Circumcision, which has before been mentioned, is generally performed before the boy is submitted to the instruction of the schoolmaster.292Previously to the performance of this rite, he is, if belonging to the higher or middle rank of society, usually paraded about the neighbourhood of his parents' dwelling, gaily attired, chiefly with female habits and ornaments, but with a boy's turban on his head, mounted on a horse, preceded by musicians, and followed by a group of his female relations and friends. This ceremony is observed by the great with much pomp and with sumptuous feasts. El-Jabartee mentions a fête celebrated on the occasion of the circumcision of a son of the Ḳáḍee of Cairo, in the year of the Flight 1179 (A.D.1766), when the grandees and chief merchants and 'ulamà of the city sent him such abundance of presents that the magazines of his mansion were filled with rice and butter and honey and sugar; the great hall, with coffee; and the middle of the court, with firewood: the public were amused for many days by players and performers of various kinds; and when the youth was paraded through the streets he was attended by numerous memlooks with their richly-caparisoned horses and splendid arms and armour and military band, and by a number of other youths who, from compliment to him, were circumcised afterwards with him. This latter custom is usual on such occasions; and so also is the sending of presents, such as those above mentioned, by friends, acquaintances, and tradespeople.' At a fête of this kind, when the Khaleefeh El-Muḳtedir circumcised five of his sons, the money that was scattered in presents amounted to six hundred thousand pieces of gold, or about £300,000. Many orphans were also circumcised on the same day, and were presented with clothes and pieces of gold.293The Khaleefeh above mentioned was famous for his magnificence, a proof of which I have given in a former note. At the more approved entertainments which are given in celebration of a circumcision, a recital of the whole of the Ḳur-án, or a zikr, is performed: at some others, male orfemale public dancers perform in the court of the house, or in the street before the door.
Few of the children of the Arabs receive much instruction in literature, and still fewer are taught even the rudiments of any of the higher sciences; but there are numerous schools in their towns, and one at least in almost every moderately large village. The former are mostly attached to mosques and other public buildings, and, together with those buildings, endowed by princes or other men of rank, or wealthy tradesmen. In these, the children are instructed either gratis or for a very trifling weekly payment, which all parents, except those in indigent circumstances, can easily afford. The schoolmaster generally teaches nothing more than to read, and to recite by heart the whole of the Ḳur-án. After committing to memory the first chapter of the sacred volume, the boy learns the rest in the inverse order of their arrangement, as they generally decrease in length. Writing and arithmetic are usually taught by another master; and grammar, rhetoric, versification, logic, the interpretation of the Ḳur-án, and the whole system of religion and law, with all other knowledge deemed useful, which seldom includes the mere elements of mathematics, are attained by studying at a collegiate mosque, and at no expense; for the professors receive no pay either from the students, who are mostly of the poorer classes, or from the funds of the mosque.
The wealthy often employ for their sons a private tutor; and, when he has taught them to read, and to recite the Ḳur-án, engage for them a writing-master, and then send them to the college. But among this class, polite literature is more considered than any other branch of knowledge, after religion. Such an acquaintance with the works of some of their favourite poets as enables a man to quote them occasionally in society, is regarded by the Arabs as essential to a son who is to mix in genteel company; and to this acquirement is often added some skill in the art of versification, which is rendered peculiarly easy by the copiousness of the Arabic language, and by its system of inflection. These characteristics of their noble tongue (which are remarkably exhibited by the custom, common among the Arabs, of preserving the same rhyme throughout a whole poem), while on the one hand they have given an admirable freedom to the compositions of men of true poetic genius, have on the other hand mainly contributed to the degradation of Arabic poetry. To an Arab of some little learning it is almost as easy to speak in verse as in prose; and hence he often intersperses his prose writings, and not unfrequently his conversation, with indifferent verses, of which the chief merit often consists in puns, or in an ingenious use of several words nearly the same in sound, but differing in sense. To a reader unacquainted with the Arabic language it is necessary to explain this custom; otherwise he would imagine that the author of the present work is merely indulging in a dramatic licence inconsistent with a true delineation of manners, when he makes a person suddenly change the style of his speech from prose to verse, and then revert to the former.
One more duty of a father to a son I should here mention: it is, to procure for him a wife as soon as he has arrived at a proper age. This age is decided by some to be twenty years; though many young men marry at an earlier period. It is said, "When a son has attained the age of twenty years, his father, if able, should marry him, and then take his hand, and say, 'I have disciplined thee, and taught thee, and married thee: I now seek refuge with God from thy mischief in the present world and the next.'" To enforce this duty, the following tradition is urged: "When a son attains to the age of puberty, and his father does not marry him, and yet is able to do so, if the youth commit an improper act in consequence, the sin of it is between the two,"—or, as in another report,—"on the father."294The same is held to be the case with respect to a daughter who has attained the age of twelve years.295
The female children of the Arabs are seldom taught even to read. Though they areadmissible at the daily schools in which the boys are instructed, very few parents allow them the benefit of this privilege; preferring, if they give them any instruction of a literary kind, to employ a sheykhah (or learned woman) to teach them at home. She instructs them in the forms of prayer, and teaches them to repeat by heart a few chapters of the Ḳur-án; very rarely the whole book. Parents are indeed recommended to withhold from their daughters some portions of the Ḳur-án; to "teach them the Soorat en-Noor [or 24th chapter], and keep from them the Soorat-Yoosuf [12th chapter]; on account of the story of Zeleekhà and Yoosuf in the latter, and the prohibitions and threats and mention of punishments contained in the former."296
Needlework is not so rarely, but yet not generally, taught to Arab girls: the spindle frequently employs those of the poorer classes; and some of them learn to weave. The daughters of persons of the middle and higher ranks are often instructed in the art of embroidery, and in other ornamental work, which are taught in schools and in private houses. Singing, and playing upon the lute, which were formerly not uncommon female accomplishments among the wealthy Arabs, are now almost exclusively confined, like dancing, to professional performers and a few of the slaves in the ḥareems of the great: it is very seldom now that any musical instrument is seen in the hand of an Arab lady, except a kind of drum called darabukkeh, and a ṭár (or tambourine), which are found in many ḥareems, and are beaten with the fingers.297Some care, however, is bestowed by the ladies in teaching their daughters what they consider an elegant gait and carriage, as well as various alluring and voluptuous arts with which to increase the attachment of their future husbands.
Note25.—Water-wheels.The water-wheels here mentioned are machines commonly used for the purpose of irrigating fields and gardens. They are generally turned by a pair of cows or bulls. They raise the water from a river or well in a series of earthen pots attached to cords which pass over a vertical wheel, and pour it into a trough, from which it flows in narrow channels through the space of ground to be irrigated. A cogged vertical wheel is attached to the same axis as the former; and this, and consequently the other also, are turned by means of a larger, horizontal, cogged wheel. The ground is divided into hollow squares, or furrows, into each of which in succession the water is admitted.
Note26."Bedr-ed-Deen" signifies "the Full Moon of the Religion."
Note27.I have here omitted the name of Shems-ed-Deen, and his office; as Ḥasan's knowledge of them would render the sequel of the story too improbable even to an Arab.
Note28.In the original, this paper is here said to have been written by Ḥasan in accordance with the dictation of his father; but afterwards it is said to have been written by the latter; and this is more consistent with the rest of the tale.
Note29.Papers of importance are often wrapped in waxed cloth to preserve them from wet, which would efface the writing, as the Arab ink is chiefly composed of smoke-black and gum and water.
Note30.In the original, the cap is not here mentioned; but it is afterwards.
Note31.This paragraph and the verses interspersed in it are translated from the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred nights.
Note32.The poet here alluded to is El-Mutanebbee.
Note33.It is a common custom of Eastern kings and governors to avail themselves of any pretext for seizing upon the property of a deceased officer who has accumulated much wealth.
Note34.It is implied that he was sitting at the door, or in the court, of his house.
Note35.His taking a copy is mentioned afterwards in the original; but not in this place.
Note36.I have designated by the appellation of "dye-women" (from want-of a better) those females who are employed to apply the ḥennà, which imparts a deep orange-red dye, to the nails or tips of the fingers, the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, &c. Some Arab ladies, especially on such an occasion as that here described, are ornamented with this dye in a more fanciful manner. The woman who applies it is called in Arabic "munaḳḳisheh."
Note37.The chief office of the tire-woman (in Arabic, "máshiṭáh") is to comb and plait the hair. She attends the ladies in the bath; and hence is also called "belláneh."
Note38.A "maṣṭabah" is a bench of stone or brick, generally between two and three feet in height, and about the same in width, built against the front of a shop, and sometimes along the front of a private house. [See Note 22 to Chapter i.—Ed.]
Note39.—On Marriage.Previously to the perusal of the first description of a nuptial fête that occurs in this work, the reader may perhaps desire some introductory information, which I shall here endeavour to convey in such a manner as to make the present note serve to illustrate many future allusions in these pages, and not merely the foregoing tale.
Marriage is regarded by the Muslims in general as a positive duty; and to neglect it, without a sufficient excuse, subjects a man to severe reproach. "When a servant [of God]," said the Prophet, "marries, verily he perfects half his religion."298He once asked a man, "Art thou married?" The man answered, "No." "And art thou," said he, "sound and healthy?" The answer was, "Yes." "Then," said Moḥammad, "thou art one of the brothers of the devils; for the most wicked among you are the unmarried; and the most vile among your dead are the unmarried; moreover the married are those who are acquitted of filthy conversation; and by Him in whose hand is my soul, the devil hath not a weapon more effective against the virtuous, both men and women, than the neglect of marriage."299Some remarks on this subject, and on the advantages of marriage, have been made in a preceding note on infancy and education.
The number of wives whom a Muslim may have at the same time is four. He may marry free women, or take concubine slaves, or have of both these classes. It is the opinion of most persons, I believe, among the more strictly religious, that a man may not have more than four women, whether they be wives alone, or concubine slaves alone, or of both classes together; but the practice of some of the Companions of the Prophet, who cannot be accused of violating his precepts, affords a strong argument to the contrary. 'Alee, it is said, "was the most devout of the Companions; but he had four wives and seventeen concubines besides, and married, after Fáṭimeh (may God be well pleased with her!), among all that he married and divorced, more than two hundred women: and sometimes he included four wives in one contract, and sometimes divorced four at one time, taking other four in their stead."300This may perhaps be an exaggerated statement: but it is certain that the custom of keeping an unlimited number of concubines was common among wealthy Muslims in the first century of the Mohammadan era, and has so continued. The famous author of the work above quoted urges the example of Solomon to prove that the possession of numerous concubines is not inconsistent with piety and good morals; not considering that God made but one wife for Adam.
It has been mentioned in the first of the notes to this work, that a Muslim maydivorce his wife twice, and each time take her back. This he may do, even against her wish, during a fixed period, which cannot extend beyond three months, unless she beenceinte, in which latter case she must wait until the birth of her child before she will be at liberty to contract a new marriage. During this period the husband is obliged to maintain her. If he divorce her a third time, or by a triple sentence, he cannot take her again unless with her own consent, and by a new contract, and after another marriage has been consummated between her and another husband, and this husband also has divorced her.
It is not a common custom, especially among the middle ranks, for an Arab to have more than one wife at the same time; but there are few of middle age who have not had several different wives at different periods, tempted to change by the facility of divorce. The case of 'Alee has been mentioned above. Mugheyreh Ibn-Sheạbeh married eighty women in the course of his life;301and several more remarkable instances of the love of change are recorded by Arab writers: the most extraordinary case of this kind that I have met with was that of Moḥammad Ibn-Eṭ-Ṭeiyib, the Dyer, of Baghdád, who died in the year of the Flight 423, aged eighty-five years; of whom it is related, on most respectable authority, that he married more than nine hundred women!302—Supposing, therefore, that he married his first wife when he was fifteen years of age, he must have had, on the average, nearly thirteen wivesper annum. The women, in general, cannot of course marry so many successive husbands, not only because a woman cannot have more than one husband at a time, but also because she cannot divorce her husband. There have been, however, many instances of Arab women who have married a surprising number of men in rapid succession. Among these may be mentioned Umm-Khárijeh, who gave occasion to a proverb on this subject. This woman, who was of the tribe of Bejeeleh, in El-Yemen, married upwards of forty husbands; and her son Khárijeh knew not who was his father. She used to contract a marriage in the quickest possible manner: a man saying to her, "Khiṭbun" (betrothal), she replied, "Nik-ḥun" (marriage), and thus became his lawful wife. She had a very numerous progeny; several tribes originating from her.303
For the choice of a wife, a man generally relies on his mother, or some other near female relation, or a professional female betrother (who is called "kháṭibeh"); for there are many women who perform this office for hire. The law allows him to see the face of the female whom he proposes to marry, previously to his making the contract; but in the present day this liberty is seldom obtained, except among the lower orders. Unless in this case, a man is not allowed to see unveiled any woman but his own wife or slave, and those women to whom the law prohibits his uniting himself in marriage: nay, according to some, he is not allowed to "see" his own niece unveiled, though he may not marry her. It should be added, that a slave may lawfully see the face of his own mistress; but this privilege is seldom granted in the present day to any slave but a eunuch. An infringement of the law above mentioned is held to be extremely sinful in both parties: "The curse of God," said the Prophet, "is on the seer and the seen:" yet it is very often disregarded in the case of women of the lower orders.
A man is forbidden, by the Ḳur-án304and the Sunneh, to marry his mother, or other ascendant; daughter, or other descendant; his sister, or half-sister; the sister of his father or mother or other ascendant; his niece, or any of her descendants; his foster-mother who has suckled him five times in the course of the first two years, or a woman related to him by milk in any of the degrees which would preclude his marriage with her if she were similarly related to him by consanguinity; the mother of his wife, even if he has not consummated his marriage with this wife; the daughter of his wife, if he has consummated his marriage with the latter (but if he has not done so, and this wifeis divorced from him, or dead, he may marry her daughter); his father's wife, and his son's wife; and to have at the same time two wives who are sisters, or aunt and niece: he is forbidden also to marry his unemancipated slave, or another man's slave if he has already a free wife; and to marry any woman but one of his own faith, or a Christian, or a Jewess. A Mohammadan woman, however, may only marry a man of her own faith. An unlawful intercourse with any woman prevents a man from marrying any of her relations who would be forbidden to him if she were his wife.
The reader has already seen that a cousin (the daughter of a paternal uncle) is often chosen as a wife, on account of the tie of blood, which is likely to attach her more strongly to her husband, or on account of an affection conceived in early years. Parity of rank is generally much regarded; and a man is often unable to obtain as his wife the daughter of one of a different profession or trade, unless an inferior; or a younger daughter when an elder remains unmarried. A girl is often married at the age of twelve years, and sometimes at ten, or even nine: the usual period is between twelve and sixteen years. At the age of thirteen or fourteen she may be a mother. The young men marry a few years later.
The most important requisite in a wife is religion. The Prophet said, "A virtuous wife is better than the world and all that it contains." "A virtuous wife," said Luḳmán, "is like a crown on the head of a king; and a wicked wife is like a heavy burden on the back of an old man." Among the other chief requisites are agreeableness of temper, and beauty of form (undiminished by any defect or irregularity of features or members), moderation in the amount of dowry required, and good birth. It is said, "if thou marry not a virgin, [which is most desirable,] marry a divorced woman, and not a widow; for the divorced woman will respect thy words when thou sayest, 'If there were any good in thee thou hadst not been divorced;' whereas the widow will say, 'May God have mercy on such a one! he hath left me to one unsuited to me.'" But according to another selfish maxim, the woman most to be avoided is she who is divorced from a man by whom she has had a child; for her heart is with him, and she is an enemy to the man who marries her after.305—Modesty is a requisite upon which too much stress cannot be laid; but this, to an English reader, requires some explanation. 'Alee asked his wife Fáṭimeh, "Who is the best of women?" She answered, "She who sees not men, and whom they see not."306Modesty, therefore, in the opinion of the Muslims, is most eminently shown by a woman's concealing her person, and restraining her eyes, from men. "The best rank of men [in a mosque]," said the Prophet, "is the front; and the best rank of women is the rear:"307that is, those most distant from the men: but better than even these are the women who pray at home.308—Fruitfulness is also a desirable qualification to be considered in the choice of a wife: "it may be known in maidens," says the Prophet, "from their relations; because, generally speaking, kindred are similar in disposition, &c."309Lastly, contentment is to be enumerated among the requisites. It is said, on the same authority, "Verily the best of women are those that are most content with little."310To obtain a contented and submissive wife, many men make their selection from among the classes inferior to them in rank. Others, with a similar view, prefer a concubine slave in the place of a wife.
The consent of a girl not arrived at the age of puberty is not required: her father, or, if he is dead, her nearest adult male relation, or a guardian appointed by will or by the Ḳáḍee, acts as her wekeel, or deputy, to effect the marriage-contract for her. If of age, she appoints her own deputy. A dowry is required to legalize the marriage; and the least dowry allowed by the law is ten dirhems, or drachms of silver; about five shillings of our money. Moḥammad married certain of his wives for a dowry of ten dirhemsand the household necessaries, which were a handmill to grind the corn, a water-jar, and a pillow of skin or leather stuffed with the fibres of the palm-tree, which are called "leef:" but some he married for a dowry of five hundred dirhems.311With the increase of wealth and luxury, dowries have increased in amount; but, to our ideas, they are still trifling; a sum equivalent to about twenty pounds sterling being a common dowry among Arabs of the middle classes for a virgin, and half or a third or quarter of that sum for a divorced woman or a widow. Two-thirds of the sum is usually paid before making the contract, and the remaining portion held in reserve to be paid to the woman in case of her divorce or in case of the husband's death. The father or guardian of a girl under age receives the former portion of her dowry; but it is considered as her property, and he generally expends it, with an additional sum from his own purse, in the purchase of necessary furniture, dress, &c., for her, which the husband can never take from her against her own wish.
The marriage-contract is generally, in the present day, merely verbal; but sometimes a certificate is written, and sealed by the Ḳáḍee. The most approved or propitious period for this act is the month of Showwál: the most unpropitious, Moḥarram. The only persons whose presence is required to perform it are the bridegroom (or his deputy), the bride's deputy (who is the betrother), two male witnesses, if such can be easily procured, and the Ḳáḍee or a schoolmaster or some other person to recite a khuṭbeh, which consists of a few words in praise of God, a form of blessing on the Prophet, and some passages of the Ḳur-án, respecting marriage. They all recite the Fát'ḥah (or opening chapter of the Ḳur-án), after which the bridegroom pays the money. The latter and the bride's deputy then seat themselves on the ground, face to face, and grasp each other's right hand, raising the thumbs, and pressing them against each other. Previously to the khuṭbeh, the person who recites this formula places a handkerchief over the two joined hands; and after the khuṭbeh he dictates to the two contracting parties what they are to say. The betrother generally uses the following or a similar form of words: "I betroth to thee my daughter [or her for whom I act as deputy] such a one [naming the bride], the virgin, [or the adult virgin, &c.,] for a dowry of such an amount." The bridegroom answers, "I accept from thee her betrothal to myself." This is all that is absolutely necessary; but the address and reply are usually repeated a second and third time, and are often expressed in fuller forms of words. The contract is concluded with the recital of the Fát'ḥah by all persons present.
This betrothal, or marriage-contract, is often performed several years before the consummation, when the two parties are yet children; or during the infancy of the girl; but generally not more than about eight or ten days before the former event. The household furniture and dress prepared for the bride are sent by her family to the bridegroom's house, usually conveyed by a train of camels, two or three or more days before she is conducted thither.
The feasts and processions which are now to be mentioned are only observed in the case of a virgin bride; a widow or divorced woman being remarried in a private manner. I describe them chiefly in accordance with the usages of Cairo, which appear to me most agreeable, in general, with the descriptions and allusions in the present work.—The period most commonly approved for the consummation of marriage is the eve of Friday, or that of Monday. Previously to this event, the bridegroom once or twice or more frequently gives a feast to his friends; and for several nights, his house and the houses of his near neighbours are usually illuminated by numerous clusters of lamps, or by lanterns, suspended in front of them; some, to cords drawn across the street. To these or other cords are also suspended small flags, or square pieces of silk, each of two different colours, generally red and green. Some say that the feast or feasts should be given on the occasion of the contract; others, on the consummation; others, again, on both these occasions.312The usual custom of the people of Cairo is to give a feast onthe night immediately preceding that of the consummation, and another on the latter night; but some commence their feasts earlier. Respecting marriage-feasts, the Prophet said, "The first day's feast is an incumbent duty; and the second day's, a sunneh ordinance; and the third day's, for ostentation and notoriety:" and he forbade eating at the feast of the ostentatious.313It is a positive duty to accept an invitation to a marriage-feast or other lawful entertainment; but the guest is not obliged to eat.314The persons invited, and all intimate friends, generally send presents of provisions of some kind a day or two before. The Prophet taught that marriage-feasts should be frugal: the best thathegave was with one goat.315He approved of demonstrations of joy at the celebration of a marriage with songs, and, according to one tradition, by the beating of deffs (or tambourines); but in another tradition the latter practice is condemned.316The preferable mode of entertaining the guests is by the performance of a zikr.
The bride is conducted to the bridegroom's house in the afternoon immediately preceding the night of consummation. On the day next preceding that on which she is conducted thither, she goes to the public bath, accompanied by a number of her female relations and friends. The procession generally pursues a circuitous route, for the sake of greater display; and on leaving the house, turns to the right. In Cairo, the bride walks under a canopy of silk borne by four men, with one of her near female relations on each side of her. Young unmarried girls walk before her; these are preceded by the married ladies; and the procession is headed and closed by a few musicians with drums and hautboys. The bride wears a kind of pasteboard crown, or cap; and is completely veiled from the view of spectators by a Kashmeer shawl placed over her crown and whole person; but some handsome ornaments of the head are attached externally. The other women are dressed in the best of their walking-attire. In the case, however, of a bride of high rank, or of wealth, and often in the case of one belonging to a family of the middle class, the ladies ride upon high-saddled asses, without music or canopy; and the bride is only distinguished by a Kashmeer shawl instead of the usual black silk covering; one or more eunuchs sometimes riding at the head. In the bath, after the ordinary operations of washing, &c., a feast is made, and the party are often entertained by female singers. Having returned in the same manner to her home, the bride's friends there partake of a similar entertainment with her. Her hands and feet are then stained with ḥennà, and her eyes ornamented with koḥl; and her friends give her small presents of money, and take their leave. "It is a sunneh ordinance that the bride wash her feet in a clean vessel, and sprinkle the water in the corners of the chamber, that a blessing may result from this. She should also brighten her face, and put on the best of her apparel, and adorn her eyes with koḥl, and stain [her hands and feet] with ḥennà [as above mentioned]; and she should abstain, during the first week, from eating anything that contains mustard, and from vinegar, and sour apples."317
The bride is conducted to the house of the bridegroom (on the following day) in the same manner as to the bath, or with more pomp. In Cairo, the bridal processions of persons of very high rank are conducted with singular display. The train is usually headed by buffoons and musicians, and a water-carrier loaded with a goat's-skin filled with sand and water, of very great weight, which is often borne for many hours before, as well as during, the procession, merely to amuse the spectators by this feat of strength. Then follow (interrupted by groups of male or female dancers, jugglers, &c.) numerous decorated open waggons, or cars, each of which contains several members of some particular trade or art engaged in their ordinary occupations, or one such person with attendants: in one, for instance, a ḳahwejee (or ḳahvejee), with his assistants and potsand cups and fire, making coffee for the spectators: in a second, makers of sweetmeats: in a third, makers of pancakes (faṭeerehs): in a fourth, silk-lace manufacturers: in a fifth, a silk-weaver, with his loom: in a sixth, tinners of copper vessels, at their work: in a seventh, white-washers, whitening over and over again a wall: in short, almost every manufacture, &c., has its representatives in a different waggon. El-Jabartee describes a procession of this kind in which there were upwards of seventy parties of different trades and arts, each party in a separate waggon, besides buffoons, wrestlers, dancers, and others; followed by various officers, the eunuchs of the bride's family, ladies of the ḥareem with their attendants, then the bride, in a European carriage, a troop of memlooks clad in armour, and a Turkish band of music. It was a procession of which the like had not before been seen.318
The bride and her party, having arrived at the house, sit down to a repast. The bridegroom does not yet see her. He has already been to the bath, and at nightfall he goes in procession with a number of his friends to a mosque, to perform the night-prayers; he is accompanied by musicians and singers, or by chanters of lyric odes in praise of the Prophet; and by men bearing cressets (poles with cylindrical frames of iron at the top filled with flaming wood); and on his return, most of his other attendants bear lighted wax candles, and bunches of flowers.
Returned to his house, he leaves his friends in a lower apartment, and goes up to the bride, whom he finds seated, with a shawl thrown over her head, so as to conceal her face completely, and attended by one or two females. The latter he induces to retire, by means of a small present. He then gives a present of money to the bride, as "the price of uncovering the face," and having removed the covering (saying, as he does so, "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful"), he beholds her, generally, for the first time. On the occasion of this first visit, which is called the "dukhool," or "dukhleh," he is recommended "to perfume himself, and to sprinkle some sugar and almonds on the head of the bride and on that of each woman with her; this practice being established by existing usage and by traditions: also, when he approaches her, he should perform the prayers of two rek'ahs; and she should do the same if able: then he should take hold of the hair over her forehead, and say, 'O God, bless me in my wife, and bless my wife in me! O God, bestow upon me [offspring] by her, and bestow upon her [offspring] by me! O God, unite us, as Thou hast united, happily; and separate us, when Thou separatest, happily!'"319
Note40.The ṭarboosh is a woollen skull-cap, of a deep blood-red colour, having a tassel of dark blue silk attached to the crown. It is now worn by most Arabs of the higher and middle classes, and by many others, except in Arabia, where it is not so common. Round it is wound the muslin or shawl which forms the turban. Within it is worn a cotton cap. The Turks call it "fes," and "fés."
Note41.The farajeeyeh is a loose robe or coat, now generally made of cloth, with full and long sleeves extending a little beyond the extremities of the fingers and without any slit. It is worn chiefly by persons of the learned professions.
Note42.This is the usual mode in which money is collected for the singing-women in the present day.
Note43."Ḥooreeyeh" is the appellation commonly given by the Arabs to a virgin of Paradise, by French and English writers, termed "Houri;" which term, in Arabic, converts a female into a male, but is agreeable with the Persian equivalent of the Arabic "Ḥooreeyeh."
Note44.—On the Evil Eye.Some remarks on the "evil eye" have been made in a former note (No. 24 in the present series), with respect to children, and the means of counteracting its supposed influence; but I mention this subject again partly with theview of suggesting to the reader the necessity of bearing it in mind, as it explains many usages described, or alluded to, in this work, which would otherwise appear unaccountable. He may remember a well-known line of Virgil—
"Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos,"
"Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos,"
which, like many other allusions in works of ancient authors, shews how long and how extensively this superstition has been entertained. How deeply it is rooted in the minds of Arabs, even the most religious and learned, may be inferred from this saying of their Prophet: "The eye has a complete influence; because verily, if there were a thing to overcome fate, it most certainly would be a malignant eye."320Hence he permitted charms (which he disallowed in almost every other case) to be employed for the purpose of counteracting its influence.321The following observation, selected from several of a similar nature in my work on the Modern Egyptians, aptly illustrates the passage to which this note immediately refers. "It is a custom among the higher and middle classes in Cairo, on the occasion of a marriage, to hang chandeliers in the street before the bridegroom's house; and it often happens that a crowd is collected to see a very large and handsome chandelier suspended: in this case, it is a common practice to divert the attention of the spectators by throwing down and breaking a large jar, or by some other artifice, lest an envious eye should cause the chandelier to fall."
Note45.The closet here alluded to, being one in which ablution is performed, always contains a small trough of water, or a ewer.
Note46.This epithet, "unlucky," is often applied to an 'Efreet. I have frequently heard it thus used by Arabs.
Note47."Aboo-Shiháb" (literally, Father of a Shooting Star) is a nickname often given to a devil, and is so employed because devils, or evil jinnees, are sometimes destroyed by shooting stars hurled at them by angels; an instance of which occurs in the tale under consideration.
Note48."Sitt-el-Ḥosn" signifies "the Lady of Beauty."
Note49."Ḥasheesh" is the intoxicating hemp, which has been mentioned in former notes.
Note50.Thus in the Breslau edition, and in the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred nights; but in the edition of Cairo, the cook is merely termed a prodigal.
Note51.—On Adoption.The Mohammadan law allows the adoption of sons, provided that the person to be adopted consents to the act, if of age to judge for himself; also, that he has been deprived of his parents by death or other means; and that there be such a difference of age between the two parties as might subsist between a natural father and his son. The adopted son enjoys the same right of inheritance as the natural son; but the adoptive father is not prevented by this act from marrying any relation of his adopted son.
Note52.In the houses of Arabs of the more wealthy classes, there is usually a chair upon which the turban is placed at night. It is of a large size, but slight make; the bottom and back being generally of cane-work; and sometimes it has a kind of canopy constructed over it. The turban, when placed upon it, is covered with a kerchief of thick silk stuff, often embroidered or interwoven with gold thread.
Note53."Móṣilee" may be understood as meaning either "of the fashion of El-Móṣil," or "of muslin:" but the former, according to my sheykh, is the signification here intended. I think there is nothing peculiar in the common modern turban of El-Móṣil.
Note54.This is done under the idea that it strengthens the infant's eyes.
Note55."'Ajeeb" signifies "Wonderful."
Note56.The meaning of this is, that he grew in a day as other children in a month; and in a month, as others in a year.
Note57.The death of the cook is mentioned in the edition of Breslau; but not in that of Cairo.
Note58.This ejaculation is generally uttered at the mention of a deceased Muslim.
Note59."Ṣáḥeb" is a title given to Wezeers, as mentioned in Note 8 to the Introduction.
Note60.In the original, fifteen. The age of 'Ajeeb has been shewn to have been little more than eleven at this period; therefore I have substituted twelve for fifteen. In page 243 I have made a similar correction, substituting fifteen for eighteen.
Note61.This alludes to a custom common in the East,—that of giving a present of a dress, or some article of clothing, to a person who has brought good news.
Note62.The term "boy" is not used here to imply that the eunuch was a youth; but in the sense in which it is often employed by us; as synonymous with "servant."
Note63."Er-Reydáneeyeh" is the name of a tract on the north of Cairo, where travellers arriving from Syria generally halted. In the original, by errors in the diacritical points, this name is converted into "Ez-Zebedáneeyeh."
Note64.The word which I translate "a cross," literally signifies "an effigy;" but I suppose this term to be employed merely because a cross bears a rude resemblance to a man with extended arms.
Note65."The name of Allah encompass thee!" (or, literally, "—be around thee!") is an ejaculation often used, especially by women, agreeing exactly with the expression in the first verse of the twentieth Psalm,—"The name of the God of Jacob defend thee!"—the "name" of God here signifying his power. "The name of the Lord is a strong tower: the righteous runneth into it, and is safe." (Proverbs xviii. 10.)
Note66.Here, for a reason given above, I have substituted "twelve" for "ten."
Note67.In the original, the last of these verses is here omitted, but my sheykh has supplied it in the margin of my copy, and it occurs afterwards, in the 75th night, in which the preceding verses, with some slight variations, are repeated.
Note68.—On the Expiation of Oaths.The law clearly allows expiation for an inconsiderate oath, and, according to vulgar opinion, for the violation of a deliberate oath.322The expiation consists in once feeding or clothing ten poor men, liberating a Muslim slave or captive, or fasting three days. An unintentional oath requires no expiation; but the swearing to a falsehood can only be expiated by deep repentance.
Note69.Hole observes (page 222), that "the discovery of Bedreddin in the Arabian Nights by the tarts he had made, bears internal evidence of having been copied from Nella Raja's detection by the same means:" and he refers to Kindersley's "Specimens of Indian Literature."