinth Bean(Dolichos Lablab). A very rapid-growing twiner, bearing fragrant flowers of purple or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant seeds when the ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may be started early in pots. Height 10 feet.

Hyacinthsare most popular winter- or spring-flowering bulbs. Hyacinths are hardy, but they are often used as window or greenhouse plants. They are easy to grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil composed of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower pots are used, put in the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, so that when the bulb is planted the top will be on a level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the bulb with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady side of a building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material (as cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough to freeze a crust on the ground, the pots should have a protection of straw or leaves to keep the bulbs from severe freezing. In from six to eight weeks the bulbs should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have started into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. Watering should be carefully attended to from this time, and when the plant is in bloom the pot may be set in a saucer or other shallow dish containing water. After flowering, the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the border, where they will bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove satisfactory for forcing again. The open ground culture of Hyacinths is the same as for tulips,which see.SeeBulbs.

Water Culture of Hyacinths.—The Hyacinth is the most popular of the Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus may be grown in water, and do just as well, but it is not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth. Glasses for Hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and in various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They arefilled with water, so that it will just reach the base of the bulb when it has been placed in position in the cup above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are preferable to those of clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the glasses, or bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. Results are usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To keep the water sweet, a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the glass. As the water evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs over, and thereby renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the bulb.

Hydrangea.One of the commonest lawn shrubs isHydrangea paniculata. The commonest fault in growing it is scattering the plants over the lawn, where they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in front of taller things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of the season; therefore it should be pruned after bloom—in winter or early spring (seePruning). Cut back heavily, in order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the flowers are borne.

Hyssop.SeeSweet Herbs.

Ice Plant, orMesembryanthemum. Fine little plants for rockwork or edging. The majority of the species are greenhouse and window plants, but a few can be recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny location, with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the plant laid on moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The common Ice Plant of window-gardens is readily grown from seeds or slips. It is prized for its glandular-glistening thick foliage (whence the common name). The little flowers, which open in sunshine, are also interesting.

Impatiens Sultaniis a generally known conservatory plant, making a charming pot subject for warmgreenhouse or a room. It is readily propagated from seed or cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright pink-red. Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about 18 inches.

Insects.For horticultural purposes, Insects might be grouped into three general classes: borers, or those which live inside the plant tissue; chewing Insects which live on the outside of the plant; and the sucking Insects.

Moth of one of the borers

As a general statement, it may be said that the digging out of borers is the only complete remedy. Sometimes an application of something to the body of the tree may keep them out, but it is always uncertain; and it usually involves more work than to dig them out. All trees which are subject to borers (especially apples, peaches and pears) should be examined at least twice every year.SeeBorers.

A beetle borer

The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be killed by the arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common types of worms and beetles which feed on foliage. The leading poison which is now used for this purpose is Paris green (which see). Hellebore and pyrethrum are useful when it is not advisable to use arsenical poisons.

The sucking Insects include all the kinds of plant lice, the squash bug and all the scale Insects. These are dispatched by some material which kills by external application, especially material which has kerosene or petroleum in it. The common material heretofore used for this purpose is kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the emulsion of kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since machines have been perfected for automatically mixing it, it is a much more practicable remedy.SeeKerosene Emulsion.

Weevil—a chewing insect

In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking them in time. If something is known of the life history of the Insect, very much will be gained, for the operator may be on hand as soon as the Insect is expected to appear.

Insects on House Plants.—The most troublesome or common Insects with which the amateur is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale.

The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish body. Its presence may be suspected whenever plants are growing in a warm and dry place. Usually it first appears on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies rapidly, and will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices of the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance, and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler areas on the upper surfaces. The mite is of similar habits and size, but is of a pale color, with black on its back. It appears under the same conditions as the red spider. These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as soon as their presence is detected.

The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the plants more moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage with clear or soapy water. The latter is most effective. The soap used may be simply the common washing soap, or that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In fighting them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked with water, or it will check the plants in vigor and only add to the strength of the enemy. Even florists sometimes get into just such a predicament. Flagging and extreme variations in dryness and humidity of the air, checking the vigor of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the red spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of the air.

The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable whenthey appear on plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all conditions. They are small, have elongated, succulent bodies, move about slowly and awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike legs, and are most commonly of a pale green color, though often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other shades. Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning tobacco stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a liquid extract of tobacco (which is sold by dealers in florists’ supplies) by dropping a hot iron into a pan of it. A tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water for a few hours, and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe remedy in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco sheep-dip, or extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of water, also makes an effective syringing or dipping solution. As mentioned above, we should use care, especially in the winter time, when the soil often dries out slowly, to avoid soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist.

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