FIG. 41. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING.
FIG. 42. DESIGNS EMBROIDERED ON MEN'S CLOTHING.
The language of this tribe, while quite uniform among its divisions, varies considerably from that of any of their coast neighbors. There is at once noticeable a more common use of obscure vowel and consonant sounds, such as b, f, E, a, and k, in the beginning, end or even in the body of the word; while the letter f, seldom found in Philippine dialects, is here very common; and finally, there is wide variation in vocabulary.
There are certain ill-defined tales to the effect that this tribe once lived about Lake Buluan, and one writer[72] has attempted to show that the tribal name is derived from that early home. Today they are still in considerable numbers in that region, and this together with the fact that they are now, and have been since the advent of the white man, primarily an interior mountain people, helps to give credence to the belief that they have spread to their present homes from the lake district. Their language is a further proof that they have long been separated from the people of the Davao Gulf region, for it differs more from all the other dialects studied than did any of these vary among themselves. Despite the foregoing statement, this brief sketch has shown that in material culture, religion, and even physical type this tribe does not differ radically from the Bagobo.
[72] BLUMENTRITT,Smithsonian Reportfor 1899.
III. KULAMAN.
III. KULAMAN.
(a) CULAMANES.(b) MANOBO.
According to Governor Bolton this tribe numbers about thirty-five hundred individuals and occupies a considerable portion of the coast, and adjacent mountains, from the Padada river on the north to Sarangani Bay on the south. On the east side of Davao Gulf its members are found along the beach and in the mountains, from Sigaboy to Cape San Agustin, and also in a few scattered villages on the southeastern Pacific Coast.
By their neighbors they are known as Kulaman or Manobo. The former designation is translated as "bad man," but it is probable that they received the name from the town of Kulaman, where they formerly resided. They are equally well known as Manobo—a word meaning "man." Earlier writers, misled by these two names, have generally treated this people as forming two distinct groups, but this is quite incorrect, both names being applied to a part or to the whole of the tribe. It has also been customary to describe them as a part of the great Manobo tribe which inhabits a large portion of Central and Northeastern Mindanao. The writer is of the opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to justify such a classification and that for the present we must consider them as distinct from the Manobo of the northern district as are the other tribes of Davao Gulf.
According to their own tales, the Kulaman once held all the coast from the Padada River to Sarangani Bay, but did not extend far back from the sea, since in the mountains lived the Tagakaolo and Bila-an with whom they were constantly at war. When the Moro appeared on their coasts and offered help against the hill tribes in return for land, they were gladly received and were given several village sites near to the mouths of various rivers. Aside from a few minor quarrels, the Kulaman have always lived on friendly terms with these later comers, and not a few of the tribe have been converted to Mohammedism.
Influenced by their new allies they organized under several petty rulers who were subservient to the datu at Kulaman, and with this superior organization they were able to carry on such successful warfare against the hill tribes that the Tagakaolo were, for a time, partially under their rule.
When the Spaniards arrived and undertook to subdue the Moro, the Kulaman cast their lot with their Mohammedan allies, and even after the power of the Moro was broken, they remained irreconcilable and frequently raided the settlements under the care of the Spanish priests.
The recent history of the tribe, as told by Datu Bongkalasan of Padada, as is follows: "About a hundred years ago when Gogo becamedatu, he left Kulaman and settled at Piapi, not far from Padada, and planted the cocoanut trees which can still be seen there. He was a man with a very small head, but his arms were as large as a man's legs. He lived until very old, and during his lifetime never did any work but was always a great warrior. Under him the tribe became strong and all the otherdatufeared him. When he died his son Kolatau my uncle, succeeded him. Like his father, he was a great warrior and all the neighboring tribes paid him slaves and other tribute. His two sons died during his lifetime; so upon his death the leadership fell to me, Bongkalasan."
By the time Bongkalasan became ruler, the influence of the Spaniards was strong enough to break the power of any coastdatu, and after a hostile demonstration by the new ruler his town was destroyed and his following scattered. A part of the people took to the hills while others migrated to the east side of the Gulf and settled near Sigaboy. It is not believed that any members of this tribe were in that vicinity prior to this time. A further migration took place shortly after the arrival of the Americans, when a brother of Bongkalasan took a number of the Kulaman over to Sigaboy. A certain amount of communication is kept up between the people on both sides of the Gulf and the dialects are still so similar that it is certain the separation has not been for any great period of time.
Upon the establishment of American rule a number of hemp planters settled along the coast and soon their inducements to laborers began to scatter the people, until today members of this tribe can be found as far north as Santa Cruz. The power and influence of thedatuhas waned until he now has a following of less than two hundred people. Only that portion of the tribe which retired to the hills still maintains any semblance of their old prowess and even those groups are growing smaller year by year.
At the height of their power the men of the tribe were noted as boat-builders[73] and fishermen. Fighting also took up a considerable portion of their time, for added to their desire for loot and slaves was a demand for victims imposed by the warrior deity. The women cultivated little patches of corn, camotes, and some cocoanuts, and at certain seasons all the members of the tribe went to the forest to gather sago, but aside from this the sea furnished most of their food supply. According to their own stories they did not cultivate rice until recent years, and Datu Bongkalasan insists that none of the people planted rice when he was a boy. It is his belief that all the ceremonies connected with the rice culture were learned from the Tagakaolo and Bila-an.
[73] This art is now practically lost and their boats are secured from the Moro.
From the Spanish writers[74] we hear little but evil of this people. They are spoken of as warlike, superstitious, treacherous, and vengeful as head-hunters "who expose the heads of their enemies on poles," and as slavers. From Father GISBERT[75] we learn that in 1886, about twelve hundred members of the tribe were converted to Christianity; but during the period following the departure of the Spaniards most of them deserted the faith and returned to the old life. Since American occupation they have been among the most troublesome people of Southern Mindanao, and only as late as 1911 were responsible for the death of a number of planters and the destruction of the plantations in the neighborhood of Nuin. They are rapidly breaking up as a tribe, and are intermarrying with the coast natives and hill tribes, from both of whom they are adopting artifacts and ideas. Already they have so altered their dwellings that we cannot refer to a typical Kulaman home; their house-hold utensils[76] are those of their neighbors, and this is true also of most of the clothing, although one special type will be mentioned later on.
[74] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. LV, p. 556.
[75] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 242.
[76] Long narrow hemp cloth pillows (fig. 43) and round waterproof boxes with infitting, tray-like tops (fig. 44) are found in nearly every house. The use of these two articles is not confined to this people, but is typical of them. The same type of box is found among the Manobo of the Agusan river valley.
FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER.
FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP.
As a result of their slave raids, and the adoption of captive women and their offspring into the family, we find great variation in the members of the tribe (Plates LXI-LXII).
Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results:Height:—Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 cm.Cephalic Index:—Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average 78.1.Length-Height. Index:—Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; average 68.4.
If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be seen that there is little difference in the averages; however, this similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77]
[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under discussion.
The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice.
Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all other spirits.
[78] The Padada people say the termdiwatais a name which may be applied to thetimanEm, of whom there are two, a male and a female.
Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the tribe.[80]
[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray at each full moon.
[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations in 1911.
The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally favorable to man and are collectively known asmagintalonan.
Tamà owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a tree, in exchange for the live animal.
Themaniokan, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and like them live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply stepping over their homes.
Each man and woman has a spirit,kalaloa,[81] dwelling in his body during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings are made to them at planting and harvest time.
[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has twokalaloa, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the one on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no work and "thoughts come easy." Thekalaloaof the left side goes into the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group.
A few old men,makating, are thought to be able to address the spirits with greater probability of success than the others; but they do not stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do themabalianof the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a group of women known aslokEs[82], who act as midwives and make use of roots and herbs in curing sickness.
[82] In Santa Cruz known asbagbabolanormananagámeni.
The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various signs. A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the traveler to turn back; the call of thelimokon[83] is likewise a warning, while should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze during the negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned.
[83] See p. 63 note.
There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in connection with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the recent adoption of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is seldom planted to rice for more than one season, after which the land is used for corn, camotes, and the like, until the invasion ofcogongrass makes further cultivation impossible.
As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the constellationlayag"a sail" andbalangay"a boat" appear in the month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down the trees, and when these are dry, fire them.
Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the center of the field where a bamboo pole,talabinian, and a stalk of sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to thekalaloawho guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of food is taken to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as follows: "Do not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now we give a part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then all who desire may aid in cutting the new rice.
No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch to the village.
In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of the men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while the women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that previously described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been developed by this tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their neighbors. Waxed threads are used to work designs into cloth so that when the fabric is placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions thus covered. Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear on the red background (See Plate LXIII).
FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH.
Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the members of this class.
Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims.
A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red suit covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is henceforth known asmabolot. When his score has reached twenty-five he receives the still more honorable title ofmaisEgand is then allowed to dress entirely in black and to deck his hair with red flowers.[84]
[84] The flowers used areCelosia cristata L., Graptophyllum hortense nees;Coleus atropurpeus Benth.
A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number have come into possession of firearms.
Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. 46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been offered to him.
[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it is considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, as a result, the place was left unharmed.
[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten.
FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET.
The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way displeased.[87]
[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo.
The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at about that period.
[88] Vitex littoralis Decne.
[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon.
Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have previously described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, but receiving a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one another with rice and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn that a child is kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is customary for the youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or three years preceding the wedding, after which he is released from such service.
As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, the only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a portion.
Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire on the part of thekalaloato leave its present abode. In either case the man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to placate the evil spirits or to convince hiskalaloato remain with him. This last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person with water which has been heated in a goodagong. A fine dish would do equally well, but should the hot water cause it to break the spirit would depart at once. In extreme cases thelokEswill gather certain roots and brew them into a drink which she gives to the sick person. At each tree or shrub visited in her search for medicines she leaves an offering of betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink has been prepared she makes a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to aid her in effecting a cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, the corpse is placed in the center of the house, where it is kept from two to nine days according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. During this time no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit might be resentful and turn the face of the sleeper black.
Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the house. The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, and the like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has been a warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, and his grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are shaped to resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to the beach.
For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past.
IV. TAGAKAOLO.
IV. TAGAKAOLO.
(a) TAGAKAOLA.(b) SAKA—"head of the river."(c) KAGAN, KALAGAN, CALAGANES, CALAGARS.(d) LAOC. According to the account of PASTELL,[90] this name is given to a small, degraded division of the Tagakaolo who live in the mountains of Haguimitan on San Augustin peninsula.
[90] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 259.
The present habitat and general condition of this tribe is nearly the same as that of the Kulaman.
Prior to Spanish times they held the hill region back of the coast, between Malalag and Lais. On the Gulf side they were barred from the sea by the Kulaman and Moro, while in the mountains they encountered the powerful Bila-an tribe.
About fifty years ago that part of the tribe living furthest to the north united under the leadership of a brave warrior named Paugok, and made war on the Bagobo. They were successful in this conflict and drove their enemies from the rich valleys of the Padada and Bulatakay rivers, where they established themselves. This brought them in close contact with the Kulaman and Moro of the coast, with whom they lived on friendly terms. The influence of the latter group was so great that the newcomers not only adopted their style of dress, but also substituted cotton for hemp in the manufacture of their garments. Today the members of this tribe can still be recognized by their close fitting suits of red and yellow striped cloth, from which they have received the name of Kagan.[91] They have also been constant borrowers, from all their neighbors, of ideas for house-building and utensils. They have intermarried to some extent with the Kulaman, and in times past Bila-an and Bagobo slave women have been added to the tribe.
[91] The general name applied to red cotton trade cloth.
Today practically all the members of the Kagan division are found living on the American plantations along the Padada and Bulatakay rivers. They are on friendly terms with their Tagakaolo kinsmen, and are still so like them in language, social customs, and religious beliefs, that one description will suffice for both.
At some unrecorded date a considerable, portion of the tribe migrated to the east side of Davao Gulf, and settled near Cape San Agustin, where, it is said, they now number more than two thousand.
The name Tagakaolo signifies "those who dwell at the head of the river," and is applied to all the hill people living between the coast and the country of the Bila-an. They have always been broken up into small groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs. In recent years many of them have been induced to come down to the coast plantations, but the great majority still remain in the mountains. They are of a turbulent, warlike disposition, and have been a constant source of trouble to the Spanish and American authorities.[92] At the time of the writer's visit they had joined with the Kulaman in raiding the coast settlements, and, as a result, were being vigorously pursued by the American troops; for this reason it was only possible to gain information from those remaining on the plantations.
[92] Members of this tribe were responsible for the murder of Governor Bolton.
The total number of persons making up the tribe is estimated at six thousand, but this is at best a mere guess.
There is scarcely any variation in physical type between the Kagan branch and the Tagakaolo proper, while for the whole tribe there is less variation between its members than in any group so far discussed.
The following results were obtained by measurements on twenty-seven men:Maximum height 166.6 cm.; minimum 151.3 cm.; average 157.4 cm.Cephalic indices—Maximum 89.7; minimum 76.3; average 81.5.Length-height indices—Maximum 79.0; minimum 63.1, average 70.0.
These tables show that aside from being more short-headed, this tribe differs little from the Bagobo, Bila-an, and Kulaman. Like the Kulaman, they have high foreheads, often full and vaulted but quite as frequently retreating from well-marked supra-orbital ridges. They are slightly more prognathous than the Kulaman, and in the majority of cases the hair is curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while shaving of the eyebrows and tattooing of the left forearm and breast are quite common.
The historians of the tribe tell us that all the Tagakaolo are descended from Lakbang, MEngEdan, and his wife Bodek. In the beginning these three persons lived on a small island in the sea. Two children, Linkanan and Lampagan, were born to them and they in turn were parents of two birds—thekalauandsabitan. These birds flew away to other places and returned with bits of soil which their parents patted and moulded with their hands until they had formed the earth. Other children were born and from them have come all the people who now inhabit the land.
Two powerful spirits,DiwataandTimanEm, watched the formation of the world, and when it was completed the latter spirit planted trees upon it. He still takes considerable interest in the affairs of men and each year sends the spirits Layag and Bangay,[93] as stars, to tell the people when to prepare their land for the planting of crops.
[93] See page 154.
Other spirits, less friendly, have existed from the first time. Of these one named Siling causes much trouble by confusing travelers through the forest. Spirits of unborn children—mantianak[94]—wander through the forest crying "ina-a-a" (mother), and often attack human beings. The only way persons thus assailed can hope to escape is by running to a stream and throwing water on the abdomens of their pursuers.
[94] Frequently calledbusau.
The powerful spirit Tamà owns the deer and wild pig, and is usually kind to hunters who offer him proper gifts. Should they fail in this duty he may cause them to become lost or injured. Mandalangan (Mandangan) is known as a powerful spirit who loves war and bloodshed, but he is so closely interwoven in the minds of the people with TimanEm that it is doubtful if he should be classed as a separate spirit.
In addition to these beings are thekawE, or shades of the dead, the chiefs of whom are the people who created the earth. During life thekawElive in the body, but after death they go to the sky where they remain the greater part of the time. They do return to earth at certain seasons, to aid or injure the living, and it is usually one of their number who keeps guard over the rice-fields. Certain persons known asbaliancan talk to these spirits and from them have learned the ceremonies which the people should perform at certain seasons, and at the critical periods of life. In the main these ceremonies are so similar to those just described that it is useless to repeat. The proceedings at a birth, marriage, or death are practically identical with the Kulaman, as are also those at planting and harvest time. A slight variation was noticed after the rice planting at Padada, when all the workers placed their planting sticks on an offering of rice and then poured water over them "so as to cause an abundance of rain." Another difference is noticed following the death of a warrior. His knife lies in its sheath beside the body for seven days and during that time can only be drawn if it is to be used in sacrificing a slave. If such an offering is made it is carried out in much the same way as the Bagobo sacrifice, except that the bereaved father, son, or brother cuts the body in halves.
If it is impossible to offer a slave, a palm leaf cup is filled with water and is carried to the forest. Here the relatives dance and then dip the knife and some sticks in the water for "this is the same as dipping them in blood." Later they are carried back and hung up in the house of mourning.
According to the long established custom, warriors must go to fight once each year, when the moon is bright. Spears, fighting knives, bows and arrows, sharpened bamboo sticks, and shields have long been used, and to these several guns have been added in recent years.
The attack is from ambush and the victims are generally cut to pieces, although women and children are sometimes taken captive. Tufts of hair taken from the slain are attached to the shields of the warriors, and an arm is carried back to the home town "so that the women and children can cut it to pieces and become brave."
The foregoing account shows that the Kagan and Tagakaolo living on the hemp plantations differ very little from their neighbors, whom we have previously described. It may be that an investigation, carried on in peaceful times, far back in the mountains, will show that more radical differences exist in the great body of the tribe.
V. ATA.
V. ATA.
The people classed under this name are the least known of any of the wild inhabitants of Mindanao. They probably receive their name from the wordatáswhich signifies "those up above" or "the dwellers in the uplands." It does not appear that they form a single tribe, or that they are even of uniform type.
The writer did no intensive work with them, and the following notes make no pretense of being first-hand knowledge. I have drawn on all possible sources for this scanty information, but am mostly indebted to the letters and reports of the late Governor Bolton, who, without doubt, knew more of this people than any other white man.
I am thus compelled to make my descriptions vague; indeed, my one excuse for dealing with the Ata is to bring together such information as we possess in the hope that it may be of value to some other worker who may later take up the task of studying this little known people.
According to Governor Bolton, the Ata inhabit the regions west and northwest of Mt. Apo, the headwaters of the Davao river—north and west of the Guianga—as well as the headwaters of the Lasan, Tuganay, and Libagawan rivers. In all these regions they extend over the watershed, converging toward the center of the island at the headwaters of the Pulangi river.
It should be noted at the outset that the Eto or Ata, living between the Guianga and Bagobo, should not be included in this division.
In the region about Mt. Apo they are closely allied to the Obo and Tigdapaya,[95] while in the region adjoining the Guianga they have intermarried with that people and have adopted many of their customs as well as dress. On the headwaters of the Lasan river we are told that they are known as Dugbatang or Dugbatung; that they are a timid degenerate branch having no fixed habitations and very little clothing; they are small, with crispy hair, and often decorate their bodies with tattooed designs. About twenty miles up the Tuganay river Governor Bolton encountered a similar group of Ata whom he describes as being very wild. From the headwaters of this river he crossed over near to the source of the river Libagawan where he discovered a hitherto unknown people—the Tugauanum. These he believed were mixed Malay and Negrito, with crispy or curly hair and sharp features.
[95] See p. 128.
While in the central part of Mindanao, on the headwaters of the Pulangi river, the writer saw about fifty people known as Tugauanum who came over the mountains to trade. They were certainly of mixed ancestry, showing a distinct infusion of Negrito blood, and in other respects conforming to the description of Governor Bolton. Among articles of barter carried by them were the typical knives and hemp cloth of the west side of the Davao gulf region, showing that they are at least in the line of trade with the tribes we have already studied.
According to their own stories, the original home of the tribe was along the river Mapula which flows into the Tuganay near its source. Governor Bolton tells of hearing, while in this section, of a people called Dedaanum "who were small and black and had curly hair," but who had all been killed by the Tugauanum. He was also informed that a numerous tribe of very small black people called Tugniah lived on the headwaters of the river Omiern, which flows north of the Libagawan. They were said to live in trees, to plant nothing, and to subsist on sago flour. "Their bolos are like sabers and they use lances, bows, and arrows."
The Governor classes the Tugauanum as Ata "since they speak the same language" but he adds "they are probably the same race as the Libabaoan." This latter people are elsewhere in his notes referred to as Guibabauon or Dibabaoan. They live along the headwaters of the Tagum river and are, he believes, a mixture of Ata and Mandaya.[96]
[96] The writer believes that the Libabaoan are probably the same as the Divavaoan who are classed as a branch of the Mandaya. See p. 165.
From one source we learn that the Ata are small, in many respects resembling the Negrito; that they are timid and are either nomads or build their houses high in the branches of trees. Another writer tells us that they are a superior type, with aquiline noses, thick beards, and are tall. "They are very brave and hold their own with the Moro." We are also told that they cultivate the soil and build good houses.
The estimates concerning their numbers are equally conflicting. Governor Bolton gives the population as six thousand; the report of the Philippine Commission for 1900 credits them with eight thousand, while Father Gisbert believed that they aggregated "not less than twenty thousand souls."
The divergent reports are due to the fact that up to the year 1886 only one village of this people had been visited,[97] and since that time only a few hasty trips have been made into their territory.
[97] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, pp. 242-3.
From our present information it seems probable that the Ata are descendants of an early invading people who intermarried first with the early Negrito inhabitants, and later with other tribes with which they came in contact. They have been free borrowers from their neighbors in all respects, and hence we find them occupying all the steps from the nomad condition of the pygmy blacks to the highly specialized life of the Guianga.
The following account of their beliefs was extracted from letters written by Governor Bolton. He fails to designate the section from which the information was gathered, but its similarity to Bagobo and Guianga makes it probable that the account comes from the Ata dwelling near those people. Considerable variation will doubtless be found in other districts.
"The greatest of all the spirits is Manama[98] who made the first men from blades of grass, weaving them together until they resembled a human form. In this manner he made eight persons—male and female—who later became the ancestors of the Ata and all the neighboring tribes. Long after this the water covered the whole earth and all the Ata were drowned except two men and a woman. The waters carried them far away and they would have perished had not a large eagle come to their aid. This bird offered to carry them to their homes on its back. One man refused, but the other two accepted its help and returned to Mapula.
[98] See page 106.
"The other deities are Mandarangan, Malalayug, god of agriculture; Mabalian, the spirit who presides over childbirth; Tarasyub and Taratuan, the guardian spirits of the brass and iron workers; Boypandi—the spirit who guards over the weavers."
While in the Ata country the Governor observed certain customs of the people. As his party approached the palisaded house of Madundun they stopped for twenty minutes to perform a ceremony calledanting-anting. "An old man waved his shield and a cloth, meanwhile repeating mysterious words. Then each man was given a chew of betel-nut and was well rubbed with a charm." "At Tuli a swarm of bees passed over the house just as the party was ready to start. This was taken as a sign that some of the party would be killed by the arrows of the enemy, hence they refused to go." "Likewise, if the dovelimokancalls on the left side of the trail the party will refuse to proceed, unless anotherlimokananswers the call from the right side of the path."
VI. MANDAYA.("Inhabitants of the Uplands").
VI. MANDAYA.("Inhabitants of the Uplands").
(a) MANSAKA ("Inhabitants of the mountain clearings"). This name is applied to those Mandaya who formerly dwelt far back in the mountains. Many of this division have recently emigrated to the coast and are now found at the north and east part of Davao Gulf.(b) PAGSUPAN. The appellation by which the members of this tribe, living near the Tagum and Hijo rivers, are known.(c) MANGWANGA or MANGRANGAN ("Dwellers in the forests"). A name by which are designated those Mandaya who live in the heavily forested mountains skirting the coast.(d) MANAGOSAN or MAGOSAN. The members of the tribe living on the headwaters of the Agusan river bear this name.(e) DIVAVAOAN. A division which inhabits a small district to the south and west of Compostela. Very little is known of this people, but from the information now at hand it seems that they should be classed as a branch of the Mandaya.
HABITAT.
HABITAT.
This tribe occupies both slopes of the mountain range which borders the Pacific ocean, from about 9 degrees of North latitude south nearly to Cape San Agustin. Its members are also found in considerable numbers from the head of the Agusan drainage nearly to the town of Compostela, and several settlements of this people are to be found along the Hijo and Tagum rivers, while in recent years a number have established themselves on the eastern side of Davao Gulf.
Generally speaking, this whole region is extremely mountainous and at the same time heavily wooded. It is only when the Agusan, Hijo, and Tagum rivers are approached that the country becomes more open. On the Pacific coast there are few harbors, for the mountains extend down almost to the water's edge forming high sheer cliffs. Aside from the three rivers mentioned the water courses are, for the greater part, small and unnavigable and a short distance back from the coast appear as tiny rivulets at the bottom of deep cañons.
There is no organization of the tribe as a whole, since each district has its local ruler who is subject to no other authority. These divisions I are seldom on good terms, and are frequently in open warfare with one another or with neighboring tribes.
Despite this lack of unity and the great area they inhabit, their dialects are mutually intelligible, and in other respects they are so similar that I believe we are justified in regarding them as one group linguistically, physically, and culturally.
DESCRIPTION.
DESCRIPTION.
Measurements made on fifteen men and five women gave the following results:Height—Men: Maximum 161.3 cm., minimum 145.1 cm., average 153.9 cm.Women: Maximum 152.3 cm., minimum 144.1 cm., average 146.8 cm.Cephalic index—Men: Maximum 89.1, minimum 76.3, average 84.6.Women: Maximum 84.8, minimum 75.2, average 81.3.Length-height index—Men: maximum 78.7, minimum 64.5, average 74.2.Women: Maximum 81.8, minimum 75.0, average 77.4.
From these figures it appears that there is considerable variation between individuals, but a closer study of the charts shows that the majority of those measured come closer to the averages than do the members of any other group here mentioned (Plates LXIV-LXIX).
Both sexes wear the hair long and comb it to a knot at the back of the head. The women generally bang the hair over the forehead, while the men allow a lock to fall in front of each ear. The hair is brown-black and generally slightly wavy, although four individuals with straight hair were seen.
The forehead is high, and in about half the persons observed somewhat retreating; however, full, vaulted foreheads are by no means uncommon. The distance from the vertex to the tragus is uniformly great.
The cheek bones are quite prominent, while the whole face tapers from above so as to be somewhat angular. In twenty per cent of the men the root of the nose seemed to be continuous with the supra-orbital ridge, which, in such cases, was strongly marked. In general the root of the nose is broad, low, and depressed, and there is a tendency for the ridge to be somewhat concave. The lips are thick and bowed, but there is little or no prognathism.
The skin of the body is not tattooed or mutilated in any other way, but the eyebrows are often shaved to a thin line, and the teeth are filed and blackened. Filing was formerly done with small stones but imported files are now used for this purpose. The coloring is effected by chewing the roots of theanmoñvine and applying to the teeth the "sweat" caught on a steel blade, held above burning bark of themagawantree. This practice seems to have no significance other than that of beautifying the person and saving the youth from the ridicule of his fellows. To keep the teeth black, tobacco treated with lemon juice which has stood on rusty iron is chewed frequently.
Despite constant statements to the effect that the members of this tribe are light-colored and the assertion of one writer[99] that at least one division is white, observations made with the V. Luschan color table on more than fifty individuals showed that while certain persons are somewhat lighter than their fellows, as was also the case in other tribes, there is not an appreciable difference in color between this tribe and the others of the Gulf region.
[99] LANDOR, The Gems of the East. It should be noted that the district from which the white tribe was reported is now fairly well known and there seems to be no reason to believe that the people residing there differ materially in color from the other natives of the island.