Chapter 35

[408]Schrenck,loc. cit.; Seeland,Russiche Rev., vol. xi., St. Petersburg, 1882; Deniker,Les Ghiliaks, Paris, 1884 (extr. fromRev. d’Ethnogr.).[409]C. Hiekisch,Die Tungusen, St. Petersburg, 1879; L. Schrenck,loc. cit.; H. James, “A Journey in Manchuria,”Proc. Geogr. Soc. London, 1886, p. 779; D. Pozdniéef,Opissanie, etc. (Description of Manchuria, in Russian), vol. i., chap. vi., St. Petersburg, 1897. For measurements, seeAppendices II.andIII.[410]This classification is not at all absolute. Turks and Mongols inhabit the wooded regions of Northern Asia (Yakuts, Buriats); they are also to be found in Europe and Asia Minor. The table-land of Iran, belonging to the region without outlet, assimilated since the works of Richthofen to Central Asia, is mostly inhabited by Iranian peoples having a connection with those of anterior Asia. The Thibetans chiefly occupy the upper valley of the Yaro-tsanpo, which is now in the line of communication between Central and peripheral Asia, etc.[411]See my articles “Turks” and “Tatars” in theDict. Univ. de Geogr.of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. vi., Paris, 1894; and for details the works of Radloff and Vambery, to which reference is therein made.[412]These “Tatars” have sprung from the intermixture of three elements: the primitive Tatars, the probable descendants of theTu-Kiueof Chinese authors, the founders of the kingdom of Sibir destroyed by the Russians in the sixteenth century; the Sartes and the Uzbegs, coming especially from Bokhara; lastly, the Tatars of the Volga, immigrating in the wake of the Russians. In the west of Siberia there are also Ostiak tribes which bear the name of Tatars (such as theZabolotnyé Tatary), because they have adopted the customs and religion of their neighbours the Tatars.[413]Dutreuil de Rhins and Grenard,Miss. Sc. Haute Asie, vol. ii., Paris, 1898.[414]See bibliography in the monograph on the Kirghiz-Bukei by Kharouzin, “Izviestia”Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc., Moscow, vol. 72, 1891.[415]We must distinguish among the “Tatars of the Crimea” two ethnic groups, speaking the same Turkish dialect: theTatars of the Steppes(Nogai), and theTatars of the Mountainsandof the Coast, orTauridians(Krimchakiin Russian). These are the Islamised descendants of the ancient populations of the Taurus (Kipchaks, Genoese, Greeks, Goths). The Nogai belong to the Turkish race, more or less crossed, while the Tauridians have many traits of the Adriatic and Indo-Afghan races.[416]For statistics as to stature, ceph. index, etc., seeAppendices I.toIII.; these figures are borrowed from the works of Benzengre, Bogdanof, Chantre, Elissiéef, Erckert, Hecker, Kharuzin, Lygin, Malief, Merejkovsky, Nazarof, Païssel, Pantiukhof, Sommier, Ujfalvy, Vyrubof, Weisbach, Weissenberg, Yadrintzef, etc. (Cf. Deniker,Les Races de l’Europe, 1. Ind. ceph., Paris, 1899.)[417]Pallas,Samml. Hist. Nachricht., St. Petersburg, 1776–1801, 2 vols.; Bergmann,Nomad. Streifereien. u. d. Kalmuk, Riga, 1804, 4 vols.; Howorth,History of Mong., London, 1877, 4 vols.; Deniker,loc. cit.(Rev. Anthr., 1883–84); Ivanovsky,loc. cit.(Mongols-Torg.); Potanin,loc. cit.; A. Pozdniéef,Mongolia,etc.(Mongolia and the Mongols, in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1896, vol. i., and other publications of this learned writer.[418]In many works to these three divisions of Mongols are also added the so-calledHezareorHazaraand theAimaks, tribes styled Mongolian, left by Tamerlane in Afghanistan. It appears that at the present time these tribes have only preserved of their origin a few physiognomical features; they speak a Turkish dialect and have intermixed with the Jemchids, whose mode of life and religion they have adopted.[419]Cf. Prjevalsky,Trétie,etc.(Third Journey in Central Asia), St. Petersburg, 1883; andJour. Geog. Soc., 1886–87; Rockhill,The Land of the Lamas, London, 1891;Ethnol. of Tibet, Washington, 1895; andRep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1893, p. 665; Desgodins,Le Tibet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1885; Waddell,Buddhism of Thibet, London, 1895; andAmong the Himalayas, London, 1899.[420]See Dalton,Descrip. Ethnol. of Bengal, p. 13et seq., Calcutta, 1872. We leave untouched the peoples sprung from the intermixture of the Thibetans with the Mongols (Kara-Tangutsof the Kuku-Nor), with the Iranians and the Hindus (Balti, of Cashmere, etc.), with the Punjabi Hindus (Gurkhas,Nepalese), with the Assam peoples (Dophlas,Miris, etc.).[421]Prjevalsky,loc. cit.; Risley, “Tribes and Castes of Bengal,”Anthr. Data, Calcutta, 1891, 2 vols.; Rockhill,loc. cit.; Dutreuil de Rhins,loc. cit.[422]Fr. Garnier,Voyage ... en Indo-Chine, Paris, 1873, vol. i., p. 519, and vol. ii., p. 32 (Memoir of Thorel).[423]Colb. Baber, “Travels ... in West China,”Supp. Pap. Geogr. Soc., vol. i., London, 1882; Colquhoun,Across Chryse, London, 1883, vol. ii., Appendix.[424]Roux,Le Tour du Monde, 1897, 1st half, p. 254. The adorning of the body and limbs with rings, so characteristic of the Dyaks and other Indonesians, is also found among the Lu-tse; they wear around the loins and limbs numerous iron wire rings coated with black wax and fastened together in two places with metal rings. Great phalanstery-like houses, 40 metres long, similar to those of certain Indonesians and Polynesians, and used by several families, in which men and women sleep promiscuously, are met with among the westernKew-tseon the boundary of their country with theKhamti(see p. 40).[425]Terrien de Lacouperie,The Languages of China before the Chinese, p. 92, London, 1887; Fr. Garnier,loc. cit.; H. Hallet,Proc. Geogr. Soc., p. 1, London, 1886 (with map).[426]See the summary of the data in this respect in Richthofen,China, vol. i., Berlin, 1875, and in Reclus,Geogr. Univ., vol. vi., Paris, 1882.[427]See in the appendices the statistics of stature, ceph. index, etc., from the works of Girard, Hagen, Janka, Poyarkof, Ten Kate, Weisbach, Zaborowski, and my own observations.[428]Note also the inferior position of woman, her ability to move about limited by deformation of the feet (p. 175).[429]The exact figures for the height of Coreans are contradictory: Dr. Koïke (Internat. Arch. Ethnogr., vol. iv., Leyden, 1891, Parts I. and II.) gives the excessively high stature of1 m. 79 as the average of seventy-five men measured; while Elissiéef (“Izviestia”Russ. Geogr. Soc., St. Petersburg, 1890) found1 m. 62 the average height, but according to the measurements of ten men only.[430]W. Carles,Life in Corea, London, 1888; Gottsche, “Land. u. Leute in Korea,”Verh. Ges. Erdk., p. 245, Berlin, 1886; A. Cavendish and Goold-Adams,Korea, London, 1894; Pogio,Korea, trans. from the Russian, Vienna and Leipzig, 1895; L. Chastaing, “Les Coréens,”Rev. Scientif., p. 494, 1896, second half-year; Maurice Courant,Bibliogr. Coréenne, Introduc., vol. i., Paris, 1895; andTransact. As. Soc. Japan, vol. xxiii., p. 5.[431]SeeAppendices I.andIII.for the measurements given from Miss Ayrton, Bälz, Koganei, etc.[432]It might be supposed that the representatives of the first type were the descendants of tribes who had come by way of Corea and the Tsu-shima and Iki-shima islands in the south-west of Nippon at some period unknown, but at any rate very remote. As to the coarse type, its representatives are perhaps descended from the warriors who invaded about the seventh centuryB.C.(according to a doubtful chronology) the west coast of the island of Kiu-siu and then Nippon. These invaders, intermixing with the aborigines of unknown stock, founded the kingdom of Yamato, and drove back the Ainus towards the north (see p. 372).[433]The ancient practice of suicide in case of injury (Harakiri), now abolished, also denoted great courage; sometimes it was a disguised form of vendetta, for the relatives of the suicide were bound in honour to exterminate the offender.[434]Mohnike,Die Japaner, Münster, 1872; Bälz,loc. cit.; J. J. Rein,Japan, Leipzig, 1881–86, 2 vols.; Mechnikof,L’empire Japonais, Paris-Geneva, 1882; B. Chamberlain,Things Japanese, Yokohama, 1891; “Tokyo Jinruigaku,” etc. (Journ. Anthr. Soc. Tokio, in Japanese), 1888–98.[435]Dodd,Jour. Str. Br. As. Soc., No. 15, p. 69, Singapore, 1885; I. Ino, “Distrib. géog. tribu. Formose,”Tokyo Jinruigaku, p. 301, 1898 (analysed inl’Anthropologie,1899); Imbault-Huart,L’île de Formose, Paris, 1893; A. Wirth, “Eingeborn. Stämme auf Formosa u. Liu-Kiu,”Peterm. Mitt., p. 33, 1898.[436]Dourisboure,Les Sauv. Ba-Hnars, Paris, 1873; Neïs,Excurs. et Reconn., Saigon, Nos. 6 (1880), 10 (1881), andBull. Soc. Géogr., p. 372, Paris, 1884; Harmand,loc. cit., andTour du Monde, 1879 and 1880; Pinabel,Bull. Soc. Géogr., p. 417, Paris, 1884.[437]Aymonier, “Voyage dans le Laos,”Ann. Mus. Guimet. (Bibl. d’Étude, vol. v.), vol. i., p. 38, Paris, 1895; Harmand,loc. cit.[438]E. Kuhn,Sitzungsberichte, Phil.-hist. Kl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., p. 289, Munich, 1889.[439]Aymonier,Excurs. et Reconn., Saigon, Nos. 8 and 10 (1881), 24 (1885), chap. viii., No. 32 (1890), andRev. d’Ethnogr., 1885, p. 158; Bergaigne,Journ. Asiat., 8th series, vol. xi., 1888; Maurel,Mem. Soc. Anthr., 1893, vol. iv., p. 486.[440]Mrs. Mason,Civilising Mountain Men, etc., London, 1862, and other works of this author. Smeaton,The Loyal Karen, etc., London, 1886.[441]There exists among them a strange custom: the men experience great pleasure in putting into their mouths and then spitting out the juice from the narghiles smoked by the wives. The offer oftobacco juiceis one of the first duties of hospitality.[442]J. Butler, “Angami Nagas,”Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xliv., p. 216, Calcutta, 1875; Woodthorpe, “Notes ... Naga Hills,”Jour. Anthro. Inst., vols. ix. (1882) and xix. (1890); Reid,Chin-Lushai Land, Calcutta, 1893; Peal, “Naga,”Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. iii., 1874, p. 476;Nature, 20th May 1897;Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. lxv., part 3, p. 17, Calcutta, 1897; and “Ein Ausflug, etc.,”Zeit. f. Ethn., 1898, p. 281 (trans. by Klemm, with notes and bibliog.); Miss Godden, “Naga, etc.,”Jour. Anthr. Inst., vols. xxvi. and xxvii. (1896–97).[443]J. Anderson,The Selungs, Lond., 1890; Lapicque,Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1894, p. 221, and “A la rech. des Negritos,”Le Tour du Monde, 1895, 2nd half-year, and 1896, 1st half-year; Man,Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiv., 1886, p. 428; Roepstorff,Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., 1882, p. 51.[444]Man, “Aborig. Andam. Isl.,”Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. xi., 1882; De Quatrefages,Les Pygmées, Paris, 1887; Lapicque,loc. cit., and “La race Negrito,”Ann. de Geogr., No. 22, Paris, 1896.[445]Moura,Royaume de Cambodge, Paris, 1883, 2 vols.; Aymonier,Géographie du Cambodge, Saigon-Paris, 1876; L. Fournereau and Porcher,Les Ruins d’Angkor, etc., Paris, 1890; Morel,Mém. Soc. Anthr., vol. iv., Paris, 1893.[446]Deniker and Laloy, “Races exot.,”L’Anthropologie, 1890, p. 523.[447]Risley,loc. cit.[448]Terrien de Lacouperie,loc. cit.; Colquhoun,loc. cit., Appendix and Preface by T. de Lacouperie; Bourne,Parliam. Pap., C., 5371, London, 1888; C. Baber,loc. cit.; Hosie,Three Years’ Jour. in Western China, London, 1890; Labarth, “Les Muongs,”Bull. Soc. Géogr. hist. et descr., Paris, 1886, p. 127; H. Hollet,loc. cit.; Aymonier,loc. cit., ch. vii; Billet, “Deux ans dans le Haut Tonkin,”Bull. Scient. de la France et de la Belgique, vol. xxviii., Paris, 1896–98; Deblenne,Mission Lyonnaise en Chine, p. 34, Lyons, 1898.[449]From Dr. Girard, quoted by Billet,loc. cit., p. 69.[450]Harmand,loc. cit.; Aymonier,loc. cit.(Voyage au Laos).[451]The so-called primitive division into four castes: Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?), mentioned in the later texts of theVedas, is rather an indication of the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed, in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth caste).[452]Sénart, “Les Castes dans l’Inde,”Ann. Mus. Guimet., Bibl. de Vulgar, Paris, 1896 (sums up the question). To the bibliographic references to castes which are found in this excellent book must be added the “Introduction” to the work of W. Crooke, already quoted; it appeared subsequently.[453]The ingenious deductions of Risley (loc. cit.,Ethnogr. Glossary, vol. i., Preface, p. 34, Calcutta, 1892), which may be summed up in the aphorism, “The nasal index increases in a direct ratio to the social inferiority of the caste,” have been criticised by Crooke (loc. cit., p. 119), who however is too absolute in his statements, and does not take any account of the seriation of anthropometric measurements.[454]E. Schmidt, “Die Anthrop. Indiens,”Globus, vol. lxi. (1892), Nos. 2 and 3. For the measurements of the different peoples of India seeAppendices I.toIII.; the figures are chiefly borrowed from Risley,loc. cit., Crooke,loc. cit., Jagor, Thurston,loc. cit., Sarasin,loc. cit., E. Schmidt,loc. cit., Deschamps,Au pays des Veddas, Paris, 1892, with pl.[455]Jellinghaus, “Sagen, Sitten ... der Munda-Kolhs,”Zeit. f. Ethn., vol. iii., 1872, p. 328; Dalton,loc. cit., p. 150; Risley,loc. cit.,Ethnogr. Glossary; Crooke,loc. cit.[456]The word Ho (Hor or Horo), which recurs in the name of all these tribes, signifies everywhere “man,” and indicates their close linguistic relationship; their manners and customs are also alike, especially in regard to the constitution of the community. Religion among them all is an animism blended with very vague polytheism. In their physical characters there are some differences; the Munda and the Bhumij are short (1 m. 59) and very dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub. 74.5 and 75), the Santals are below the average height (1 m. 61) and a little less dolichocephalic (76.1). TheHo, among whom we may assume a greater infusion of Indo-Afghan blood, are of somewhat high stature (1 m. 68). The number of these four tribes, united under the name of Santals in the census of 1891, amounted to a million and a half.[457]Ball,Jungle Life in India, p. 267; Fawcet, “The Saoras of Madras,”Journ. Ant. Soc. Bombay, vol. i., 1888, p. 206; E. Dalton,loc. cit., p. 149.[458]They must not be confused with theMal-Paharia, who dwell farther to the south in the same district of Santhal Parganos (Bengal), and whose affinities are still obscure; from the somatic point of view there is, however, hardly any difference between the two groups.[459]They must not be confounded with theKharwarorKharvar, Dravidians of Chota Nagpur, the southern parts of Behar and Mirzapur; these are half-civilised husbandmen, having a particular social organisation. Their higher castes have an infusion of Hindu blood, while the type of the lower castes recalls that of the Santals. TheKûrsof the Mahadeva hills are closely allied to the Kharwar.[460]Cf. Shortt,Account of the Tribes of the Nilghiris, 1868; Marshall,A Phrenologist among the Toda, London, 1873; Elie Reclus,Primitive Folk, ch. v.; Thurston,Madras Gov. Museum Bullet., vol. i., No. 1, and vol. ii., No. 4; G. Oppert,The Original Inhabitants of India, London, 1894, andZeit. f. Ethnol., 1896, pt. 5.[461]The nameRajputsis only honorary, and is attached to a crowd of tribes and castes varying in origin, in mode of life, and in dress. The Jats of the Punjab, of which the Sikhs are only a section, are constituted of a mixture of strongly differentiated populations.[462]Risley,loc. cit.; Crooke,loc. cit.; Fonseca Cardoso, “O indigena de Satory,”Revista de Scien. Naturæs, vol. iv., No. 16, Oporto, 1896.[463]Biddulph,Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh, Calcutta, 1880; De Ujfalvy,Aus dem Westl. Himalaya, Leipzig, 1884; Leitner,The Hunza and Nagar Handbook, London, 1893; Capus,Manuscript Notes; Risley,loc. cit.[464]The brother of the dead husband may marry all the latter’s widows, and none of them has the right to marry again without the consent of her brother-in-law. There is no term in the Chin and Yeshkhun languages to denote nephews and nieces—they are called “sons or daughters”; aunts on the maternal side are called “mothers.”[465]De Ujfalvy, “Les Koulou,”Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1882, p. 217; Forsyth,Yarkand Mission, Calcutta, 1875; S. Mateer,Native Life in Travancore, London, 1883; Elie Reclus,loc. cit., p. 143 (Nairs); E. Schmidt, “Die Naïrs,”Globus, vol. lxviii. (1895), No. 22; Waddell,loc. cit.(Am. Himal.), chap. ix.[466]Sarasin,loc. cit., gives bibliog.; Deschamps,Ceylan,loc. cit.For the measurements of these peoples, see theAppendices I.andII.[467]The Hajemis of the Caspian littoral are called more particularlyTalychandMazandarani.[468]The interminglings with the Turks must be of recent date; for if we may still discuss the “Turanian” characters of the Sumero-Acadianlanguage, there is no indication of the existence of theTurkish racein Asia Minor in ancient times. The famous sculptured head of Tello (in the Louvre) has a false Turkish air, owing to the head-dress and the broken nose; three other statuettes from the same locality, preserved at Paris, have a fine and prominent nose and meeting eyebrows: Assyroid characters (see De Clercq,Album des Antiq. de la Chaldée, Paris, 1889–91; Maspero,Hist. des peupl. Orient. Class., vol. i., p. 613, Paris, 1895; and E. de Sarzec,Découvertes en Chaldée, published by Heuzey, Paris, 1885–97).[469]D. Menant, “Les Parsis,”Ann. Mus. Guin., Bibl. Et., vol. vii., Paris.[470]E. Oliver,Across the Border, Pathan and Biloch, London, 1890.[471]For the measurements of the Iranians seeAppendices I.toIII.(from Danilof, Houssey, Ujfalvy, Bogdanof, Chantre, Troll, Risley).[472]Möckler, “Origin of Baluch,”Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1893, p. 159.[473]Chantre,Rech. Anthr. As. Occid. Transcaucasie, Asie Min. et Syrie, Lyons, 1895 (with pl. and fig.); and “Les Kurdes,”Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons, 1897. The Lurs of Western Persia living south of the Kurds are akin to the latter; they may be divided into Luri-Kuchucks (250,000) or little Lurs in Luristan, and into Luri-Buzury, farther south, in Hazistan, a part of Fars. Their best known tribes are those of theBakhtyariandMaamaseni. The Lurs are above the average height (1 m. 68), and sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84.5), according to Houssay, Duhousset, and Gautier. Cf. Houssay, “Les Peuples de la Perse,”Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons, 1887, p. 101; and Pantiukhof,loc. cit.[474]The Arab tongue of the present day includes three dialects:Western, extending from Morocco to Tunis;Central, spoken in Egypt; andEastern, spoken in Arabia and Syria.[475]Petersen and Von Luschan,Reisen in Lykien, etc., chap, xiii., Vienna, 1889; Chantre,loc. cit.[476]It is known, in fact, that the isolation of the Jews from the rest of the population is not always absolutely complete. There have been peoples of other races converted to Judaism: the Khasars in the seventh century, the Abyssinians (presentFalacha), the Tamuls or “black Jews” (p. 115, note), the Tauridians of theKaraitesect, etc. (p. 222). Cf. J. Jacobs, “Racial Charact.... Jews,”Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xv. (1885–86), p. 24; and Jacobs and Spielmann,ibid., vol. xix. (1889–90).[477]The Aissors or Chaldeans who migrated to the Caucasus are probably allied to these “Jews of the mountains”; they are also very brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 88) and of rather high stature (1 m. 67) (Erckert, Chantre).[478]See the art. “Juifs” in theDict. Géog. Univers.of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. ii., Paris, 1884 (with bibliog.); Andree,Zur Völkerkunde der Juden, Bielefeld, 1881, with map; and publications of theSoc. des Études Juives, Paris. The measurements given in the Appendices are after Ikof, Chantre, Jacobs and Spielmann, Gluck, Kopenicki, Weissenberg, Weisbach, etc.[479]See my art. “Tsiganes,” in theDict. Géog. Univ., quoted above, vol. vi., 1893; Paspati,Étude sur les Tchinghiané, Constantinople, 1870; A. Colocci,Gli Zingari, Turin, 1889, with map; H. von Wlislocki,Vom ... Zigeuner-Volke, Hamburg, 1890; and the publications of the Gypsy-Lore Society, London (1886–96).[480]Fl. Petrie and Quibell,Nagada and Ballas, London, 1896; De Morgan,Recherches sur les Origines de l’Egypte, Paris, 1897–98, 2 vols. See for summary of the question: S. Reinach,L’Anthropol., 1897, p. 322; and J. Capart,Rev. Université, Brussels, 4th year (1898–99), p. 105. Let us remember while on this point that at the quaternary period lower Egypt was still covered by the sea, and that the climate of Egypt and the Sahara was much more humid than to-day (Shirmer,Le Sahara, p. 136, Paris, 1893). Most of the prehistoric finds in Egypt have been made on the table-lands, not covered by the alluvial soils of the Nile.[481]W. Gooch,Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xi. (1882), p. 124; Seton Karr, “Discov. of Evid. Paleolith. Age in Somaliland,”Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxv. (1896), p. 271; X. Stainier, “L’âge de la pierre au Congo,”Annales Mus. du Congo, 3rd series (Anthr.), vol. i., part 1, Brussels, 1899 (with plates).[482]R. Collignon, “Les âges de la pierre en Tunisie,”Mater. Hist. Nat. Homme, 3rd series, vol. iv., Toulouse, 1887; Couillault, “Station préhist. Gafsa,”L’Anthropologie, vol. v., 1894, p. 530; Zaborowski, “Period néolith. Afr. du nord,”Rev. Ec. Anthr., Paris, 1899, p. 41.[483]See for details, R. Andree, “Steinzeit Afrikas,”Globus, vol. xli. (1882), p. 169; and X. Stainier,loc. cit., p. 18.[484]Recent discoveries of stone objects in Egypt have revived the question of Asiatic or European influence in Africa. While Flinders Petrie, De Morgan, and others suppose that Petrie’s “new race” of the neolithic period which preceded Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley is related to the Libyans coming from the north-west of Africa, and perhaps from Europe, Schweinfurth (Zeitsh. f. Ethnol., 1897;Verhandl., p. 263) thinks that these neolithic people were immigrants from Arabia (Semites?), who had come into the Nile valley from the south, through Nubia. The recent discovery of chipped flints in the country of the Somalis, as well as considerations of a botanic character, confirm this supposition, without excluding, however, the possibility of the arrival of the Libyans of the north-west in the palæolithic period, and the tribes of Syria and Mesopotamia in historic times. (Evidence: the “Hyksos” of the Egyptian annals, the presence of cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna, upper Egypt, to which attention was drawn by Sayce, etc.)[485]Barthel, “Völkerbewegungen ... Afrikan. Kontin.,”Mittheil. Verein Erdkunde, Leipzig, 1893, with map.[486]Jews and Maltese on the coast of the Mediterranean; Persians and Hindus on the east coast and the islands off it; a few hundred Chinese introduced into the Congo State and the Mauritius and Réunion islands. Among the Europeans, theBoersof Cape Colony, of the basin of the Orange river, and the Transvaal, as well as the Portuguese of Angola and Mozambique, are more or less intermingled with the natives. The English of the Cape, and the French of Algeria-Tunis, and the “Creoles” of the island of Réunion have kept themselves more free from intermixture. Finally, let us note the Spanish of Algeria-Morocco and the Canary Isles, the latter the hybrid descendants of the prehistoric Guanches, which are perhaps connected with the European Cro-Magnon race. (See S. Berthelot, “Les Guanches,”Mem. Soc. Ethnol., Paris, vols. i. and ii., 1841–45; Verneau,Iles Canaries, Paris, 1891.)[487]Hartmann, “Les Peuples de l’Afrique,” Paris, 1880 (Bibl. Internat.), a work written from a different standpoint from the present chapter.[488]See for details, Hanoteau and Letourneux,La Kabylie, etc., Paris, 1872–73; Quedenfeld, “Berberbevölkerung in Marokko,”Zeits. f. Ethn., vol. xx.-xxi., 1888–89; Topinard, “Les types de ... l’Algérie,”Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1881; Villot,Mœurs, coutumes ... des indig. de l’Algérie, Algiers, 1888; Ch. Amat, “Les Beni-Mzab,”Rev. Anthr., 1884, p. 644.

[408]Schrenck,loc. cit.; Seeland,Russiche Rev., vol. xi., St. Petersburg, 1882; Deniker,Les Ghiliaks, Paris, 1884 (extr. fromRev. d’Ethnogr.).

[409]C. Hiekisch,Die Tungusen, St. Petersburg, 1879; L. Schrenck,loc. cit.; H. James, “A Journey in Manchuria,”Proc. Geogr. Soc. London, 1886, p. 779; D. Pozdniéef,Opissanie, etc. (Description of Manchuria, in Russian), vol. i., chap. vi., St. Petersburg, 1897. For measurements, seeAppendices II.andIII.

[410]This classification is not at all absolute. Turks and Mongols inhabit the wooded regions of Northern Asia (Yakuts, Buriats); they are also to be found in Europe and Asia Minor. The table-land of Iran, belonging to the region without outlet, assimilated since the works of Richthofen to Central Asia, is mostly inhabited by Iranian peoples having a connection with those of anterior Asia. The Thibetans chiefly occupy the upper valley of the Yaro-tsanpo, which is now in the line of communication between Central and peripheral Asia, etc.

[411]See my articles “Turks” and “Tatars” in theDict. Univ. de Geogr.of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. vi., Paris, 1894; and for details the works of Radloff and Vambery, to which reference is therein made.

[412]These “Tatars” have sprung from the intermixture of three elements: the primitive Tatars, the probable descendants of theTu-Kiueof Chinese authors, the founders of the kingdom of Sibir destroyed by the Russians in the sixteenth century; the Sartes and the Uzbegs, coming especially from Bokhara; lastly, the Tatars of the Volga, immigrating in the wake of the Russians. In the west of Siberia there are also Ostiak tribes which bear the name of Tatars (such as theZabolotnyé Tatary), because they have adopted the customs and religion of their neighbours the Tatars.

[413]Dutreuil de Rhins and Grenard,Miss. Sc. Haute Asie, vol. ii., Paris, 1898.

[414]See bibliography in the monograph on the Kirghiz-Bukei by Kharouzin, “Izviestia”Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc., Moscow, vol. 72, 1891.

[415]We must distinguish among the “Tatars of the Crimea” two ethnic groups, speaking the same Turkish dialect: theTatars of the Steppes(Nogai), and theTatars of the Mountainsandof the Coast, orTauridians(Krimchakiin Russian). These are the Islamised descendants of the ancient populations of the Taurus (Kipchaks, Genoese, Greeks, Goths). The Nogai belong to the Turkish race, more or less crossed, while the Tauridians have many traits of the Adriatic and Indo-Afghan races.

[416]For statistics as to stature, ceph. index, etc., seeAppendices I.toIII.; these figures are borrowed from the works of Benzengre, Bogdanof, Chantre, Elissiéef, Erckert, Hecker, Kharuzin, Lygin, Malief, Merejkovsky, Nazarof, Païssel, Pantiukhof, Sommier, Ujfalvy, Vyrubof, Weisbach, Weissenberg, Yadrintzef, etc. (Cf. Deniker,Les Races de l’Europe, 1. Ind. ceph., Paris, 1899.)

[417]Pallas,Samml. Hist. Nachricht., St. Petersburg, 1776–1801, 2 vols.; Bergmann,Nomad. Streifereien. u. d. Kalmuk, Riga, 1804, 4 vols.; Howorth,History of Mong., London, 1877, 4 vols.; Deniker,loc. cit.(Rev. Anthr., 1883–84); Ivanovsky,loc. cit.(Mongols-Torg.); Potanin,loc. cit.; A. Pozdniéef,Mongolia,etc.(Mongolia and the Mongols, in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1896, vol. i., and other publications of this learned writer.

[418]In many works to these three divisions of Mongols are also added the so-calledHezareorHazaraand theAimaks, tribes styled Mongolian, left by Tamerlane in Afghanistan. It appears that at the present time these tribes have only preserved of their origin a few physiognomical features; they speak a Turkish dialect and have intermixed with the Jemchids, whose mode of life and religion they have adopted.

[419]Cf. Prjevalsky,Trétie,etc.(Third Journey in Central Asia), St. Petersburg, 1883; andJour. Geog. Soc., 1886–87; Rockhill,The Land of the Lamas, London, 1891;Ethnol. of Tibet, Washington, 1895; andRep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1893, p. 665; Desgodins,Le Tibet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1885; Waddell,Buddhism of Thibet, London, 1895; andAmong the Himalayas, London, 1899.

[420]See Dalton,Descrip. Ethnol. of Bengal, p. 13et seq., Calcutta, 1872. We leave untouched the peoples sprung from the intermixture of the Thibetans with the Mongols (Kara-Tangutsof the Kuku-Nor), with the Iranians and the Hindus (Balti, of Cashmere, etc.), with the Punjabi Hindus (Gurkhas,Nepalese), with the Assam peoples (Dophlas,Miris, etc.).

[421]Prjevalsky,loc. cit.; Risley, “Tribes and Castes of Bengal,”Anthr. Data, Calcutta, 1891, 2 vols.; Rockhill,loc. cit.; Dutreuil de Rhins,loc. cit.

[422]Fr. Garnier,Voyage ... en Indo-Chine, Paris, 1873, vol. i., p. 519, and vol. ii., p. 32 (Memoir of Thorel).

[423]Colb. Baber, “Travels ... in West China,”Supp. Pap. Geogr. Soc., vol. i., London, 1882; Colquhoun,Across Chryse, London, 1883, vol. ii., Appendix.

[424]Roux,Le Tour du Monde, 1897, 1st half, p. 254. The adorning of the body and limbs with rings, so characteristic of the Dyaks and other Indonesians, is also found among the Lu-tse; they wear around the loins and limbs numerous iron wire rings coated with black wax and fastened together in two places with metal rings. Great phalanstery-like houses, 40 metres long, similar to those of certain Indonesians and Polynesians, and used by several families, in which men and women sleep promiscuously, are met with among the westernKew-tseon the boundary of their country with theKhamti(see p. 40).

[425]Terrien de Lacouperie,The Languages of China before the Chinese, p. 92, London, 1887; Fr. Garnier,loc. cit.; H. Hallet,Proc. Geogr. Soc., p. 1, London, 1886 (with map).

[426]See the summary of the data in this respect in Richthofen,China, vol. i., Berlin, 1875, and in Reclus,Geogr. Univ., vol. vi., Paris, 1882.

[427]See in the appendices the statistics of stature, ceph. index, etc., from the works of Girard, Hagen, Janka, Poyarkof, Ten Kate, Weisbach, Zaborowski, and my own observations.

[428]Note also the inferior position of woman, her ability to move about limited by deformation of the feet (p. 175).

[429]The exact figures for the height of Coreans are contradictory: Dr. Koïke (Internat. Arch. Ethnogr., vol. iv., Leyden, 1891, Parts I. and II.) gives the excessively high stature of1 m. 79 as the average of seventy-five men measured; while Elissiéef (“Izviestia”Russ. Geogr. Soc., St. Petersburg, 1890) found1 m. 62 the average height, but according to the measurements of ten men only.

[430]W. Carles,Life in Corea, London, 1888; Gottsche, “Land. u. Leute in Korea,”Verh. Ges. Erdk., p. 245, Berlin, 1886; A. Cavendish and Goold-Adams,Korea, London, 1894; Pogio,Korea, trans. from the Russian, Vienna and Leipzig, 1895; L. Chastaing, “Les Coréens,”Rev. Scientif., p. 494, 1896, second half-year; Maurice Courant,Bibliogr. Coréenne, Introduc., vol. i., Paris, 1895; andTransact. As. Soc. Japan, vol. xxiii., p. 5.

[431]SeeAppendices I.andIII.for the measurements given from Miss Ayrton, Bälz, Koganei, etc.

[432]It might be supposed that the representatives of the first type were the descendants of tribes who had come by way of Corea and the Tsu-shima and Iki-shima islands in the south-west of Nippon at some period unknown, but at any rate very remote. As to the coarse type, its representatives are perhaps descended from the warriors who invaded about the seventh centuryB.C.(according to a doubtful chronology) the west coast of the island of Kiu-siu and then Nippon. These invaders, intermixing with the aborigines of unknown stock, founded the kingdom of Yamato, and drove back the Ainus towards the north (see p. 372).

[433]The ancient practice of suicide in case of injury (Harakiri), now abolished, also denoted great courage; sometimes it was a disguised form of vendetta, for the relatives of the suicide were bound in honour to exterminate the offender.

[434]Mohnike,Die Japaner, Münster, 1872; Bälz,loc. cit.; J. J. Rein,Japan, Leipzig, 1881–86, 2 vols.; Mechnikof,L’empire Japonais, Paris-Geneva, 1882; B. Chamberlain,Things Japanese, Yokohama, 1891; “Tokyo Jinruigaku,” etc. (Journ. Anthr. Soc. Tokio, in Japanese), 1888–98.

[435]Dodd,Jour. Str. Br. As. Soc., No. 15, p. 69, Singapore, 1885; I. Ino, “Distrib. géog. tribu. Formose,”Tokyo Jinruigaku, p. 301, 1898 (analysed inl’Anthropologie,1899); Imbault-Huart,L’île de Formose, Paris, 1893; A. Wirth, “Eingeborn. Stämme auf Formosa u. Liu-Kiu,”Peterm. Mitt., p. 33, 1898.

[436]Dourisboure,Les Sauv. Ba-Hnars, Paris, 1873; Neïs,Excurs. et Reconn., Saigon, Nos. 6 (1880), 10 (1881), andBull. Soc. Géogr., p. 372, Paris, 1884; Harmand,loc. cit., andTour du Monde, 1879 and 1880; Pinabel,Bull. Soc. Géogr., p. 417, Paris, 1884.

[437]Aymonier, “Voyage dans le Laos,”Ann. Mus. Guimet. (Bibl. d’Étude, vol. v.), vol. i., p. 38, Paris, 1895; Harmand,loc. cit.

[438]E. Kuhn,Sitzungsberichte, Phil.-hist. Kl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., p. 289, Munich, 1889.

[439]Aymonier,Excurs. et Reconn., Saigon, Nos. 8 and 10 (1881), 24 (1885), chap. viii., No. 32 (1890), andRev. d’Ethnogr., 1885, p. 158; Bergaigne,Journ. Asiat., 8th series, vol. xi., 1888; Maurel,Mem. Soc. Anthr., 1893, vol. iv., p. 486.

[440]Mrs. Mason,Civilising Mountain Men, etc., London, 1862, and other works of this author. Smeaton,The Loyal Karen, etc., London, 1886.

[441]There exists among them a strange custom: the men experience great pleasure in putting into their mouths and then spitting out the juice from the narghiles smoked by the wives. The offer oftobacco juiceis one of the first duties of hospitality.

[442]J. Butler, “Angami Nagas,”Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xliv., p. 216, Calcutta, 1875; Woodthorpe, “Notes ... Naga Hills,”Jour. Anthro. Inst., vols. ix. (1882) and xix. (1890); Reid,Chin-Lushai Land, Calcutta, 1893; Peal, “Naga,”Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. iii., 1874, p. 476;Nature, 20th May 1897;Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. lxv., part 3, p. 17, Calcutta, 1897; and “Ein Ausflug, etc.,”Zeit. f. Ethn., 1898, p. 281 (trans. by Klemm, with notes and bibliog.); Miss Godden, “Naga, etc.,”Jour. Anthr. Inst., vols. xxvi. and xxvii. (1896–97).

[443]J. Anderson,The Selungs, Lond., 1890; Lapicque,Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1894, p. 221, and “A la rech. des Negritos,”Le Tour du Monde, 1895, 2nd half-year, and 1896, 1st half-year; Man,Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiv., 1886, p. 428; Roepstorff,Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., 1882, p. 51.

[444]Man, “Aborig. Andam. Isl.,”Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. xi., 1882; De Quatrefages,Les Pygmées, Paris, 1887; Lapicque,loc. cit., and “La race Negrito,”Ann. de Geogr., No. 22, Paris, 1896.

[445]Moura,Royaume de Cambodge, Paris, 1883, 2 vols.; Aymonier,Géographie du Cambodge, Saigon-Paris, 1876; L. Fournereau and Porcher,Les Ruins d’Angkor, etc., Paris, 1890; Morel,Mém. Soc. Anthr., vol. iv., Paris, 1893.

[446]Deniker and Laloy, “Races exot.,”L’Anthropologie, 1890, p. 523.

[447]Risley,loc. cit.

[448]Terrien de Lacouperie,loc. cit.; Colquhoun,loc. cit., Appendix and Preface by T. de Lacouperie; Bourne,Parliam. Pap., C., 5371, London, 1888; C. Baber,loc. cit.; Hosie,Three Years’ Jour. in Western China, London, 1890; Labarth, “Les Muongs,”Bull. Soc. Géogr. hist. et descr., Paris, 1886, p. 127; H. Hollet,loc. cit.; Aymonier,loc. cit., ch. vii; Billet, “Deux ans dans le Haut Tonkin,”Bull. Scient. de la France et de la Belgique, vol. xxviii., Paris, 1896–98; Deblenne,Mission Lyonnaise en Chine, p. 34, Lyons, 1898.

[449]From Dr. Girard, quoted by Billet,loc. cit., p. 69.

[450]Harmand,loc. cit.; Aymonier,loc. cit.(Voyage au Laos).

[451]The so-called primitive division into four castes: Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?), mentioned in the later texts of theVedas, is rather an indication of the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed, in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth caste).

[452]Sénart, “Les Castes dans l’Inde,”Ann. Mus. Guimet., Bibl. de Vulgar, Paris, 1896 (sums up the question). To the bibliographic references to castes which are found in this excellent book must be added the “Introduction” to the work of W. Crooke, already quoted; it appeared subsequently.

[453]The ingenious deductions of Risley (loc. cit.,Ethnogr. Glossary, vol. i., Preface, p. 34, Calcutta, 1892), which may be summed up in the aphorism, “The nasal index increases in a direct ratio to the social inferiority of the caste,” have been criticised by Crooke (loc. cit., p. 119), who however is too absolute in his statements, and does not take any account of the seriation of anthropometric measurements.

[454]E. Schmidt, “Die Anthrop. Indiens,”Globus, vol. lxi. (1892), Nos. 2 and 3. For the measurements of the different peoples of India seeAppendices I.toIII.; the figures are chiefly borrowed from Risley,loc. cit., Crooke,loc. cit., Jagor, Thurston,loc. cit., Sarasin,loc. cit., E. Schmidt,loc. cit., Deschamps,Au pays des Veddas, Paris, 1892, with pl.

[455]Jellinghaus, “Sagen, Sitten ... der Munda-Kolhs,”Zeit. f. Ethn., vol. iii., 1872, p. 328; Dalton,loc. cit., p. 150; Risley,loc. cit.,Ethnogr. Glossary; Crooke,loc. cit.

[456]The word Ho (Hor or Horo), which recurs in the name of all these tribes, signifies everywhere “man,” and indicates their close linguistic relationship; their manners and customs are also alike, especially in regard to the constitution of the community. Religion among them all is an animism blended with very vague polytheism. In their physical characters there are some differences; the Munda and the Bhumij are short (1 m. 59) and very dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub. 74.5 and 75), the Santals are below the average height (1 m. 61) and a little less dolichocephalic (76.1). TheHo, among whom we may assume a greater infusion of Indo-Afghan blood, are of somewhat high stature (1 m. 68). The number of these four tribes, united under the name of Santals in the census of 1891, amounted to a million and a half.

[457]Ball,Jungle Life in India, p. 267; Fawcet, “The Saoras of Madras,”Journ. Ant. Soc. Bombay, vol. i., 1888, p. 206; E. Dalton,loc. cit., p. 149.

[458]They must not be confused with theMal-Paharia, who dwell farther to the south in the same district of Santhal Parganos (Bengal), and whose affinities are still obscure; from the somatic point of view there is, however, hardly any difference between the two groups.

[459]They must not be confounded with theKharwarorKharvar, Dravidians of Chota Nagpur, the southern parts of Behar and Mirzapur; these are half-civilised husbandmen, having a particular social organisation. Their higher castes have an infusion of Hindu blood, while the type of the lower castes recalls that of the Santals. TheKûrsof the Mahadeva hills are closely allied to the Kharwar.

[460]Cf. Shortt,Account of the Tribes of the Nilghiris, 1868; Marshall,A Phrenologist among the Toda, London, 1873; Elie Reclus,Primitive Folk, ch. v.; Thurston,Madras Gov. Museum Bullet., vol. i., No. 1, and vol. ii., No. 4; G. Oppert,The Original Inhabitants of India, London, 1894, andZeit. f. Ethnol., 1896, pt. 5.

[461]The nameRajputsis only honorary, and is attached to a crowd of tribes and castes varying in origin, in mode of life, and in dress. The Jats of the Punjab, of which the Sikhs are only a section, are constituted of a mixture of strongly differentiated populations.

[462]Risley,loc. cit.; Crooke,loc. cit.; Fonseca Cardoso, “O indigena de Satory,”Revista de Scien. Naturæs, vol. iv., No. 16, Oporto, 1896.

[463]Biddulph,Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh, Calcutta, 1880; De Ujfalvy,Aus dem Westl. Himalaya, Leipzig, 1884; Leitner,The Hunza and Nagar Handbook, London, 1893; Capus,Manuscript Notes; Risley,loc. cit.

[464]The brother of the dead husband may marry all the latter’s widows, and none of them has the right to marry again without the consent of her brother-in-law. There is no term in the Chin and Yeshkhun languages to denote nephews and nieces—they are called “sons or daughters”; aunts on the maternal side are called “mothers.”

[465]De Ujfalvy, “Les Koulou,”Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1882, p. 217; Forsyth,Yarkand Mission, Calcutta, 1875; S. Mateer,Native Life in Travancore, London, 1883; Elie Reclus,loc. cit., p. 143 (Nairs); E. Schmidt, “Die Naïrs,”Globus, vol. lxviii. (1895), No. 22; Waddell,loc. cit.(Am. Himal.), chap. ix.

[466]Sarasin,loc. cit., gives bibliog.; Deschamps,Ceylan,loc. cit.For the measurements of these peoples, see theAppendices I.andII.

[467]The Hajemis of the Caspian littoral are called more particularlyTalychandMazandarani.

[468]The interminglings with the Turks must be of recent date; for if we may still discuss the “Turanian” characters of the Sumero-Acadianlanguage, there is no indication of the existence of theTurkish racein Asia Minor in ancient times. The famous sculptured head of Tello (in the Louvre) has a false Turkish air, owing to the head-dress and the broken nose; three other statuettes from the same locality, preserved at Paris, have a fine and prominent nose and meeting eyebrows: Assyroid characters (see De Clercq,Album des Antiq. de la Chaldée, Paris, 1889–91; Maspero,Hist. des peupl. Orient. Class., vol. i., p. 613, Paris, 1895; and E. de Sarzec,Découvertes en Chaldée, published by Heuzey, Paris, 1885–97).

[469]D. Menant, “Les Parsis,”Ann. Mus. Guin., Bibl. Et., vol. vii., Paris.

[470]E. Oliver,Across the Border, Pathan and Biloch, London, 1890.

[471]For the measurements of the Iranians seeAppendices I.toIII.(from Danilof, Houssey, Ujfalvy, Bogdanof, Chantre, Troll, Risley).

[472]Möckler, “Origin of Baluch,”Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1893, p. 159.

[473]Chantre,Rech. Anthr. As. Occid. Transcaucasie, Asie Min. et Syrie, Lyons, 1895 (with pl. and fig.); and “Les Kurdes,”Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons, 1897. The Lurs of Western Persia living south of the Kurds are akin to the latter; they may be divided into Luri-Kuchucks (250,000) or little Lurs in Luristan, and into Luri-Buzury, farther south, in Hazistan, a part of Fars. Their best known tribes are those of theBakhtyariandMaamaseni. The Lurs are above the average height (1 m. 68), and sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84.5), according to Houssay, Duhousset, and Gautier. Cf. Houssay, “Les Peuples de la Perse,”Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons, 1887, p. 101; and Pantiukhof,loc. cit.

[474]The Arab tongue of the present day includes three dialects:Western, extending from Morocco to Tunis;Central, spoken in Egypt; andEastern, spoken in Arabia and Syria.

[475]Petersen and Von Luschan,Reisen in Lykien, etc., chap, xiii., Vienna, 1889; Chantre,loc. cit.

[476]It is known, in fact, that the isolation of the Jews from the rest of the population is not always absolutely complete. There have been peoples of other races converted to Judaism: the Khasars in the seventh century, the Abyssinians (presentFalacha), the Tamuls or “black Jews” (p. 115, note), the Tauridians of theKaraitesect, etc. (p. 222). Cf. J. Jacobs, “Racial Charact.... Jews,”Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xv. (1885–86), p. 24; and Jacobs and Spielmann,ibid., vol. xix. (1889–90).

[477]The Aissors or Chaldeans who migrated to the Caucasus are probably allied to these “Jews of the mountains”; they are also very brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 88) and of rather high stature (1 m. 67) (Erckert, Chantre).

[478]See the art. “Juifs” in theDict. Géog. Univers.of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. ii., Paris, 1884 (with bibliog.); Andree,Zur Völkerkunde der Juden, Bielefeld, 1881, with map; and publications of theSoc. des Études Juives, Paris. The measurements given in the Appendices are after Ikof, Chantre, Jacobs and Spielmann, Gluck, Kopenicki, Weissenberg, Weisbach, etc.

[479]See my art. “Tsiganes,” in theDict. Géog. Univ., quoted above, vol. vi., 1893; Paspati,Étude sur les Tchinghiané, Constantinople, 1870; A. Colocci,Gli Zingari, Turin, 1889, with map; H. von Wlislocki,Vom ... Zigeuner-Volke, Hamburg, 1890; and the publications of the Gypsy-Lore Society, London (1886–96).

[480]Fl. Petrie and Quibell,Nagada and Ballas, London, 1896; De Morgan,Recherches sur les Origines de l’Egypte, Paris, 1897–98, 2 vols. See for summary of the question: S. Reinach,L’Anthropol., 1897, p. 322; and J. Capart,Rev. Université, Brussels, 4th year (1898–99), p. 105. Let us remember while on this point that at the quaternary period lower Egypt was still covered by the sea, and that the climate of Egypt and the Sahara was much more humid than to-day (Shirmer,Le Sahara, p. 136, Paris, 1893). Most of the prehistoric finds in Egypt have been made on the table-lands, not covered by the alluvial soils of the Nile.

[481]W. Gooch,Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xi. (1882), p. 124; Seton Karr, “Discov. of Evid. Paleolith. Age in Somaliland,”Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxv. (1896), p. 271; X. Stainier, “L’âge de la pierre au Congo,”Annales Mus. du Congo, 3rd series (Anthr.), vol. i., part 1, Brussels, 1899 (with plates).

[482]R. Collignon, “Les âges de la pierre en Tunisie,”Mater. Hist. Nat. Homme, 3rd series, vol. iv., Toulouse, 1887; Couillault, “Station préhist. Gafsa,”L’Anthropologie, vol. v., 1894, p. 530; Zaborowski, “Period néolith. Afr. du nord,”Rev. Ec. Anthr., Paris, 1899, p. 41.

[483]See for details, R. Andree, “Steinzeit Afrikas,”Globus, vol. xli. (1882), p. 169; and X. Stainier,loc. cit., p. 18.

[484]Recent discoveries of stone objects in Egypt have revived the question of Asiatic or European influence in Africa. While Flinders Petrie, De Morgan, and others suppose that Petrie’s “new race” of the neolithic period which preceded Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley is related to the Libyans coming from the north-west of Africa, and perhaps from Europe, Schweinfurth (Zeitsh. f. Ethnol., 1897;Verhandl., p. 263) thinks that these neolithic people were immigrants from Arabia (Semites?), who had come into the Nile valley from the south, through Nubia. The recent discovery of chipped flints in the country of the Somalis, as well as considerations of a botanic character, confirm this supposition, without excluding, however, the possibility of the arrival of the Libyans of the north-west in the palæolithic period, and the tribes of Syria and Mesopotamia in historic times. (Evidence: the “Hyksos” of the Egyptian annals, the presence of cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna, upper Egypt, to which attention was drawn by Sayce, etc.)

[485]Barthel, “Völkerbewegungen ... Afrikan. Kontin.,”Mittheil. Verein Erdkunde, Leipzig, 1893, with map.

[486]Jews and Maltese on the coast of the Mediterranean; Persians and Hindus on the east coast and the islands off it; a few hundred Chinese introduced into the Congo State and the Mauritius and Réunion islands. Among the Europeans, theBoersof Cape Colony, of the basin of the Orange river, and the Transvaal, as well as the Portuguese of Angola and Mozambique, are more or less intermingled with the natives. The English of the Cape, and the French of Algeria-Tunis, and the “Creoles” of the island of Réunion have kept themselves more free from intermixture. Finally, let us note the Spanish of Algeria-Morocco and the Canary Isles, the latter the hybrid descendants of the prehistoric Guanches, which are perhaps connected with the European Cro-Magnon race. (See S. Berthelot, “Les Guanches,”Mem. Soc. Ethnol., Paris, vols. i. and ii., 1841–45; Verneau,Iles Canaries, Paris, 1891.)

[487]Hartmann, “Les Peuples de l’Afrique,” Paris, 1880 (Bibl. Internat.), a work written from a different standpoint from the present chapter.

[488]See for details, Hanoteau and Letourneux,La Kabylie, etc., Paris, 1872–73; Quedenfeld, “Berberbevölkerung in Marokko,”Zeits. f. Ethn., vol. xx.-xxi., 1888–89; Topinard, “Les types de ... l’Algérie,”Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1881; Villot,Mœurs, coutumes ... des indig. de l’Algérie, Algiers, 1888; Ch. Amat, “Les Beni-Mzab,”Rev. Anthr., 1884, p. 644.

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