206Plato,Leges, viii. 843: “… ἢ σμικρὸν λίθον ὁρίζοντα φιλαίν καὶ ἔχθραν ἔνορκον παρὰ θεῶν.”
206Plato,Leges, viii. 843: “… ἢ σμικρὸν λίθον ὁρίζοντα φιλαίν καὶ ἔχθραν ἔνορκον παρὰ θεῶν.”
207Xenophon,Anabasis, v. 3. 13. Hermann,Disputatio de terminis apud Græcos, p. 11.
207Xenophon,Anabasis, v. 3. 13. Hermann,Disputatio de terminis apud Græcos, p. 11.
208Rei agrariæ auctores legesque variæ, edited by Gœsius, p. 258sq.
208Rei agrariæ auctores legesque variæ, edited by Gœsius, p. 258sq.
209Siculus Flaccus, ‘De conditionibus agrorum,’ inRei agrariæ auctores, p. 5.
209Siculus Flaccus, ‘De conditionibus agrorum,’ inRei agrariæ auctores, p. 5.
210Dibbs, ‘Beating the Bounds,’ inChambers’s Edinburgh Journal, N.S. xx. (1853) 49sqq.Trumbull,The Threshold Covenant, p. 174sq.
210Dibbs, ‘Beating the Bounds,’ inChambers’s Edinburgh Journal, N.S. xx. (1853) 49sqq.Trumbull,The Threshold Covenant, p. 174sq.
The practice of cursing a thief may possibly even be at the bottom of the belief of some savages that such a person will be punished after death. In a following chapter we shall notice instances where the efficacy of a curse is supposed to extend beyond the grave. But we shall also find other reasons for savage doctrines of retribution in the world to come. In the cases referred to above it is not expressly said that thepost mortempunishment of the thief is inflicted by a god.
I have here only dealt with rules relating to property which have been recognised by custom or law. But the established principles of ownership have not always been admitted to be just: in the civilised countries of the West they have called forth an opposition which is rapidly gaining in strength. The limited scope of the present work does not allow me to attempt a detailed account of this movement, with its variety of arguments and its multitudinous schemes of reform. The main reasons for complaint are:—first, that our actual law of property does not ensure to every labourer the whole produce of his labour; secondly, that it does not provide for every wanta satisfaction proportionate to the available means. However much the opinions of the different schools of socialists may vary, every socialist organisation of property aims either at guaranteeing to the working-classes the entire product of their industry, or at reducing to just proportions individual needs and existing means of satisfaction by recognising the claim of every member of society to the commodities and services necessary to support existence, in preference to the satisfaction of the less pressing wants of others.211These aims are greatly hampered by the present system, in which land and capital are the property of private individuals freely struggling for increase of wealth, and especially by the legally recognised existence of unearned income212—the “rent” of the Saint-Simonians, the “surplus value” (Mehrwert) of Thompson and Marx,—for which the favoured recipient returns no personal equivalent to society, and which he is able to pocket because the wage labourer receives in money-wages less than the full value of the produce of his work. We have here a conflict between different principles of acquisition. Both the rule that the owner of a thing also owns what results from it, and the law of inheritance, leading as they do to unearned income, are intruding upon the principle of labour as a source of property. They, moreover, interfere with the right to subsistence, which in some measure, though often insufficiently, is recognised in all human societies;213for, as Marx observed, the accumulation of wealth at one pole means the accumulation of misery at the opposite pole.214This conflict between different principles or rights, all of which have deep foundations in human nature and the conditions of social life, has been brought about by certainfacts inherent in progressive civilisation. In simple societies the unearned income is small, because no fortunes exist, and the wants of those who are incapable of earning their own livelihood are provided for by the system of mutual aid. Progress in culture, on the other hand, has been accompanied by a more unequal distribution of wealth, and also by a decrease of social solidarity as a result of the increase and greater differentiation of the social unit. The unearned income has grown larger, the disproportion between the returns on capital and the reward for labour has in many cases become enormous, and hand in hand with the opulence of some goes the destitution of others. At the same time the injustice of prerogatives based on birth or fortune is keenly felt, the dignity of labour is recognised, and the working-classes are every day becoming more conscious both of their power and their rights. All this has resulted in a strong and wide-spread conviction that the actual law of property greatly differs from the ideal law. But much struggle will no doubt be required to bring them in harmony with one another. The present rights of property are supported not only by personal interests, but also by a deep-rooted feeling, trained in the school of tradition, that it would be iniquitous of the State to interfere with individuals’ long-established claims to use at their pleasure the objects of wealth. The new scheme, on the other hand, derives strength from the fact that it aims at rectifying legal rights in accordance with existing needs, and that it lays stress on a method of acquisition which more than any other seems to appeal to the natural sense of justice in man. We are utterly unable to foresee in detail the issue of this struggle. But that the law of property will sooner or later undergo a radical change must be obvious to every one who realises that, though ideas of right and wrong may for some time outlive the conditions from which they sprang, they cannot do so for ever.
211See Menger,Right to the whole Produce of Labour, p. 5sqq., Goos,op. cit.ii. 61.
211See Menger,Right to the whole Produce of Labour, p. 5sqq., Goos,op. cit.ii. 61.
212The term “unearned income” (arbeitsloses Einkommen) has been proposed by Menger (op. cit.p. 3).
212The term “unearned income” (arbeitsloses Einkommen) has been proposed by Menger (op. cit.p. 3).
213Seesupra, ch. xxiii., vol.i. 526sqq.Among the Eskimo about Behring Strait (Nelson, inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xviii. 294) and the Greenlanders (Rink,Eskimo Tales, p. 29sq.), if a man borrows an article from another and fails to return it, the owner is not entitled to claim it back, as they consider that when a person has enough property to enable him to lend some of it he has more than he needs.
213Seesupra, ch. xxiii., vol.i. 526sqq.Among the Eskimo about Behring Strait (Nelson, inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xviii. 294) and the Greenlanders (Rink,Eskimo Tales, p. 29sq.), if a man borrows an article from another and fails to return it, the owner is not entitled to claim it back, as they consider that when a person has enough property to enable him to lend some of it he has more than he needs.
214Marx,Capital, p. 661.
214Marx,Capital, p. 661.
THEregard for truth implies in the first place that we ought to abstain from lying, that is, a wilful misrepresentation of facts, by word or deed, with the intention of producing a false belief. Closely connected with this duty is that of good faith or fidelity to promises, which requires that we should make facts correspond with our emphatic assertions as to our conduct in the future. Within certain limits these duties seem to be universally recognised, though the censure passed on the transgressor varies extremely in degree. But there are also many cases in which untruthfulness and bad faith are looked upon with indifference, or even held laudable or obligatory.
Various uncivilised races are conspicuous for their great regard for truth; of some savages it is said that not even the most trying circumstances can induce them to tell a lie. Among others, again, falsehood is found to be a prevailing vice and the successful lie a matter of popular admiration.
All authorities agree that the Veddahs of Ceylon are models of veracity. They “are proverbially truthful and honest.”1They think it perfectly inconceivable that any person should say anything which is not true.2Mr. Nevill writes, “I never knew a true Vaedda to tell a lie, and the Sinhalese give them the same character.”3Messrs. Sarasin had a similar experience:—“The genuine Wood-Wedda always speaks the truth; we never heard a lie from any of them; all their statements are short and true.”4A Veddah who had committed murder and was tried for it, instead of telling a lie in order to escape punishment, said simply nothing.5
All authorities agree that the Veddahs of Ceylon are models of veracity. They “are proverbially truthful and honest.”1They think it perfectly inconceivable that any person should say anything which is not true.2Mr. Nevill writes, “I never knew a true Vaedda to tell a lie, and the Sinhalese give them the same character.”3Messrs. Sarasin had a similar experience:—“The genuine Wood-Wedda always speaks the truth; we never heard a lie from any of them; all their statements are short and true.”4A Veddah who had committed murder and was tried for it, instead of telling a lie in order to escape punishment, said simply nothing.5
1Bailey, ‘Wild Tribes of the Veddahs of Ceylon,’ inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N.S. ii. 291.
1Bailey, ‘Wild Tribes of the Veddahs of Ceylon,’ inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N.S. ii. 291.
2Hartshorne, inIndian Antiquary, viii. 320.
2Hartshorne, inIndian Antiquary, viii. 320.
3Nevill, inTaprobanian, i. 193.
3Nevill, inTaprobanian, i. 193.
4Sarasin,Forschungen auf Ceylon, iii. 541.Cf.ibid.iii. 542sq.; Schmidt,Ceylon, p. 276.
4Sarasin,Forschungen auf Ceylon, iii. 541.Cf.ibid.iii. 542sq.; Schmidt,Ceylon, p. 276.
5Sarasin,op. cit.iii. 543.
5Sarasin,op. cit.iii. 543.
Other instances of extreme truthfulness are provided by various uncivilised tribes in India. The Saoras of the province of Madras, “like most of the hill people, … are not inclined to lying. If one Saora kill another he admits it at once and tells why he killed him.”6The highlander of Central India is described as “the most truthful of beings, and rarely denies either a money obligation or a crime really chargeable against him.”7A true Gond “will commit a murder, but he will not tell a lie.”8The Kandhs, says Macpherson, “are, I believe, inferior in veracity to no people in the world…. It is in all cases imperative to tell the truth, except when deception is necessary to save the life of a guest.”9And to break a solemn pledge of friendship is, in their opinion, one of the greatest sins a man can commit.10The Korwás inhabiting the highlands of Sirgúja—though they show great cruelty in committing robberies, putting to death the whole of the party attacked, even when unresisting—“have what one might call the savage virtue of truthfulness to an extraordinary degree, and, rightly accused, will at once confess and give you every required detail of the crime.”11The Santals are noted for veracity and fidelity to their word even in the most trying circumstances.12A Kurubar “always speaks the truth.”13Among the Hos “a reflection on a man’s honesty or veracity may be sufficient to send him to self-destruction.”14Among the Angami Nagas simple truth is highly regarded; it is rare for a statement to be made on oath, and rarer still for it to be false.15In the Chittagong Hills the Tipperahs are the only people among whom Captain Lewinhas met with meanness and lying;16and they, too, have previously been said to be, “as a rule, truthful and simple-minded.”17The Karens of Burma have the following traditional precept:—“Do not speak falsehood. What you do not know, do not speak. Liars shall have their tongues cut out.”18Among the Bannavs of Cambodia “severe penalties, such as slavery or exile, are imposed for lying.”19
Other instances of extreme truthfulness are provided by various uncivilised tribes in India. The Saoras of the province of Madras, “like most of the hill people, … are not inclined to lying. If one Saora kill another he admits it at once and tells why he killed him.”6The highlander of Central India is described as “the most truthful of beings, and rarely denies either a money obligation or a crime really chargeable against him.”7A true Gond “will commit a murder, but he will not tell a lie.”8The Kandhs, says Macpherson, “are, I believe, inferior in veracity to no people in the world…. It is in all cases imperative to tell the truth, except when deception is necessary to save the life of a guest.”9And to break a solemn pledge of friendship is, in their opinion, one of the greatest sins a man can commit.10The Korwás inhabiting the highlands of Sirgúja—though they show great cruelty in committing robberies, putting to death the whole of the party attacked, even when unresisting—“have what one might call the savage virtue of truthfulness to an extraordinary degree, and, rightly accused, will at once confess and give you every required detail of the crime.”11The Santals are noted for veracity and fidelity to their word even in the most trying circumstances.12A Kurubar “always speaks the truth.”13Among the Hos “a reflection on a man’s honesty or veracity may be sufficient to send him to self-destruction.”14Among the Angami Nagas simple truth is highly regarded; it is rare for a statement to be made on oath, and rarer still for it to be false.15In the Chittagong Hills the Tipperahs are the only people among whom Captain Lewinhas met with meanness and lying;16and they, too, have previously been said to be, “as a rule, truthful and simple-minded.”17The Karens of Burma have the following traditional precept:—“Do not speak falsehood. What you do not know, do not speak. Liars shall have their tongues cut out.”18Among the Bannavs of Cambodia “severe penalties, such as slavery or exile, are imposed for lying.”19
6Fawcett,Saoras, p. 17.
6Fawcett,Saoras, p. 17.
7Forsyth,Highlands of Central India, p. 164.Cf.ibid.p. 361; Sleeman,Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official, ii. 109; Hislop,Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, p. 1.
7Forsyth,Highlands of Central India, p. 164.Cf.ibid.p. 361; Sleeman,Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official, ii. 109; Hislop,Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces, p. 1.
8Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, p. 284.Cf.Forsyth,op. cit.p. 155.
8Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, p. 284.Cf.Forsyth,op. cit.p. 155.
9Macpherson, ‘Religious Opinions and Observances of the Khonds,’ inJour. Roy. Asiatic Soc.vii. 196.
9Macpherson, ‘Religious Opinions and Observances of the Khonds,’ inJour. Roy. Asiatic Soc.vii. 196.
10Macpherson,Memorials of Service in India, p. 94.
10Macpherson,Memorials of Service in India, p. 94.
11Dalton,op. cit.p. 230.
11Dalton,op. cit.p. 230.
12Elliot, ‘Characteristics of the Population of Central and Southern India,’ inJour. Ethn. Soc. London, N.S. i. 106sq.
12Elliot, ‘Characteristics of the Population of Central and Southern India,’ inJour. Ethn. Soc. London, N.S. i. 106sq.
13Ibid.i. 105.
13Ibid.i. 105.
14Dalton,op. cit.p. 206.Cf.ibid.p. 204sq.; Bradley-Birt,Chota Nagpore, p. 103.
14Dalton,op. cit.p. 206.Cf.ibid.p. 204sq.; Bradley-Birt,Chota Nagpore, p. 103.
15Prain, ‘Angami Nagas,’ inRevue coloniale internationale, v. 490.
15Prain, ‘Angami Nagas,’ inRevue coloniale internationale, v. 490.
16Lewin,Wild Races of South-Eastern India, p. 191.
16Lewin,Wild Races of South-Eastern India, p. 191.
17Browne, quoted by Dalton,op. cit.p. 110.
17Browne, quoted by Dalton,op. cit.p. 110.
18Smeaton,Loyal Karens of India, p. 254.
18Smeaton,Loyal Karens of India, p. 254.
19Comte, quoted by Mouhot,Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia, and Laos, ii. 27. For the truthfulness of the uncivilised races of India see also Sleeman,op. cit.ii. 110sqq.; Dalton,op. cit.p. 256 (Oraons); Crooke,Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces, ii. 478 (Hâbûra); Fraser,Tour through the Himālā Mountains, pp. 264 (inhabitants of Kunawur), 335 (Bhoteas); Iyer, in the Madras Government Museum’sBulletin, iv. 73 (Nayādis of Malabar); Walhouse, ‘Account of a Leaf-wearing Tribe on the Western Coast of India,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.iv. 370 (Koragars).
19Comte, quoted by Mouhot,Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia, and Laos, ii. 27. For the truthfulness of the uncivilised races of India see also Sleeman,op. cit.ii. 110sqq.; Dalton,op. cit.p. 256 (Oraons); Crooke,Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces, ii. 478 (Hâbûra); Fraser,Tour through the Himālā Mountains, pp. 264 (inhabitants of Kunawur), 335 (Bhoteas); Iyer, in the Madras Government Museum’sBulletin, iv. 73 (Nayādis of Malabar); Walhouse, ‘Account of a Leaf-wearing Tribe on the Western Coast of India,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.iv. 370 (Koragars).
The Andaman Islanders call falsehoodyūbda, that is, sin or wrong-doing.20The natives of Car Nicobar are not only very honest,21but “the accusation of untruthfulness brings them up in arms immediately.”22The Dyaks of Borneo are praised for their honesty and great regard for truth.23Mr. Bock states that if they could not satisfactorily reply to his questions they hesitated to answer at all, and that if he did not always get the whole truth he always got at least nothing but the truth from them.24Veracity is a characteristic of the Alfura of Halmahera25and the Bataks of Sumatra, who only in cases of urgent necessity have recourse to a lie.26The Javanese, says Crawfurd, “are honourably distinguished from all the civilised nations of Asia by a regard for truth.”27“In their intercourse with society,” Raffles observes, “they display, in a high degree, the virtues of honesty, plain dealing, and candour. Their ingenuousness is such that, as the first Dutch authorities have acknowledged, prisoners brought to the bar on criminal charges, if really guilty, nine times out of ten confess, without disguise or equivocation, the full extent and exact circumstances of their offences, and communicate, when required, more information on the matter at issue than all the rest of the evidence.”28Among the nativesof the Malay Archipelago there are some further instances of trustworthy and truthful peoples;29whereas others are described as distrustful and regardless of truth.30Thus the natives of Timor-laut lie without compunction when they think they can escape detection,31and of the Niase it is said that “truth is their bitter enemy.”32
The Andaman Islanders call falsehoodyūbda, that is, sin or wrong-doing.20The natives of Car Nicobar are not only very honest,21but “the accusation of untruthfulness brings them up in arms immediately.”22The Dyaks of Borneo are praised for their honesty and great regard for truth.23Mr. Bock states that if they could not satisfactorily reply to his questions they hesitated to answer at all, and that if he did not always get the whole truth he always got at least nothing but the truth from them.24Veracity is a characteristic of the Alfura of Halmahera25and the Bataks of Sumatra, who only in cases of urgent necessity have recourse to a lie.26The Javanese, says Crawfurd, “are honourably distinguished from all the civilised nations of Asia by a regard for truth.”27“In their intercourse with society,” Raffles observes, “they display, in a high degree, the virtues of honesty, plain dealing, and candour. Their ingenuousness is such that, as the first Dutch authorities have acknowledged, prisoners brought to the bar on criminal charges, if really guilty, nine times out of ten confess, without disguise or equivocation, the full extent and exact circumstances of their offences, and communicate, when required, more information on the matter at issue than all the rest of the evidence.”28Among the nativesof the Malay Archipelago there are some further instances of trustworthy and truthful peoples;29whereas others are described as distrustful and regardless of truth.30Thus the natives of Timor-laut lie without compunction when they think they can escape detection,31and of the Niase it is said that “truth is their bitter enemy.”32
20Man, inJour. Anthr. Inst.xii. 112.
20Man, inJour. Anthr. Inst.xii. 112.
21Distant, inJour. Anthr. Inst.iii. 4.
21Distant, inJour. Anthr. Inst.iii. 4.
22Kloss,In the Andamans and Nicobars, p. 227sq.
22Kloss,In the Andamans and Nicobars, p. 227sq.
23Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, i. 66-68, 82. Boyle,Adventures among the Dyaks of Borneo, p. 215. Selenka,Sonnige Welten, p. 47.
23Ling Roth,Natives of Sarawak, i. 66-68, 82. Boyle,Adventures among the Dyaks of Borneo, p. 215. Selenka,Sonnige Welten, p. 47.
24Bock,Head-Hunters of Borneo, p. 209.
24Bock,Head-Hunters of Borneo, p. 209.
25Kükenthal,Forschungsreise in den Molukken, p. 188.
25Kükenthal,Forschungsreise in den Molukken, p. 188.
26Junghuhn,Battaländer auf Sumatra, ii. 239.
26Junghuhn,Battaländer auf Sumatra, ii. 239.
27Crawfurd,History of the Indian Archipelago, i. 50.
27Crawfurd,History of the Indian Archipelago, i. 50.
28Raffles,History of Java, i. 248.
28Raffles,History of Java, i. 248.
29Riedel,De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 96 (Serangese). St. John,Life in the Forests of the Far East, ii. 322 (Malays of Sarawak).
29Riedel,De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 96 (Serangese). St. John,Life in the Forests of the Far East, ii. 322 (Malays of Sarawak).
30Marsden,History of Sumatra, p. 209 (natives of the interior of Sumatra). Riedel,op. cit.p. 314 (natives of the Luang-Sermata group). Steller,De Sangi-Archipel, p. 23.
30Marsden,History of Sumatra, p. 209 (natives of the interior of Sumatra). Riedel,op. cit.p. 314 (natives of the Luang-Sermata group). Steller,De Sangi-Archipel, p. 23.
31Forbes,A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago, p. 320.
31Forbes,A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago, p. 320.
32Modigliani,Viaggio a Nías, p. 467.
32Modigliani,Viaggio a Nías, p. 467.
Veracity and probity were conspicuous virtues among various uncivilised peoples belonging to the Russian Empire. Georgi, whose work dates from the eighteenth century, says of the Chuvashes that they “content themselves with a simple affirmation or denial, and always keep their word”;33of the Barabinzes, that “lying, duplicity, and fraud, are unknown among them”;34of the Tunguses, that they “always appear to be what they really are,” and that “lying seems to them the absurdest thing in the world, which prevents them being either suspicious or necessitated to accompany their affirmations by oaths or solemn protestations”;35of the Kurilians, that they always speak the truth “with the most scrupulous fidelity.”36Castrén states that the Zyrians, like the Finnish tribes generally, are trustworthy and honest,37and that the Ostyaks have no other oaths but those of purgation. Among them “witnesses never take the oath, but their words are unconditionally believed in, and everybody, with the exception of lunatics, is allowed to give evidence. Children may witness against their parents, brothers against brothers, a husband against his wife, and a wife against her husband.”38
Veracity and probity were conspicuous virtues among various uncivilised peoples belonging to the Russian Empire. Georgi, whose work dates from the eighteenth century, says of the Chuvashes that they “content themselves with a simple affirmation or denial, and always keep their word”;33of the Barabinzes, that “lying, duplicity, and fraud, are unknown among them”;34of the Tunguses, that they “always appear to be what they really are,” and that “lying seems to them the absurdest thing in the world, which prevents them being either suspicious or necessitated to accompany their affirmations by oaths or solemn protestations”;35of the Kurilians, that they always speak the truth “with the most scrupulous fidelity.”36Castrén states that the Zyrians, like the Finnish tribes generally, are trustworthy and honest,37and that the Ostyaks have no other oaths but those of purgation. Among them “witnesses never take the oath, but their words are unconditionally believed in, and everybody, with the exception of lunatics, is allowed to give evidence. Children may witness against their parents, brothers against brothers, a husband against his wife, and a wife against her husband.”38
33Georgi,Russia, i. 110.
33Georgi,Russia, i. 110.
34Ibid.ii. 229.
34Ibid.ii. 229.
35Ibid.iii. 78.Cf.ibid.iii. 109.
35Ibid.iii. 78.Cf.ibid.iii. 109.
36Ibid.iii. 192.Cf.Krasheninnikoff,History of Kamschatka, p. 236.
36Ibid.iii. 192.Cf.Krasheninnikoff,History of Kamschatka, p. 236.
37Castrén,Nordiska resor och forskningar, i. 257.
37Castrén,Nordiska resor och forskningar, i. 257.
38Ibid.i. 309sq.
38Ibid.i. 309sq.
The Aleuts were highly praised by Father Veniaminof for their truthfulness:—“These people detest lying, and never spread false rumours…. They are very much offended if any one doubts their word.” They “despise hypocrisy in every respect,” and “do not flatter nor make empty promises, even in order to escape reproof.”39The regard in which truth is held by the Eskimo seems to vary among different tribes. Armstrong blames the Western Eskimo for being muchaddicted to falsehood, and for seldom telling the truth, if there be anything to gain by a lie.40The Point Barrow Eskimo “are in the main truthful, though a detected lie is hardly considered more than a good joke, and considerable trickery is practised in trading.”41Of the Eskimo at Igloolik, an island near Melville Peninsula, we are told that “their lies consist only of vilifying each other’s character, with false accusations of theft or ill behaviour. When asking questions of an individual, it is but rarely that he will either advance or persist in an untruth…. Lying among them is almost exclusively confined to the ladies.”42In his description of the Eskimo on the western side of Davis Strait and in the region of Frobisher Bay, Mr. Hall says that they despise and shun one who willshag-la-voo, that is, “tell a lie,” and that they are rarely troubled by any of this class.43The Greenlanders are generally truthful towards each other, at least the men.44But if he can help it, a Greenlander will not tell a truth which he thinks may be unpleasant to the hearer, as he is anxious to stand on as good a footing as possible with his fellow-men.45
The Aleuts were highly praised by Father Veniaminof for their truthfulness:—“These people detest lying, and never spread false rumours…. They are very much offended if any one doubts their word.” They “despise hypocrisy in every respect,” and “do not flatter nor make empty promises, even in order to escape reproof.”39The regard in which truth is held by the Eskimo seems to vary among different tribes. Armstrong blames the Western Eskimo for being muchaddicted to falsehood, and for seldom telling the truth, if there be anything to gain by a lie.40The Point Barrow Eskimo “are in the main truthful, though a detected lie is hardly considered more than a good joke, and considerable trickery is practised in trading.”41Of the Eskimo at Igloolik, an island near Melville Peninsula, we are told that “their lies consist only of vilifying each other’s character, with false accusations of theft or ill behaviour. When asking questions of an individual, it is but rarely that he will either advance or persist in an untruth…. Lying among them is almost exclusively confined to the ladies.”42In his description of the Eskimo on the western side of Davis Strait and in the region of Frobisher Bay, Mr. Hall says that they despise and shun one who willshag-la-voo, that is, “tell a lie,” and that they are rarely troubled by any of this class.43The Greenlanders are generally truthful towards each other, at least the men.44But if he can help it, a Greenlander will not tell a truth which he thinks may be unpleasant to the hearer, as he is anxious to stand on as good a footing as possible with his fellow-men.45
39Veniaminof, quoted by Dall,Alaska, pp. 396, 395.
39Veniaminof, quoted by Dall,Alaska, pp. 396, 395.
40Armstrong,Discovery of the North-West Passage, p. 196sq.
40Armstrong,Discovery of the North-West Passage, p. 196sq.
41Murdoch, ‘Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 41.
41Murdoch, ‘Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 41.
42Lyon,Private Journal during the Voyage of Discovery under Captain Parry, p. 349.
42Lyon,Private Journal during the Voyage of Discovery under Captain Parry, p. 349.
43Hall,Arctic Researches, p. 567.
43Hall,Arctic Researches, p. 567.
44Dalager,Grønlandske Relationer, p. 69. Cranz,History of Greenland, i. 171, 175. Nansen,Eskimo Life, p. 158.
44Dalager,Grønlandske Relationer, p. 69. Cranz,History of Greenland, i. 171, 175. Nansen,Eskimo Life, p. 158.
45Nansen,Eskimo Life, p. 101.Idem,First Crossing of Greenland, ii. 334sq.
45Nansen,Eskimo Life, p. 101.Idem,First Crossing of Greenland, ii. 334sq.
The Thompson River Indians of British Columbia maintain that it is bad to lie, that if you do so people will laugh at you and call you a “liar.”46Speaking of the Iroquois, Mr. Morgan says that the love of truth was a marked trait of the Indian character. “This inborn sentiment flourished in the period of their highest prosperity, in all the freshness of its primeval purity. On all occasions and at whatever peril, the Iroquois spoke the truth without fear and without hesitation. Dissimulation was not an Indian habit…. The Iroquois prided themselves upon their sacred regard for the public faith, and punished the want of it with severity when an occasion presented itself.”47Loskiel likewise states that they considered lying and cheating heinous and scandalous offences.48Among the Chippewas there were a few persons addicted to lying, but thesewere held in disrepute.49The Shoshones, a tribe of the Snake Indians, were frank and communicative in their intercourse with strangers, and perfectly fair in their dealings.50The Seminole Indians of Florida are commended for their truthfulness.51With special reference to the Navahos, Mr. Matthews observes, “As the result of over thirty years’ experience among Indians, I must say that I have not found them less truthful than the average of our own race.”52Among the Dacotahs lying “is considered very bad”; yet in this respect “every one sees the mote in his brother’s eye, but does not discover the beam that is in his own,”53want of truthfulness and habitual dishonesty in little things being prevalent traits in their character.54So, also, the Thlinkets admit that falsehood is criminal, although they have recourse to it without hesitation whenever it suits their purpose.55Of the Chippewyans, again, it is said that they carry the habit of lying to such an extent, even among themselves, that they can scarcely be said to esteem truth a virtue.56The Crees are “not very strict in their adherence to truth, being great boasters.”57Heriot58and Adair59speak of the treacherous or deceitful disposition of the North American Indians; but the latter adds that, though “privately dishonest,” they are “very faithful indeed to their own tribe.”
The Thompson River Indians of British Columbia maintain that it is bad to lie, that if you do so people will laugh at you and call you a “liar.”46Speaking of the Iroquois, Mr. Morgan says that the love of truth was a marked trait of the Indian character. “This inborn sentiment flourished in the period of their highest prosperity, in all the freshness of its primeval purity. On all occasions and at whatever peril, the Iroquois spoke the truth without fear and without hesitation. Dissimulation was not an Indian habit…. The Iroquois prided themselves upon their sacred regard for the public faith, and punished the want of it with severity when an occasion presented itself.”47Loskiel likewise states that they considered lying and cheating heinous and scandalous offences.48Among the Chippewas there were a few persons addicted to lying, but thesewere held in disrepute.49The Shoshones, a tribe of the Snake Indians, were frank and communicative in their intercourse with strangers, and perfectly fair in their dealings.50The Seminole Indians of Florida are commended for their truthfulness.51With special reference to the Navahos, Mr. Matthews observes, “As the result of over thirty years’ experience among Indians, I must say that I have not found them less truthful than the average of our own race.”52Among the Dacotahs lying “is considered very bad”; yet in this respect “every one sees the mote in his brother’s eye, but does not discover the beam that is in his own,”53want of truthfulness and habitual dishonesty in little things being prevalent traits in their character.54So, also, the Thlinkets admit that falsehood is criminal, although they have recourse to it without hesitation whenever it suits their purpose.55Of the Chippewyans, again, it is said that they carry the habit of lying to such an extent, even among themselves, that they can scarcely be said to esteem truth a virtue.56The Crees are “not very strict in their adherence to truth, being great boasters.”57Heriot58and Adair59speak of the treacherous or deceitful disposition of the North American Indians; but the latter adds that, though “privately dishonest,” they are “very faithful indeed to their own tribe.”
46Teit, ‘Thompson Indians of British Columbia,’ inMemoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Anthropology, i. 366.
46Teit, ‘Thompson Indians of British Columbia,’ inMemoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Anthropology, i. 366.
47Morgan,League of the Iroquois, pp. 335, 338.
47Morgan,League of the Iroquois, pp. 335, 338.
48Loskiel,History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America, i. 16.
48Loskiel,History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America, i. 16.
49Keating,Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, ii. 168.
49Keating,Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, ii. 168.
50Lewis and Clarke,Travels to the Source of the Missouri River, p. 306.
50Lewis and Clarke,Travels to the Source of the Missouri River, p. 306.
51Maccauley, ‘Seminole Indians of Florida,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.v. 491.
51Maccauley, ‘Seminole Indians of Florida,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.v. 491.
52Matthews, ‘Study of Ethics among the Lower Races,’ inJour. of American Folk-Lore, xii. 5.
52Matthews, ‘Study of Ethics among the Lower Races,’ inJour. of American Folk-Lore, xii. 5.
53Schoolcraft,Indian Tribes of the United States, ii. 196.
53Schoolcraft,Indian Tribes of the United States, ii. 196.
54Eastman,Dacotah, p. xvii.
54Eastman,Dacotah, p. xvii.
55Douglas, quoted by Petroff,Report on Alaska, p. 177.
55Douglas, quoted by Petroff,Report on Alaska, p. 177.
56Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, ii. 18.Cf.ibid.ii. 19.
56Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, ii. 18.Cf.ibid.ii. 19.
57Richardson, in Franklin,Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, p. 63.
57Richardson, in Franklin,Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, p. 63.