58Heriot,Travels through the Canadas, p. 319.
58Heriot,Travels through the Canadas, p. 319.
59Adair,History of the American Indians, p. 4.
59Adair,History of the American Indians, p. 4.
Of the regard in which truth is held by the Indians of South America the authorities I have consulted have little to say. The Coroados are not deceitful.60The Tehuelches of Patagonia nearly always lie in minor affairs, and will invent stories for sheer amusement. “In anything of importance, however, such as guaranteeing the safety of a person, they were very truthful, as long as faith was kept with them. After a time,” Lieutenant Musters adds, “when they ascertained that I invariably avoided deviating in any way from the truth, they left off lying to me even in minor matters. This will serve to show that they are not of the treacherous nature assigned tothem by some ignorant writers.”61Among the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridge, no one can trust another, lying tales of slander are very common, great exaggeration is used, and it is not even considered wrong to tell a lie.62Snow, however, speaks of “the honesty they undoubtedly evince in many of their transactions”;63and Darwin states that the Fuegian boy on board the Beagle “showed, by going into the most violent passion, that he quite understood the reproach of being called a liar, which in truth he was.”64
Of the regard in which truth is held by the Indians of South America the authorities I have consulted have little to say. The Coroados are not deceitful.60The Tehuelches of Patagonia nearly always lie in minor affairs, and will invent stories for sheer amusement. “In anything of importance, however, such as guaranteeing the safety of a person, they were very truthful, as long as faith was kept with them. After a time,” Lieutenant Musters adds, “when they ascertained that I invariably avoided deviating in any way from the truth, they left off lying to me even in minor matters. This will serve to show that they are not of the treacherous nature assigned tothem by some ignorant writers.”61Among the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridge, no one can trust another, lying tales of slander are very common, great exaggeration is used, and it is not even considered wrong to tell a lie.62Snow, however, speaks of “the honesty they undoubtedly evince in many of their transactions”;63and Darwin states that the Fuegian boy on board the Beagle “showed, by going into the most violent passion, that he quite understood the reproach of being called a liar, which in truth he was.”64
60von Spix and von Martius,Travels in Brazil, ii. 242.
60von Spix and von Martius,Travels in Brazil, ii. 242.
61Musters,At Home with the Patagonians, p. 195sq.
61Musters,At Home with the Patagonians, p. 195sq.
62Bridges, inA Voice for South America, xiii. 202sq.Cf.Hyades and Deniker,Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. 242; King and Fitzroy,Voyages of the“Adventure”and“Beagle,” ii. 188.
62Bridges, inA Voice for South America, xiii. 202sq.Cf.Hyades and Deniker,Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. 242; King and Fitzroy,Voyages of the“Adventure”and“Beagle,” ii. 188.
63Snow,Two Years Cruise off Tierra del Fuego, i. 347.
63Snow,Two Years Cruise off Tierra del Fuego, i. 347.
64Darwin,Journal of Researches, p. 227.
64Darwin,Journal of Researches, p. 227.
Of the Australian aborigines we are told that some tribes and families display on nearly all occasions honesty and truthfulness, whereas others “seem almost destitute of the better qualities.”65According to Mr. Mathew, they are not wantonly untruthful, although one can rely on them being faithful to a trust only on condition that they are exempt from strong temptation.66Mr. Curr admits that under some circumstances they are treacherous, and that it costs them little pain to lie; but from his own observations he has no doubt that the black feels, in the commencement of his career at least, that lying is wrong.67Mr. Howitt has found the South Australian Kurnai “to compare not unfavourably with our own people in their narration of occurrences, or as witnesses in courts of justice as to facts. Among them a person known to disregard truth is branded as a liar (jet-bolan).”68Among the aborigines of New South Wales people who cause strife by lying are punished, and “liars are much disliked”; Dr. Fraser was assured by a person who had had much intercourse with them for thirty years that he never knew them to tell a lie.69Among the tribes of Western Victoria described by Mr. Dawson liars are detested; should any man, through lying, get others into trouble, he is punished with the boomerang, whilst women and young people, for the same fault, are beaten with a stick.70In his description of his expeditions into Central Australia Eyre writes, “In their intercourse with each other Ihave generally found the natives to speak the truth and act with honesty, and they will usually do the same with Europeans if on friendly terms with them.”71With regard to West Australian tribes Mr. Chauncy states that they are certainly not remarkable for their treachery, and that he has very seldom known any of them accused of it. He adds that they are “habitually honest among themselves, if not truthful,” and that, during his many years’ acquaintance with them, he does not remember ever hearing a native utter a falsehood with a definite idea of gaining anything by it. “If questioned on any subject, he would form his reply rather with the view of pleasing the enquirer than of its being true; but this was attributable to his politeness.”72According to a late Advocate-General of West Australia, “when a native is accused of any crime, he often acknowledges his share in the transaction with perfect candour.”73Very different from these accounts is Mr. Gason’s statement concerning the Dieyerie in South Australia. “A more treacherous race,” he says, “I do not believe exists. They imbibe treachery in infancy, and practise it until death, and have no sense of wrong in it…. They seem to take a delight in lying, especially if they think it will please you. Should you ask them any question, be prepared for a falsehood, as a matter of course. They not only lie to the white man, but to each other, and do not appear to see any wrong in it.”74The natives of Botany Bay and Port Jackson in New South Wales are by older writers described as no strangers to falsehood.75And speaking of a tribe in North Queensland, Mr. Lumholtz observed that “an Australian native can betray anybody,” and that “there is not one among them who will not lie if it is to his advantage.”76
Of the Australian aborigines we are told that some tribes and families display on nearly all occasions honesty and truthfulness, whereas others “seem almost destitute of the better qualities.”65According to Mr. Mathew, they are not wantonly untruthful, although one can rely on them being faithful to a trust only on condition that they are exempt from strong temptation.66Mr. Curr admits that under some circumstances they are treacherous, and that it costs them little pain to lie; but from his own observations he has no doubt that the black feels, in the commencement of his career at least, that lying is wrong.67Mr. Howitt has found the South Australian Kurnai “to compare not unfavourably with our own people in their narration of occurrences, or as witnesses in courts of justice as to facts. Among them a person known to disregard truth is branded as a liar (jet-bolan).”68Among the aborigines of New South Wales people who cause strife by lying are punished, and “liars are much disliked”; Dr. Fraser was assured by a person who had had much intercourse with them for thirty years that he never knew them to tell a lie.69Among the tribes of Western Victoria described by Mr. Dawson liars are detested; should any man, through lying, get others into trouble, he is punished with the boomerang, whilst women and young people, for the same fault, are beaten with a stick.70In his description of his expeditions into Central Australia Eyre writes, “In their intercourse with each other Ihave generally found the natives to speak the truth and act with honesty, and they will usually do the same with Europeans if on friendly terms with them.”71With regard to West Australian tribes Mr. Chauncy states that they are certainly not remarkable for their treachery, and that he has very seldom known any of them accused of it. He adds that they are “habitually honest among themselves, if not truthful,” and that, during his many years’ acquaintance with them, he does not remember ever hearing a native utter a falsehood with a definite idea of gaining anything by it. “If questioned on any subject, he would form his reply rather with the view of pleasing the enquirer than of its being true; but this was attributable to his politeness.”72According to a late Advocate-General of West Australia, “when a native is accused of any crime, he often acknowledges his share in the transaction with perfect candour.”73Very different from these accounts is Mr. Gason’s statement concerning the Dieyerie in South Australia. “A more treacherous race,” he says, “I do not believe exists. They imbibe treachery in infancy, and practise it until death, and have no sense of wrong in it…. They seem to take a delight in lying, especially if they think it will please you. Should you ask them any question, be prepared for a falsehood, as a matter of course. They not only lie to the white man, but to each other, and do not appear to see any wrong in it.”74The natives of Botany Bay and Port Jackson in New South Wales are by older writers described as no strangers to falsehood.75And speaking of a tribe in North Queensland, Mr. Lumholtz observed that “an Australian native can betray anybody,” and that “there is not one among them who will not lie if it is to his advantage.”76
65Brough Smyth,Aborigines of Victoria, i. 25.
65Brough Smyth,Aborigines of Victoria, i. 25.
66Mathew, ‘Australian Aborigines,’ inJour. and Proceed. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxiii. 387.
66Mathew, ‘Australian Aborigines,’ inJour. and Proceed. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxiii. 387.
67Curr,Australian Race, i. 43, 100.
67Curr,Australian Race, i. 43, 100.
68Fison and Howitt,Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 256.
68Fison and Howitt,Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 256.
69Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, pp. 41, 90.
69Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, pp. 41, 90.
70Dawson,Australian Aborigines, p. 76.
70Dawson,Australian Aborigines, p. 76.
71Eyre,Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia, ii. 385.
71Eyre,Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia, ii. 385.
72Chauncy, quoted by Brough Smyth,op. cit.ii. 275, 281.Cf.Oldfield, ‘Aborigines of Australia,’ inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N.S. iii. 255.
72Chauncy, quoted by Brough Smyth,op. cit.ii. 275, 281.Cf.Oldfield, ‘Aborigines of Australia,’ inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N.S. iii. 255.
73Moore, quoted by Brough Smyth,op. cit.ii. 278.
73Moore, quoted by Brough Smyth,op. cit.ii. 278.
74Gason, ‘Dieyerie Tribe of Australian Aborigines,’ in Woods,Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 257sq.
74Gason, ‘Dieyerie Tribe of Australian Aborigines,’ in Woods,Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 257sq.
75Collins,English Colony in New South Wales, i. 600. Barrington,History of New South Wales, p. 22.
75Collins,English Colony in New South Wales, i. 600. Barrington,History of New South Wales, p. 22.
76Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 100.
76Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 100.
According to Mr. Hale, the Polynesians are not naturally treacherous, by no means from a horror of deception, but apparently from a mere inaptitude at dissembling; and it is said that the word of a Micronesian may generally be relied upon.77To the Tonga Islanders a false accusation appeared more horrible than deliberate murder does to us, and they also put thisprinciple into practice.78We are told by Polack that among the Maoris of New Zealand lying is universally practised by all classes, and that an accomplished liar is accounted a man of consummate ability.79But Dieffenbach found that, if treated with honesty, they were always ready to reciprocate such treatment;80and, according to another authority, they believed in an evil spirit whom they said was “a liar and the father of lies.”81The broad statement made by von Jhering, that among the South Sea Islanders lying is regarded as a harmless and innocent play of the imagination,82is certainly not correct. The treacherous disposition attributed to the Caroline Islanders83and the natives of New Britain84does not imply so much as that. The New Caledonians are, comparatively speaking, “not naturally dishonest.”85The Solomon Islanders are praised as faithful and reliable workmen and servants,86though cheating in trade is nowadays very common among some of them.87Of the people of Erromanga, in the New Hebrides, the Rev. H. A. Robertson states that “truth, in heathenism, was told only when it suited best, but,” he adds, “it is not that natives are always reckless about the truth so much as that they seem utterly incapable of stating anything definitely, or stating a thing just as it really occurred.”88In the opinion of some authorities, the Fijians are very untruthful and regard adroit lying as an accomplishment.89Their propensity to lie, says the missionary Williams, “is so strong that they seem to have no wish to deny its existence, or very little shame when convicted of a falsehood.” The universal prevalence of the habit of lying is so thoroughly taken for granted, “that it is common to hear, after the most ordinary statement, the rejoinder, ‘That’s a lie,’ or something to the same effect, at which the accused person does not think of taking offence.” But the same writer adds:—“Natives have often told me lies, manifestly without any ill-will, and when it would have been far more to their advantage to have spoken the truth. The Fijians hail as agreeable companions those who areskilful in making tales, but, under some circumstances, strongly condemn the practice of falsehood…. On matters most lied about by civilised people, the native is the readiest to speak the truth. Thus, when convicted of some offence, he rarely attempts to deny it, but will generally confess all to any one he esteems…. The following incident shows that lyingper seis condemned and considered disreputable. A white man, notorious for falsehood, had displeased a powerful chief, and wrote asking me to intercede for him. I did so; when the chief dismissed the case briefly, saying, ‘Tell—that no one hates a foreigner; but tell him that every one hates a liar!’”90Other writers even deny that the Fijians were habitual liars;91and Erskine found that those chiefs with whom he had to deal were so open to appeals to their good faith as to convince him “that they had a due appreciation of the virtue of truth.”92
According to Mr. Hale, the Polynesians are not naturally treacherous, by no means from a horror of deception, but apparently from a mere inaptitude at dissembling; and it is said that the word of a Micronesian may generally be relied upon.77To the Tonga Islanders a false accusation appeared more horrible than deliberate murder does to us, and they also put thisprinciple into practice.78We are told by Polack that among the Maoris of New Zealand lying is universally practised by all classes, and that an accomplished liar is accounted a man of consummate ability.79But Dieffenbach found that, if treated with honesty, they were always ready to reciprocate such treatment;80and, according to another authority, they believed in an evil spirit whom they said was “a liar and the father of lies.”81The broad statement made by von Jhering, that among the South Sea Islanders lying is regarded as a harmless and innocent play of the imagination,82is certainly not correct. The treacherous disposition attributed to the Caroline Islanders83and the natives of New Britain84does not imply so much as that. The New Caledonians are, comparatively speaking, “not naturally dishonest.”85The Solomon Islanders are praised as faithful and reliable workmen and servants,86though cheating in trade is nowadays very common among some of them.87Of the people of Erromanga, in the New Hebrides, the Rev. H. A. Robertson states that “truth, in heathenism, was told only when it suited best, but,” he adds, “it is not that natives are always reckless about the truth so much as that they seem utterly incapable of stating anything definitely, or stating a thing just as it really occurred.”88In the opinion of some authorities, the Fijians are very untruthful and regard adroit lying as an accomplishment.89Their propensity to lie, says the missionary Williams, “is so strong that they seem to have no wish to deny its existence, or very little shame when convicted of a falsehood.” The universal prevalence of the habit of lying is so thoroughly taken for granted, “that it is common to hear, after the most ordinary statement, the rejoinder, ‘That’s a lie,’ or something to the same effect, at which the accused person does not think of taking offence.” But the same writer adds:—“Natives have often told me lies, manifestly without any ill-will, and when it would have been far more to their advantage to have spoken the truth. The Fijians hail as agreeable companions those who areskilful in making tales, but, under some circumstances, strongly condemn the practice of falsehood…. On matters most lied about by civilised people, the native is the readiest to speak the truth. Thus, when convicted of some offence, he rarely attempts to deny it, but will generally confess all to any one he esteems…. The following incident shows that lyingper seis condemned and considered disreputable. A white man, notorious for falsehood, had displeased a powerful chief, and wrote asking me to intercede for him. I did so; when the chief dismissed the case briefly, saying, ‘Tell—that no one hates a foreigner; but tell him that every one hates a liar!’”90Other writers even deny that the Fijians were habitual liars;91and Erskine found that those chiefs with whom he had to deal were so open to appeals to their good faith as to convince him “that they had a due appreciation of the virtue of truth.”92
77Hale,U.S. Exploring Expedition, Vol. VI. Ethnography and Philology, pp. 16, 73.
77Hale,U.S. Exploring Expedition, Vol. VI. Ethnography and Philology, pp. 16, 73.
78Mariner,Natives of the Tonga Islands, ii. 163sq.
78Mariner,Natives of the Tonga Islands, ii. 163sq.
79Polack,Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders, ii. 102sq.See also Colenso,Maori Races of New Zealand, pp. 44, 46.
79Polack,Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders, ii. 102sq.See also Colenso,Maori Races of New Zealand, pp. 44, 46.
80Dieffenbach,Travels in New Zealand, ii. 109.
80Dieffenbach,Travels in New Zealand, ii. 109.
81Yate,Account of New Zealand, p. 145.
81Yate,Account of New Zealand, p. 145.
82von Jhering,Der Zweck im Recht, ii. 606.
82von Jhering,Der Zweck im Recht, ii. 606.
83Angas,Polynesia, p. 386.
83Angas,Polynesia, p. 386.
84Powell,Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 262.
84Powell,Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 262.
85Anderson,Travel in Fiji and New Caledonia, p. 233.
85Anderson,Travel in Fiji and New Caledonia, p. 233.
86Parkinson,Zur Ethnographie der nordwestlichen Salomo Inseln, p. 4.
86Parkinson,Zur Ethnographie der nordwestlichen Salomo Inseln, p. 4.
87Sommerville, ‘Ethnogr. Notes in New Georgia,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.xxvi. 393.
87Sommerville, ‘Ethnogr. Notes in New Georgia,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.xxvi. 393.
88Robertson,Erromanga, p. 384sq.
88Robertson,Erromanga, p. 384sq.
89Wilkes,U.S. Exploring Expedition, iii. 76.
89Wilkes,U.S. Exploring Expedition, iii. 76.
90Williams and Calvert,Fiji, p. 107sq.
90Williams and Calvert,Fiji, p. 107sq.
91Erskine,Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific, p. 264. Anderson,Travel in Fiji and New Caledonia, p. 130.
91Erskine,Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific, p. 264. Anderson,Travel in Fiji and New Caledonia, p. 130.
92Erskine,op. cit.p. 264.
92Erskine,op. cit.p. 264.
Nowhere in the savage world is truth held in less estimation than among many of the African races. The Negroes are described as cunning and liars by nature.93They “tell a lie more readily than they tell the truth,” and falsehood “is not recognised amongst them as a fault.”94They lie not only for the sake of gaining some advantage by it, or in order to please or amuse, but their lies are often said to be absolutely without purpose.95Of the natives of the Gold Coast the old traveller Bosman says, “The Negroes are all, without exception, crafty, villainous and fraudulent, and very seldom to be trusted, being sure to slip no opportunity of cheating an European, nor indeed one another.”96Among all the Bakalai tribes “lying is thought an enviable accomplishment.”97The Bakongo, in their answers, “will generally try and tell the questioner what they think will please him most, quite ignoring the truthfulness we consider it necessary to observe in our replies.”98Miss Kingsley’s experience of West African natives is likewise that they “will say ‘Yes’ to any mortal thing, if they think you want them to.”99The Wakamba are described as great liars.100Among the Waganda “truth is held in very low estimation, and it is never considered wrong to tell lies; indeed, a successful liar is considered a smart, clever fellow, and rather admired.”101Untruthfulness is said to be “a national characteristic” of the tribes inhabiting the region of Lake Nyassa.102From his experience of the Eastern Central Africans, the Rev. D. Macdonald writes: “‘Telling lies’ is much practised and is seldom considered a fault…. The negro often thinks that he is flattered by being accused of falsehood. So, when natives wish to pay a high compliment to a European who has told them an interesting story, they look into his face and say, ‘O father, you are a great liar.’”103To the Wanika, says Mr. New, lying is “almost as the very breath of their nostrils, and all classes, young and old, male and female, indulge in it. A great deal of their lying is without cause or object; it is lying for lying’s sake. You ask a man his name, his tribe, where he lives, or any other simple question of like nature, and the answer he gives you will, as a rule, be the very opposite to the truth; yet he has nothing to evade or gain by so doing. Lying seems to be more natural to him than speaking the truth. He lies when detection is evident, and laughs at it as though he thought it a good joke. He hears himself called amulongo(liar) a score of times a day, but he notices it not, for there is no opprobrium in the term to him. To hide a fault he lies with the most barefaced audacity and blindest obstinacy…. When his object is gain, he will invent falsehoods wholesale…. He boasts thatulongo(lying) is hispesa(piece, ha’pence), and holds bare truth to be the most unprofitable commodity in the world. But while he lies causelessly, objectlessly, recklessly in self-defence or for self-interest, he is not a malicious liar. He does not lie with express intent to do others harm; this he would consider immoral, and he has sufficient goodness of heart to avoid indulging therein…. I have often been struck with the manner in which he has controlled his tongue when the character and interest of others have been at stake.”104If a Bantu of South-Eastern Africa “undertakes the charge of any form of property, he accounts for it with as great fidelity as if he were the Keeper of the Great Seal. But, on the other hand, there are many circumstances in which falsehood is not reckoned even a disgrace, and if a man couldextricate himself from difficulties by lying and did not do so, he would be simply thought a fool.”105Andersson speaks of the “lying habits” of the Herero.106Of the Bachapins, a Bechuana tribe, Burchell observes that among their vices a universal disregard for truth and a want of honourable adherence to their promise stand high above the rest, the consequence of this habitual practice of lying being “the absence of shame, even on being detected.”107Among the Kafirs “deception is a practised art from early childhood; even the children will not answer a plain question.”108It is considered a smart thing to deceive so long as a person is not found out, but it is awkward to be detected; hence a native father will enjoy seeing his children deceive people cleverly.109“In trading with them, you may make up your mind that all they tell you is untrue, and act accordingly…. Your own natives, on the other hand, if they like you, will lie for your benefit as strongly as the opposite party against you; and both sides think it all fair trade.”110And in a Kafir lawsuit “defendant, plaintiff, and witnesses are allowed to tell as many lies as they like, in order to make the best of their case.”111But we also hear that Kafirs do not tell lies to their chiefs, and that there are many among them who would never deceive a white man whom they are fond of or respect.112Among the Bushmans veracity is said to be too often, yet not always, disregarded, “and the neglect of it considered a mere venial offence.”113“The first version of what a Bushman or any native has to say can never be relied on; whatever you ask him about, he invariably says first, ‘I don’t know,’ and then promises to tell you all he does know. Ask him for news, and he says, ‘No; we have got no news,’ and shortly afterwards he will tell you news of perhaps great interest.”114In Madagascar there was no stigma attached to deceit or fraud; they “were rather admired as proofs of superior cunning, as things to be imitated, so far at least as they would not bring the offender within the penalties of the native laws.”115Ellis says that “the best sign of genius in children is esteemed a quickness to deceive,overreach and cheat. The people delight in fabulous tales, but in none so much or universally as in those that relate instances of successful deceit or fraud…. Their constant aim is, in business to swindle, in professed friendship to extort, and in mere conversation to exaggerate and fabricate.”116These statements refer to the Hovas; but among the Betsileo, inhabiting the same island, lying and cheating are equally rife, and “neither appears to have been thought a sin, so long as it remained undiscovered.”117At the same time many of the Madagascar proverbs are designed to put down lying, and to show that truth is always best.118
Nowhere in the savage world is truth held in less estimation than among many of the African races. The Negroes are described as cunning and liars by nature.93They “tell a lie more readily than they tell the truth,” and falsehood “is not recognised amongst them as a fault.”94They lie not only for the sake of gaining some advantage by it, or in order to please or amuse, but their lies are often said to be absolutely without purpose.95Of the natives of the Gold Coast the old traveller Bosman says, “The Negroes are all, without exception, crafty, villainous and fraudulent, and very seldom to be trusted, being sure to slip no opportunity of cheating an European, nor indeed one another.”96Among all the Bakalai tribes “lying is thought an enviable accomplishment.”97The Bakongo, in their answers, “will generally try and tell the questioner what they think will please him most, quite ignoring the truthfulness we consider it necessary to observe in our replies.”98Miss Kingsley’s experience of West African natives is likewise that they “will say ‘Yes’ to any mortal thing, if they think you want them to.”99The Wakamba are described as great liars.100Among the Waganda “truth is held in very low estimation, and it is never considered wrong to tell lies; indeed, a successful liar is considered a smart, clever fellow, and rather admired.”101Untruthfulness is said to be “a national characteristic” of the tribes inhabiting the region of Lake Nyassa.102From his experience of the Eastern Central Africans, the Rev. D. Macdonald writes: “‘Telling lies’ is much practised and is seldom considered a fault…. The negro often thinks that he is flattered by being accused of falsehood. So, when natives wish to pay a high compliment to a European who has told them an interesting story, they look into his face and say, ‘O father, you are a great liar.’”103To the Wanika, says Mr. New, lying is “almost as the very breath of their nostrils, and all classes, young and old, male and female, indulge in it. A great deal of their lying is without cause or object; it is lying for lying’s sake. You ask a man his name, his tribe, where he lives, or any other simple question of like nature, and the answer he gives you will, as a rule, be the very opposite to the truth; yet he has nothing to evade or gain by so doing. Lying seems to be more natural to him than speaking the truth. He lies when detection is evident, and laughs at it as though he thought it a good joke. He hears himself called amulongo(liar) a score of times a day, but he notices it not, for there is no opprobrium in the term to him. To hide a fault he lies with the most barefaced audacity and blindest obstinacy…. When his object is gain, he will invent falsehoods wholesale…. He boasts thatulongo(lying) is hispesa(piece, ha’pence), and holds bare truth to be the most unprofitable commodity in the world. But while he lies causelessly, objectlessly, recklessly in self-defence or for self-interest, he is not a malicious liar. He does not lie with express intent to do others harm; this he would consider immoral, and he has sufficient goodness of heart to avoid indulging therein…. I have often been struck with the manner in which he has controlled his tongue when the character and interest of others have been at stake.”104If a Bantu of South-Eastern Africa “undertakes the charge of any form of property, he accounts for it with as great fidelity as if he were the Keeper of the Great Seal. But, on the other hand, there are many circumstances in which falsehood is not reckoned even a disgrace, and if a man couldextricate himself from difficulties by lying and did not do so, he would be simply thought a fool.”105Andersson speaks of the “lying habits” of the Herero.106Of the Bachapins, a Bechuana tribe, Burchell observes that among their vices a universal disregard for truth and a want of honourable adherence to their promise stand high above the rest, the consequence of this habitual practice of lying being “the absence of shame, even on being detected.”107Among the Kafirs “deception is a practised art from early childhood; even the children will not answer a plain question.”108It is considered a smart thing to deceive so long as a person is not found out, but it is awkward to be detected; hence a native father will enjoy seeing his children deceive people cleverly.109“In trading with them, you may make up your mind that all they tell you is untrue, and act accordingly…. Your own natives, on the other hand, if they like you, will lie for your benefit as strongly as the opposite party against you; and both sides think it all fair trade.”110And in a Kafir lawsuit “defendant, plaintiff, and witnesses are allowed to tell as many lies as they like, in order to make the best of their case.”111But we also hear that Kafirs do not tell lies to their chiefs, and that there are many among them who would never deceive a white man whom they are fond of or respect.112Among the Bushmans veracity is said to be too often, yet not always, disregarded, “and the neglect of it considered a mere venial offence.”113“The first version of what a Bushman or any native has to say can never be relied on; whatever you ask him about, he invariably says first, ‘I don’t know,’ and then promises to tell you all he does know. Ask him for news, and he says, ‘No; we have got no news,’ and shortly afterwards he will tell you news of perhaps great interest.”114In Madagascar there was no stigma attached to deceit or fraud; they “were rather admired as proofs of superior cunning, as things to be imitated, so far at least as they would not bring the offender within the penalties of the native laws.”115Ellis says that “the best sign of genius in children is esteemed a quickness to deceive,overreach and cheat. The people delight in fabulous tales, but in none so much or universally as in those that relate instances of successful deceit or fraud…. Their constant aim is, in business to swindle, in professed friendship to extort, and in mere conversation to exaggerate and fabricate.”116These statements refer to the Hovas; but among the Betsileo, inhabiting the same island, lying and cheating are equally rife, and “neither appears to have been thought a sin, so long as it remained undiscovered.”117At the same time many of the Madagascar proverbs are designed to put down lying, and to show that truth is always best.118
93Baker,Albert N’yanza, i. 289. Burton,Mission to Gelele, ii. 199.
93Baker,Albert N’yanza, i. 289. Burton,Mission to Gelele, ii. 199.
94Reade,Savage Africa, p. 580.
94Reade,Savage Africa, p. 580.
95Hübbe-Schleiden,Ethiopien, Studien über West-Afrika, p. 186sq.
95Hübbe-Schleiden,Ethiopien, Studien über West-Afrika, p. 186sq.
96Bosman,New Description of the Coast of Guinea, p. 100.
96Bosman,New Description of the Coast of Guinea, p. 100.
97Du Chaillu,Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, p. 390.Cf.ibid.p. 331.
97Du Chaillu,Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, p. 390.Cf.ibid.p. 331.
98Ward,Five Years with the Congo Cannibals, p. 47.
98Ward,Five Years with the Congo Cannibals, p. 47.
99Kingsley,Travels in West Africa, p. 525.
99Kingsley,Travels in West Africa, p. 525.
100Krapf,Travels in Eastern Africa, p. 355.
100Krapf,Travels in Eastern Africa, p. 355.
101Wilson and Felkin,Uganda, i. 224.Cf.Felkin, ‘Notes on the Waganda Tribe,’ inProceed. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xiii. 722; Ashe,Two Kings of Uganda, p. 295.
101Wilson and Felkin,Uganda, i. 224.Cf.Felkin, ‘Notes on the Waganda Tribe,’ inProceed. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xiii. 722; Ashe,Two Kings of Uganda, p. 295.
102Macdonald, ‘East Central African Customs,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.xxii. 119.
102Macdonald, ‘East Central African Customs,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.xxii. 119.
103Macdonald,Africana, i. 262sq.
103Macdonald,Africana, i. 262sq.
104New,Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa, p. 96sqq.
104New,Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa, p. 96sqq.
105Macdonald,Light in Africa, p. 211.
105Macdonald,Light in Africa, p. 211.
106Andersson,Lake Ngami, p. 217.Cf.ibid.p. 499 (Bayeye).
106Andersson,Lake Ngami, p. 217.Cf.ibid.p. 499 (Bayeye).
107Burchell,Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, ii. 553sq.
107Burchell,Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, ii. 553sq.
108Holden,The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, p. 179.
108Holden,The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, p. 179.
109Kidd,The Essential Kafir, p. 285.
109Kidd,The Essential Kafir, p. 285.
110Leslie,Among the Zulus and Amatongas, p. 199.Cf.ibid.p. 202.
110Leslie,Among the Zulus and Amatongas, p. 199.Cf.ibid.p. 202.
111Maclean,Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs, p. 58.
111Maclean,Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs, p. 58.
112Kidd,The Essential Kafir, p. 286.
112Kidd,The Essential Kafir, p. 286.
113Burchell,op. cit.ii. 54.
113Burchell,op. cit.ii. 54.
114Chapman,Travels in the Interior of South Africa, i. 76sq.
114Chapman,Travels in the Interior of South Africa, i. 76sq.
115Sibree,The Great African Island, p. 338.
115Sibree,The Great African Island, p. 338.
116Ellis,History of Madagascar, i. 143sq.
116Ellis,History of Madagascar, i. 143sq.
117Sibree,op. cit.p. 125. Shaw, ‘Betsileo,’ inAntananarivo Annual, iii. 79.
117Sibree,op. cit.p. 125. Shaw, ‘Betsileo,’ inAntananarivo Annual, iii. 79.
118Clemes, ‘Malagasy Proverbs,’ibid.iv. 29.
118Clemes, ‘Malagasy Proverbs,’ibid.iv. 29.
But in Africa, also, there are many peoples who have been described as regardful of truth and hostile to falsehood. Early travellers speak very highly of the sincerity of the Hottentots. Father Tachart says that they have more honesty than is almost anywhere found among Christians;119and Kolben agrees with him, asserting that the word of a Hottentot is sacred, and that there is hardly anything upon earth which he looks upon as a fouler crime than breach of engagement.120According to Barrow, the Hottentots are perfectly honest and faithful, and, “if accused of crimes of which they have been guilty, they generally divulge the truth.”121Of the Manansas Dr. Holub states that, so far as his experience goes, they are beyond the average for honesty and fidelity, and are consequently laughed at by the more powerful tribes as “the simpletons of the North.”122The Bahima in the Uganda Protectorate are usually very honest and truthful, and most of the Nandi think it very wicked to tell a lie.123Among the For tribe of Central Africa “lying is held to be a great crime; even the youngest children are severely beaten for it, and any one over fifteen or sixteen who is an habitual liar suffers the loss of one lip as a penalty.”124Speaking of the natives of Sierra Leone, Winterbottom remarks that, in proportion as we advance into the interior of the country, the people are found to be more devoid of art and more free from suspicion.125“Those who have dealings with the Fán universallyprefer them in point of honesty and manliness to the Mpongwe and Coast races,” and it is an insult to call one of them a liar or coward.126Monrad, who wrote in the beginning of the nineteenth century, asserts that among the Negroes of Accra lying is by no means common and that they are as a rule honest towards their own people.127According to an early authority, the people of Great Benin were very straightforward and did not cheat each other.128Mr. and Mrs. Hinde write that the Masai are as a race truthful, and that a grown-up person among them will not lie; “he may refuse to answer a question, but, once given, his word can be depended on.”129Dr. Baumann, on the other hand, says that they often lie, but that they regard lying as a great fault.130The Guanches of the Canary Islands are stated to have been “slaves to their word.”131Of the Berbers of Morocco Leo Africanus writes:—“Most honest people they are, and destitute of all fraud and guile…. They keep their couenant most faithfully; insomuch that they had rather die than breake promise.”132M. Dyveyrier found the same virtue among the Touareg, another Berber people:—“La fidélité aux promesses, aux traités, est poussée si loin par les Touareg, qu il est difficile d’obtenir d’eux des engagements…. Il est de maxime chez les Touâreg, en matière de contrat, de ne s’engager que pour la moitié de ce qu’on peut tenir, afin de ne pas s’exposer au reproche d’infidélité…. Le mensonge, le vol domestique et l’abus de confiance sont inconnus des Touâreg.”133As regards the truthfulness of the African Arabs opinions vary. Parkyns asks, “Who is more trustworthy than the desert Arab?”134According to Rohlfs and Chavanne, on the other hand, the Arabs of the Sahara are much addicted to lying;135and of the Arabs of Egypt Mr. St. John observes:—“There is no general appreciation of a man’s word…. ‘Liar’ is a playful appellative scarcely reproachful; and ‘I have told a lie’ a confession that may be made without a blush.”136Herodotus’ statement that “the Arabs observe pledges as religiously as any people,”137is true of the Bedouins of Arabia in thepresent day. “No vice or crime is more deservedly stigmatised as infamous among Bedouins than treachery. An individual in the great Arabian Desert will be forgiven if he should kill a stranger on the road, but eternal disgrace would be attached to his name, if it were known that he had robbed his companion, or his protected guest, even of a handkerchief.”138Wallin affirms that you may put perfect trust in the promise of a Bedouin, as soon as you have eaten salt and bread with him.139But whilst faithfulness to a tacit or express promise is thus regarded by him as a sacred duty, lying and cheating are as prevalent in the desert as in the market-towns of Syria.140Speaking of the Bedouins of the Euphrates, Mr. Blunt observes:—“Truth, in ordinary matters, is not regarded as a virtue by the Bedouins, nor is lying held shameful. Every man, they say, has a right to conceal his own thought. In matters of importance, the simple affirmation is confirmed by an oath, and then the fact stated may be relied on. There is only one exception to the general rule of lying among them. The Bedouin, if questioned on the breed of his mare, will not give a false answer. He may refuse to say, or he may answer that he does not know; but he will not name another breed than that to which she really belongs…. The rule, however, does not hold good on any other point of horse dealing. The age, the qualities, and the ownership of the horse may be all falsely stated.”141
But in Africa, also, there are many peoples who have been described as regardful of truth and hostile to falsehood. Early travellers speak very highly of the sincerity of the Hottentots. Father Tachart says that they have more honesty than is almost anywhere found among Christians;119and Kolben agrees with him, asserting that the word of a Hottentot is sacred, and that there is hardly anything upon earth which he looks upon as a fouler crime than breach of engagement.120According to Barrow, the Hottentots are perfectly honest and faithful, and, “if accused of crimes of which they have been guilty, they generally divulge the truth.”121Of the Manansas Dr. Holub states that, so far as his experience goes, they are beyond the average for honesty and fidelity, and are consequently laughed at by the more powerful tribes as “the simpletons of the North.”122The Bahima in the Uganda Protectorate are usually very honest and truthful, and most of the Nandi think it very wicked to tell a lie.123Among the For tribe of Central Africa “lying is held to be a great crime; even the youngest children are severely beaten for it, and any one over fifteen or sixteen who is an habitual liar suffers the loss of one lip as a penalty.”124Speaking of the natives of Sierra Leone, Winterbottom remarks that, in proportion as we advance into the interior of the country, the people are found to be more devoid of art and more free from suspicion.125“Those who have dealings with the Fán universallyprefer them in point of honesty and manliness to the Mpongwe and Coast races,” and it is an insult to call one of them a liar or coward.126Monrad, who wrote in the beginning of the nineteenth century, asserts that among the Negroes of Accra lying is by no means common and that they are as a rule honest towards their own people.127According to an early authority, the people of Great Benin were very straightforward and did not cheat each other.128Mr. and Mrs. Hinde write that the Masai are as a race truthful, and that a grown-up person among them will not lie; “he may refuse to answer a question, but, once given, his word can be depended on.”129Dr. Baumann, on the other hand, says that they often lie, but that they regard lying as a great fault.130The Guanches of the Canary Islands are stated to have been “slaves to their word.”131Of the Berbers of Morocco Leo Africanus writes:—“Most honest people they are, and destitute of all fraud and guile…. They keep their couenant most faithfully; insomuch that they had rather die than breake promise.”132M. Dyveyrier found the same virtue among the Touareg, another Berber people:—“La fidélité aux promesses, aux traités, est poussée si loin par les Touareg, qu il est difficile d’obtenir d’eux des engagements…. Il est de maxime chez les Touâreg, en matière de contrat, de ne s’engager que pour la moitié de ce qu’on peut tenir, afin de ne pas s’exposer au reproche d’infidélité…. Le mensonge, le vol domestique et l’abus de confiance sont inconnus des Touâreg.”133As regards the truthfulness of the African Arabs opinions vary. Parkyns asks, “Who is more trustworthy than the desert Arab?”134According to Rohlfs and Chavanne, on the other hand, the Arabs of the Sahara are much addicted to lying;135and of the Arabs of Egypt Mr. St. John observes:—“There is no general appreciation of a man’s word…. ‘Liar’ is a playful appellative scarcely reproachful; and ‘I have told a lie’ a confession that may be made without a blush.”136Herodotus’ statement that “the Arabs observe pledges as religiously as any people,”137is true of the Bedouins of Arabia in thepresent day. “No vice or crime is more deservedly stigmatised as infamous among Bedouins than treachery. An individual in the great Arabian Desert will be forgiven if he should kill a stranger on the road, but eternal disgrace would be attached to his name, if it were known that he had robbed his companion, or his protected guest, even of a handkerchief.”138Wallin affirms that you may put perfect trust in the promise of a Bedouin, as soon as you have eaten salt and bread with him.139But whilst faithfulness to a tacit or express promise is thus regarded by him as a sacred duty, lying and cheating are as prevalent in the desert as in the market-towns of Syria.140Speaking of the Bedouins of the Euphrates, Mr. Blunt observes:—“Truth, in ordinary matters, is not regarded as a virtue by the Bedouins, nor is lying held shameful. Every man, they say, has a right to conceal his own thought. In matters of importance, the simple affirmation is confirmed by an oath, and then the fact stated may be relied on. There is only one exception to the general rule of lying among them. The Bedouin, if questioned on the breed of his mare, will not give a false answer. He may refuse to say, or he may answer that he does not know; but he will not name another breed than that to which she really belongs…. The rule, however, does not hold good on any other point of horse dealing. The age, the qualities, and the ownership of the horse may be all falsely stated.”141